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V2 with pictures and bibliography

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Kuba Wątroba, Catalog: Prezentacja 7 (1), Published: Apr 16, 2020

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Tomasz , Catalog: Geography of Great Britain, Published: Apr 15, 2020

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Łukasz Grzegocki, Catalog: Colonization of Noth America, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Łukasz Grzegocki, Catalog: Colonization of Noth America, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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Alexander McQueen was a British fashion designer known for unconventional designs. At the age of 16, he left school and was employed at Anderson & Sheppard, where he sewed suits for Prince Charles. After working with several designers as part of his master's thesis, he organized a fashion show that caught the attention of London stylist Isabella Blow, who bought the entire collection. In 1992, McQueen get immediate media recognition through a non-traditional pants design. In 1996 he received the title of British Designer of the Year, and later in the same year he became the main designer of Givenchy. These bold designs attracted attention with dark features and grotesque elements. The collections included a streamlined, angular suit; hourglass-shaped dresses carved using tight corsets; long dresses with elements as diverse as beads, needlework, fresh flowers and deer antlers. He was famous for provocative fashion shows. McQueen dressed people like the musicians from The Rolling Stone, Madonna Rihanna or Lady Gaga, . In 1999 he opened his first boutique. In 2000, he sold the controlling stake of his signature brand to the Gucci Group luxury goods group, although he retained creative control. A year later he left Givenchy's house and focused on developing his brand by adding fragrances or men's fashion. In 2010 he committed suicide.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Kuba Wątroba, Catalog: Prezentacja 6 (3), Published: Apr 15, 2020

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Magazine contains a large amount of information but also interesting descriptions and photos, which makes it pleasant to read. Magazine is very transparent so you can easily and quickly find information that interests you. In my opinion it is well made and encourages exploring the subject.
Oliwia

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For me it is one of the most interesting magazines. There is a lot of information, accompanied by nice photos and maps. The visual side is also very attractive. Everything is clear and understandable. I liked this magazine very much, because it shows the full history of colonization of all parts of North America. Tomek

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The case for the existence of systematic racism

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Franek Borusiński, Catalog: The case for the existence of systematic racism, Published: Apr 16, 2020

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British food from the Romans to Sunday roast dinners, fish and chips and the great British curry!

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Recipe: Full english breakfast | Sainsbury's

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Ever wondered how to make a full English breakfast? Well here's our foolproof method for the right timings. Click now to find out more at Sainsbury's recipes

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Cuisine can be an excellent insight into a country's history and culture and British food is no exception. Before you head to the UK, check out these traditional British foods and discover where to find them on your next trip.

Traditional British Foods and Where to Find Them

1. Shepherd's Pie

A wholesome and classic British meal, Shepherd's Pie originated in Scotland and the North of England and is primarily made from minced lamb and potatoes. Many families will make this dish using beef, but then it should actually be referred to as Cottage Pie, as shepherds only herd sheep (duh).

Where to find it

Most Brits would agree that Shepherd's Pie is best eaten at home with your family and, in fact, the dish is not often served in restaurants. But, if you're desperate to try an impressive Shepherd's Pie then the most iconic can be found at the Ivy in London.

2. Beef Wellington

Beef Wellington is a fillet of steak coated in patê and then rolled in pastry. Although the dish shares its name with the famous Duke of Wellington, it actually shares no link with the British nobility. In reality, it is thought that Beef Wellington was based around the French dish filet de bœuf en croûte (fillet of beef in pastry).

Where to find it

Beef Wellington is served in posh pubs and restaurants up and down the country, but if you're looking for something really special, then try it at the House Restaurant in Brighton's Lanes.

3. Fish and Chips

Perhaps nothing is more synonymous with British food than fish and chips. But, unfortunately, this dish can often be a bit disappointing if you don't get it in the right place. A top tip is to look for chip shops that cook their fish fresh to order- avoid a chippy that displays stacks of precooked fish behind the glass!

Where to find it

Although there are fish and chip shops all over the UK, we find that this dish is always at its most delicious when eaten by the sea. That's why if you're looking to experience a true British seaside delicacy it's best to try it somewhere coastal. If you're studying at our we recommend checking out the English language school in Brighton Melrose by the seafront.

