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Ego depletion on Elite Swimmers (Iran).

The results concluded that ego depletion had no effect on the arousal of these elite swimmers. Therefore, it did not further impact performance negatively.

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effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety

This case study depicts that music should be carefully selected to match the requirements of the activity, this study was tested on 63 novice dart throwers before and after 12 imagery sessions over 4 weeks, 40 dart throws. Demonstrating the differences between participants competitive state anxiety and physiological arousal indices predicted by the genre of music played. Arousal is the level of activation and excitement caused by physiological changes and psychological factors (Gould, 2014) and Anxiety is a negative emotional state characterised by nervousness, worry and apprehension where an individual struggles to cope with stressors (Hagger and Chatzisarantis, 2005). The music types within this investigation  varied between relaxing music which gives more precise and calm energy to the performers, and also arousing music (upbeat idealistic music). This study conveys that the dart players appeared to hold an increase in: heart rate, galvanic skin response (levels of sweating) and peripheral temperature (body temperature increasing). This is due to the enhancement in affective states such as arousal level control and relaxation/excitement levels. We can discuss how dart players need low levels of arousal in order to stay within the zone and focus on their precision when executing a darts throw, if their attention direction is lost, their fine muscular control will also decrease. This study also shows how the participants perform better with more relaxing music, this is because darts is a self paced skill with lots of precision, proving that the player needs to be in control of adrenaline and arousal. If they become distracted it could influence their outcome of their throw, giving their opposition an advantage, which is detailed within the case study. However, arousing music doesn’t help to hold the attention of the darts throwers, the music could result in them reaching their optimal arousal levels too quickly and performance decreasing after that, causing catastrophe as they could lose focus and begin to choke. This can be determined as darts players don’t need to be psyched up before a match they need to stay composed.

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Reversal Theory is a psychological framework that describes the dynamics of human experience in a holistic and structured way. It does this by focusing on the relationship between motivation and emotion, or amotivation.

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Josh Evans

Effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery training on dart throwing performance physiological arousal indices and competitive state anxiety

Different types of music effect the different arousal levels that athletes have. This is has been tested on 63 novice darts players to see how aroused they get with the music they listened to. The performance was assessed by 40 dart throws at a concentric circle dart board before and after 12 imagery sessions over 4 weeks.

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Sports competition anxiety within male players. (Khan and Sorate, 2016)

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Sports competition anxiety within male players. (Khan and Sorate, 2016)

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This study explores the comparison between different sports (football, basketball, table tennis, athletics and gymnastic) and the anxiety levels when performing at the Jimma University. This state of anxiety refers to an unpleasant emotion which is commonly characterised as an uneasiness towards competition. It is also a a cognitive mental component which could have stemmed from negative feelings about performing or a fear of failure. (Jervis, 2002).
Another component that can be linked with anxiety is worry as it is also a cognitive reaction, as they are both intrusive and unwanted and cause distress to an individual (Sarason, Pierce, & Sarason, 1996). Owen Y

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The Reversal Theory, Apter 1982. alice corfield

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The Reversal Theory, Apter 1982. alice corfield

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The theory is based around switching between opposed motivational states. It is structured around four domains of experience, each corresponding to two opposed motivational states. The theory was first presented in public at a conference in England in 1975, in 1983 a working group was formed named the “the reversal theory society” (reversal theory portal, 2020).

Refrences:

Reversal Theory Portal, 2020. Accessed on the 15.11.20, can be found at the link: @https://reversaltheory.net/org/

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The article focuses on the different types of music that either increase or decrease performance of dart players in relation to the effects on their optimum arousal levels.

The article initially suggests that from a range of different studies on the effect of music on sports performance, results indicated that the use of asynchronous music and imagery when combined showed facilitative effects on flow and perceived performance. In addition, music used during imagery helped to manipulate arousal in the required direction of the athlete and the sport they are taking part in.

The study of dart-throwing in the article was used as it requires the use of fine motor control and a high level of focus. As dart-throwing is a closed skill, the athletes involved in the study would not have their arousal levels effected by timed pressure as it is self-paced. Within the study performance would have occurred within a stable predictable environment which would have reduced the effect of competitive pressure on arousal, so the study is entirely relative to the effect of music and imagery on performance.