4. Chicken Tikka Masala

Although it may have South Asian roots, there's a lot of evidence to suggest that Chicken Tikka Masala was first created in Britain by a Bangladeshi chef in Glasgow. Nowadays, it's considered one of the country's most popular dishes and is served in curry houses all over Britain.

Where to find it

Alongside a stunning array of British-Asian cuisine, some of the best curries in the UK can be found on Manchester's curry mile. If you're studying at BSC Manchester , you might also want to check out our guide to Manchester's halal restaurants.

5. Steak and Kidney Pie

Photo credit: TripAdvisor

Or any kind of pie for that matter. Whether they're covered in pastry or covered in potato, pies feature heavily in British cuisine and are the perfect antidote to the harsh British winter.

Where to find it

For the home of pies, it's best to head to the North of England to Manchester or York where you can find delicious homemade pies in local markets and restaurants. For those based in the South, Pieminster offers an incredible range of pies and has branches all over the UK.

6. Eton Mess

The perfect treat on a summer's day, Eton Mess is a dessert made with meringue, a variety of berries, and cream. The dish was first served at Eton College in the late 19th century at school cricket matches and is now popular all over Britain.

Where to find it

Eton Mess is so simple and delicious that it's best made at home or brought on a picnic. Find out how to make this traditional British dessert with this Eton Mess recipe.

7. Afternoon Tea

Scones, finger sandwiches, cake and tea- what could possibly be better? Although we Brits are famed for having afternoon tea every day at 5pm- that's really a bit of a . Afternoon tea is a rare treat that is generally taken at around 3-4pm.

Where to find it

For a traditional afternoon tea, there's no better place than the infamous Betty's Tea Room in York.

8. Cornish Pasty

A pastry stuffed full of meat and vegetables, Cornish pasties first became popular among tin miners as they were easily transportable and eaten without a plate or cutlery. Nowadays, the humble pasty plays an important part in British food culture. It's even thought that there were the inspiration for the South American empanada.

Where to find it

In Cornwall- obviously! But if you can't make it that far down the country, you can find delicious Cornish Pasties at most markets and bakeries. Or grab one on the go from the West Cornwall Pasty Company.

9. A Full Breakfast

Also known as a 'fry-up,' a full breakfast is made up of eggs, bacon, sausages, beans, toast, tomatoes, and sometimes black pudding (blood sausage). This hearty breakfast is popular all over England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales and is often consumed on the weekend. There are also regional variations, with a ' Full Scottish' served with black pudding and 'tattie scones.'

Where to find it

You can find fry-ups at greasy spoons (cafes a bit like diners) all over the UK, but if you're studying at our English language school in Edinburgh we particularly recommend the Quick and Plenty cafe .

10. Roast Dinner

The humble roast dinner began as a meal that was eaten after the Sunday church service, as the meat and vegetables could be left in the oven to cook while the family was out at worship. Today, a Sunday Roast is still an important part of British life with around one-fifth of British people sitting down to a roast every week.

Where to find it

Every self-respecting pub will have a roast dinner menu on a Sunday and nowadays, it's not just beef and dripping. Do a little research and you can find yourself just about any kind of roast you like! Head to in London's Shoreditch for a mouthwatering Jamaican roast or check out one of these Vegan Roast Dinners in Brighton.
If you want to discover more about British culture and traditions you can also check out our English language courses in the UK and Ireland. You might also be interested in:

Beth Watson

Beth is a language enthusiast and former EFL teacher. After studying Modern Languages at university, her love of adventure led her to travel all over the world. Now settled in sunny Brighton, she loves writing blogs about the English language and giving travel advice about the UK.

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Top 10 Traditional British Foods | British Study Centres

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Cuisine can be an excellent insight into a country's history and culture and British food is no exception. Before you head to the UK, check out these traditional British foods and discover where to find them on your next trip.

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The Icelandic house of what is likely the first European-American baby has scholars rethinking the Norse sagas

Smithsonian Magazine |

Roughly 1,000 years ago, the story goes, a Viking trader and adventurer named Thorfinn Karlsefni set off from the west coast of Greenland with three ships and a band of Norse to explore a newly discovered land that promised fabulous riches. Following the route that had been pioneered some seven years before by Leif Eriksson, Thorfinn sailed up Greenland's coast, traversed the Davis Strait and turned south past Baffin Island to Newfoundland-and perhaps beyond. Snorri, the son of Thorfinn and his wife, Gudrid, is thought to be the first European baby born in North America.