The results of the study provided strong evidence that the use of imagery training accompanied by unrecognized relaxing music enhances the performance of a fine motor skill. The effect of different types of music (such as more arousing music) on the performance of athletes from different sports may vary their performance levels, depending on the demands and optimum arousal level needed for the specific sport.

This relates to the individual zones of optimal functioning theory (Hanin, 2007) that argues that everyone will have optimal levels of arousal. The dart players will have a lower arousal zone where their performance will be at their highest.
Reference:

Kuan, G. Morris, T. Kueh, C.H. Terry, P.C. (2018). Effects of Replacing and Arousing Music during Imagery Training on Dart-Throwing Perfromance. Physiological Arousal Indices, and Competitive State Anxiety.. Available: file:///C:/Users/codie%20darby/Downloads/Arousal%20in%20Sport%20Music%20and%20Darts%20(1).pdf. Last accessed Nov 2020.

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Case study Over View on Arousal,                                     Anna Shevlin      

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Case study Over View on Arousal,                                     Anna Shevlin      

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The Effect of ego depletion on Arousal of Elite Iranian Swimmers
They found out that Ego depletion had no effect on arousal of elite Swimmers

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Reversal theory is defined by Apter (1989) as a psychological theory of motivation that has analysed, among other topics, the various ways in which people experience arousal.

Within this theory Apter explains his ideas of why we experience different emotions for the same situation on different days. He calls these meta-motivational domains which are consistent of values or motives. Thees states  and motives are: Telic (achievement), Paratelic (fun), Mastery (power), Sympathy (love), Conformist (fitting in), Negativist (freedom), Autic (individuation) and Alloic (transcendence). Apter also states that psychologically healthy people should reverse between sates on a regular basis. Those who become mentally ill Apter explains that these people are stuck in a state and are unable to reverse e.g. those with depression are stuck within the paratelic state.

However other researchers have argued this theory due to humans having no conscious role in change the reversal process (Thomas, L.B. et al, 2018). This explaining why people have no control over whether they become depressed , anxious etc as they have no control, making it hard to come out of these states which may become permanently unable to reverse.

References

Apter, M. (1989) Reversal theory: a new approach to motivation, emotion and personality. Research gate. [Accessed 11/11/2020] Available from

<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39108761_Reversal_theory_a_new_approach_to_motivation_emotion_and_personality>

Thomas, L.B. and Hudson, J. and Oliver, E.J. (2018) Duraham University, Durham. 'Modelling motivational dynamics : demonstrating when, why and how we self- regulate motivation ', Journal of motivation, emotion and personality., 7 . pp 33-47. [Accessed 11/11/2020] Available from <http://dro.dur.ac.uk/27113/2/27113.pdf>

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The study compared the sports competition anxiety between volleyball and soccer in male players. The independent t test was used to analyse data and they found that there was no significant differences between the two sports in sports competition anxiety. ’Anxiety is a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension is associated with activation or arousal of the body’ (Weinberg and Gould,2007). ‘Competitive state anxiety is higher for amateur athletes in individual sports compared with athletes in team sports (Simon and Martens, 1977). Sometimes, anxiety may be helpful in tasks that require strength or power but in some other events, a high level of anxiety may be injurious. The inverted U hypothesis states that an athlete will perform best when anxiety is moderate. Performance tends to deteriorate when anxiety is either too low or too high (Burton,1988 and Weinberg and Genuchi,1980). Among volleyball  the sports anxiety of players exert marked effects on the skills of the players themselves and the tactics of the team. The results showed that the mean score volleyball players was greater than the mean score of soccer players. Therefore, it revealed that the volleyball male players have more competitive anxiety levels than the soccer male players.
Inder Kerketta. (2015). A comparative study of sports competition anxiety between district levels male volleyball and soccer players. Available: file:///C:/Users/Ellie/Downloads/Comparative%20study%20anxiety%20(2).pdf. Last accessed 14th November 2020.

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Reversal theory (Apter, 1982) lucy ward 

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Reversal theory (Apter, 1982) lucy ward 

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This theory focuses on the variability and changeability of motives in response to the meaning that a person attaches to a given situation. It proposes the idea that motives and emotions change, depending on the meaning a person attributes to a particular situation. An example would be that sometimes a competition seems really exciting and others it appears daunting.

It is organised around a series of motivational style (or meta motivational state), and is categorically sorted into four pairs called domains. Each pair in a domain represents two opposite forms of motivation - only one in each pair can be active at a time. It shows that as people, we reverse and change between states all the time and can be contradictory to ourselves, based on a number of factors that may affect the situation.

It is shown in the graph below

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This theory suggests that the motivation for many people for participating in sport, is because it is found to be a pleasant experience of high arousal levels.

It also focuses

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Arousal is the level of activation and alertness experienced by a performer. For example, a judo player may feel highly aroused the moments before a bout and much less aroused an hour after the contest has ended.
In sport setting, arousal is often linked to anxiety. Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness and apprehension that is associated with the arousal and activation of the nervous system. In general, arousal has two kinds of effects on performance. First, it increases muscle tension and affects co-ordination. Too much tension is detrimental to performance. Second, arousal affects attention. Therefore, attention can become either too narrow with too much arousal, or too broad with too little arousal which makes person to pay too much attention to his/her environment. There are several theories as to how arousal affects performance: In sport your arousal levels could be either too low or too high if its too low then your performance will decrease or if your arousal levels are too high then it could cause your aggression to increase and you could lose your head in a match situation.
reference
https://academy.sportlyzer.com/wiki/arousal-and-performance/

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)-Owen

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)-Owen

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This theory suggests that similiar to the drive theory with high arousal comes high performance until the arousal peaks at which levels of performance decrease afterwards.

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP) (Hanin, 2007)-Owen

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP) (Hanin, 2007)-Owen

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This theory suggests that each athlete have their zone where they perform best under different levels of anxiety. Which helps a performer figure out when they peak. It also shows that the zone isn't always in the middle it can differ depending on the person.

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This theory demonstrates a direct correlation between arousal and performance, as one increases so does the other.

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)

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Catastrophe theory (Frazey  and Hardy, 1988)

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Catastrophe theory (Frazey  and Hardy, 1988)

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This theory presents the idea that it can adapt the inverted u hypothesis by stating that the curve will not be regular in shape.

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This theory just describes that there is a linear relationship between the arousal level and performance when partaking in an intense activity. The graph is showing that the higher the arousal level than the higher the performance levels. For example when walking onto the pitch before a match your arousal level will go up meaning your performance level will go up too meaning the higher the arousal level the higher the performance will be.

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, 2007)

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, 2007)

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This theory explains that athlete's have a zone of state anxiety, where the athlete is comfortable. This aids them to have their best performance.

If an athlete is either below or above this zone, it will be detrimental to there performance, it will harm the outcome. The theory suggests that optimal performance does not always happen at the midpoint5 of the curve for all athletes, like the inverted u hypothesis suggests it does.

Lucy Ward

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)- Chloe Davies

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)- Chloe Davies

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Individual zones of optimal functioning is the relationship between emotional experiences and relative success.

The model shows that the higher the anxiety = performance deteriorates.

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Catastrophe Theory (Frazey and Hardy, 1988)- Chloe Davies

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Catastrophe Theory (Frazey and Hardy, 1988)- Chloe Davies

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Catastrophe theory is the sudden decline in performance. This  links between the cognitive state of anxiety and arousal.
However this theory does not rely on both anxiety and arousal to achieve optimal performance.

An example of Catastrophe theory would be  if a player makes a poor pass, this may affect them as they become angry with them selves and anxious that they will do it again and embarrass themselves, resulting in the performance level decreasing.

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)

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This theory suggests that the ultimate performance occurs at the intermediate level of arousal. However if the arousal level is too high or too low this would affect the level of performance of an athlete.

A sporting example of this would be a judo player may feel highly aroused just before a match, however an hour after the match this feeling would be much less.

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOP)(Hanin, 2007)

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The individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model is a sport-specific framework that describes the relationship between emotional experiences and relative success in sporting tasks on the basis of individual rather than group-based patterns.