Thorfinn and his band found their promised riches-game, fish, timber and pasture-and also encountered Native Americans, whom they denigrated as skraelings, or "wretched people." Little wonder, then, that relations with the Natives steadily deteriorated. About three years after starting out, Thorfinn-along with his family and surviving crew-abandoned the North American settlement, perhaps in a hail of arrows. (Archaeologists have found arrowheads with the remains of buried Norse explorers.) After sailing to Greenland and then Norway, Thorfinn and his family settled in Iceland, Thorfinn's childhood home.

Just where the family ended up in Iceland has been a mystery that historians and archaeologists have long tried to clear up. In September 2002, archaeologist John Steinberg of the University of California at Los Angeles announced that he had uncovered the remains of a turf mansion in Iceland that he believes is the house where Thorfinn, Gudrid and Snorri lived out their days. Other scholars say his claim is plausible, although even Steinberg admits, "We'll never know for sure unless someone finds a name on the door."

The location of Thorfinn's family estate in Iceland has surprisingly broad implications. For one thing, it could shed new light on the early Norse experience in North America, first substantiated by Helge Ingstad, an explorer, and his wife, Anne Stine Ingstad, an archaeologist. In 1960, they discovered the remains of a Viking encampment in Newfoundland dating to the year 1000. But the only accounts of how and why Vikings journeyed to the New World, not to mention what became of them, are in Icelandic sagas, centuries-old tales that have traditionally vexed scholars struggling to separate Viking fantasy from Viking fact. Steinberg's find, if proved, would give credence to one saga over another.

By Steinberg's admission, he found the imposing longhouse- on the grounds of one of northern Iceland's most visited cultural sites, the GlaumbaerFolkMuseum-"by dumb luck." For decades, visitors had gazed upon the field in front of the museum, unaware that evidence of one of the grandest longhouses of the Viking era lay just beneath the grass.

Steinberg did not start out trying to insert himself into a debate about Viking lore, but to survey settlement patterns during Viking times. With his colleague Doug Bolender of NorthwesternUniversity in Chicago, he had developed a method for using an electrical conductivity meter to detect buried artifacts. The tool-a cumbersome, 50-pound apparatus usually used to identify contaminated groundwater and locate pipes-sends alternating current into the ground. The current induces a magnetic field, and the tool then measures how the magnetic field varies according to the makeup of the soil and the objects buried in it. The two men fitted the electronic equipment into a 12-foot-long plastic tube and trekked around fields holding the apparatus by their sides, looking for all the world like slowmotion pole vaulters getting ready to vault.

The two first worked with Icelandic archaeologist Gud- mundur Olafsson, who was excavating the site of Erik the Red's farmstead in western Iceland and had identified it as the place from which some of the explorers of the New World first set out. There, Steinberg and Bolender charted magnetic anomalies-possible signatures of buried walls and floors of turf houses. Then, Steinberg says, "Gudmundur would draw upon his knowledge of ancient Norse houses to imagine possible configurations underground so that we could refine the search." By the end of 2000, Steinberg and Bolender could survey a field as quickly as they could walk.

An 18-person team they put together then settled on Skagafjord, on the north coast of Iceland, as the most promising place to conduct their studies. The area is dotted with rills, rivers and thousand-year-old fields green from the abundant rain and long, soft sunlight of summer days in the Far North. The territory was ideally suited to their technology, layered as it is with known volcanic deposits that coincide with important historical events, enabling the archaeologists to get a good fix on the ages of objects they found. "See, the soil reads like a book," Steinberg says, standing in a trench on a farm near Glaumbaer that was the site of northern Iceland's most powerful estate during Viking times. He points to a green layer that marks a volcanic eruption in 871, a blue layer from one in 1000 and a thick, yellow layer from yet another in 1104.