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Catastrophe Theory (Frazey and Hardy, 1988)

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Catastrophe Theory (Frazey and Hardy, 1988)

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Catastrophe theory presents an adaptation to the inverted U hypothesis. •This theory states that the curve will not be regular in shape.

•It suggests that once the optimal level of arousal has been reached the performance will decline rapidly.

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)

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Inverted U hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)

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The Inverted U Hypothesis suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance.

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•Drive theory states that there is a linear relationship between arousal levels and performance.

•As arousal levels increase then so will performance levels.

A key feature of this theory is that increased arousal lev les will result in an increase in performance if the skill is well learned.

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Drive theory(Hull, 1943)- Gianluca Beard

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Drive theory(Hull, 1943)- Gianluca Beard

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Drive theory is a theory that attempts to analyse, classify or define the psychological drives.

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A linear relationship between arousal levels and performance.

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This theory states that there is a linear relationship between arousal levels and performance. This means that as arousal levels increase, so will performance levels.

If the skill is well-learnt, arousal levels will be higher, as they will be more confident and ready to perform/ excited, which leads to a better performance.

Lucy Ward.

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, 2007)

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Individual zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, 2007)

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Argues that everyone has different optimal levels of arousal. Athletes are able to remain in their optimum zone of state anxiety for a period of time during which they can perform at a higher level of performance for longer. This suggests that optimum performance will not always be at the mid point of arousal. For example: Rugby players optimum arousal may be at a higher level of state anxiety, where dart players optimum arousal would be at a lower level. If an athlete is out of their optimum zone, performance may decrease.
- Codie

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Drive theory (Hull, 1943)- Chloe Davies 

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Drive theory (Hull, 1943)- Chloe Davies 

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This is the theory that all living organisms are born with certain psychological needs.

This also is the linear relationship
between performance and arousal.
increased arousal levels = increase in performance.

Examples of drive are thirst, hunger, and need for warmth.
In sport an example of this would be a footballer becoming angry and missing a tackle so kicks the player with the ball instead.

In comparison to Inverted U hypothesis. Inverted U hypothesis is a this theory that states that as arousal increases so will performance levels up to a point when arousal state is optimal for the task being performed.

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Catastrophe Theory (Fazey and Hardy, 1988)- Owen Yates

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Catastrophe Theory (Fazey and Hardy, 1988)- Owen Yates

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This theory is an adaptation and links to the inverted U theory in the way performance and arousal are linked and the trends that occur. Although they differ in results, Catastrophe theory shows that with increasing levels of performance the arousal levels are increased. However inverted U theory shows that you hit a peak arousal then you begin the fall and decrease.

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The pressure and arousal that are being applied to achieve what you intend, meaning you are in an uncomfortable state due to your feelings that gives you motivation and need to achieve. If you feel that you arousal levels are high, you will be doubting yourself and whilst performing the task and you will have high adrenaline which will increase your performance.

~Daria Piechura

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Shows a relationship between arousal levels and performance. Sporting performance improves as arousal levels increase but there is a threshold point. Any increase in arousal beyond the threshold point will lead to a decrease in performance. When arousal levels are low so is performance quality, this is known as under-arousal or boredom. At medium arousal level sporting performance peaks and can be known as optimal arousal. High arousal levels is where performance decreases and is called 'panic'. For example, an elite tennis player that is playing a lower ranked opponent will experience low arousal levels. When this tennis player is playing someone at the same ability as them and they get themselves in the right 'zone' to perform at their best this will be their optimal arousal. If the player begins to lose then they will experience panic and their performance will deteriorate.

- Ellie

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Catastrophe Theory (Fazey and Hardy, 1988)

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Catastrophe Theory (Fazey and Hardy, 1988)

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Describes how arousal affects performance when an athlete has high levels of cognitive anxiety. A decrease in performance would not be gradual and decreases rapidly when arousal is too high. High cognitive anxiety + high arousal = catastrophic drop in performance. For example: a striker in football that are at their optimum arousal level misses a shot when his team are already losing. This causes an increase in their cognitive anxiety (negative thoughts and worry from missing an easy chance on goal) causing performance to rapidly decrease, in addition to a high level f arousal. Which can result in his team losing the match as a result.
- Codie

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