In the summer of 2001, Steinberg and his colleagues scanned the low fields in Glaumbaer. The work proceeded uneventfully until late August, when the team was about to pack up and leave. ("You always find the most important things in the last week of a field season," says Steinberg.) When two undergraduates probing spots that showed low conductivity in earlier scans pulled up their first plug of earth, they looked in the hole and saw a layer of turf-consistent with a turf house-below a yellow layer that marked the eruption of MountHekla in 1104.

Excited, Steinberg returned in 2002 to dig a series of trenches. By the end of that season, the team had uncovered parts of what appeared to be an extensive longhouse, 100 feet by 25 1/2 feet. By the end of 2004, the team had plotted the direction and length of one of the walls. The house was so large that it evidently belonged to someone with wealth and power. But who?

All the detail about Norse trips to Vinland (as the Norse called North America) comes from two accounts: The Saga of Erik the Red and The Saga of the Greenlanders. These epic Viking tales were probably first written down around 1200 or 1300 by scribes who either recorded the oral stories of elders or worked from some now-lost written source, says Thor Hjaltalin, an Icelandic scholar who oversees archaeological activities in northwest Iceland. The two sagas give similar accounts of Thorfinn's trip to the New World, but they differ on some significant details about his return to Iceland. In Erik the Red's saga, Thorfinn moves back to his family estate in Reynisnes, while in the Greenlanders' saga, Thor-finn settles down in Glaumbaer, after his mother proves less than welcoming to his wife. In a key passage from the Greenlanders' saga, Thor-finn sells some of his Vinland spoils in Norway, then comes to "north Iceland, in Skagafjord, where he had his ship drawn ashore for the winter. In the spring he purchased the land at Glaumbaer and established his farm there." It goes on: "He and his wife, Gudrid, had a great number of descendants, and a fine clan they were. . . . After [Thorfinn's] death, Gudrid took over the running of the household, together with her son Snorri who had been born in Vinland."

Apart from the grand scale of the longhouse, which ties it to someone of Thorfinn's stature, other evidence links it to the North American expedition, Steinberg claims. Its straight-walled design differs from the bowed-wall construction typical of Icelandic longhouses of the era, and it bears a strong resemblance to structures that have been uncovered in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. And finally, Steinberg says, it's unlikely that any other chief could build one of the grandest longhouses of the Viking era and not be mentioned either in the sagas or other sources.

Before Steinberg's find, conventional wisdom held that Erik the Red's version was more credible and that the reference to Glaumbaer in the Greenlanders' saga was merely a flourish, added years after most of the saga was written, to improve Gudrid's image and perhaps that of a Glaumbaer chief. There are still many points of dispute about which Norse did what and where in North America, but if Steinberg's find is indeed Thorfinn's house, the long-discounted Greenlanders' saga, which names Thorfinn as a primary source, becomes the more accurate version-at least on the matter of where Thorfinn and company ended up. So after he found the longhouse, Steinberg called Olafsson-who had identified Erik the Red's farmstead as a jumping-off place for the New World-and blurted, "I think I've found the other end of your story."

Vikings spread out from Scandinavia and settled in Iceland, which Steinberg describes as "one of the world's last large inhabitable islands to be inhabited," in 874. They were led by local chiefs who did not like taking orders from, or paying taxes to, Harald Finehair, a Norse king then consolidating power in Norway. As the celebrated Norwegian anthropologist Vilhemmer Stefansson wrote in 1930, the Viking expansion was perhaps "the only large scale migration in history where the nobility moved out and the peasantry stayed home."

At first, Iceland offered a paradise to these ruggedly independent Vikings. The lowlands had forests of birch and other trees that had never felt the ax. In just 60 years the population jumped from zero to 70,000. By 930, the Norse had established one of the world's first parliaments, the Althing, where chiefs met to settle disputes.

There was just one sore point to this idyllic life. Settled and organized though they might have been, the Vikings were also some of the toughest warriors who ever lived. A slighted Norse was not the type to turn the other cheek. The resulting bloody duels reverberated far beyond Iceland. As Stefansson put it in 1930, writing during Prohibition, "The eventual discovery of North America hangs upon a fashionable practice of the day, that of man-killing, which, like cocktail shaking in the later America, was against the law but was indulged by the best people." He was referring to a few unreconstructed manslayers like Erik the Red, who overtaxed even the Norse tolerance for conflict and was exiled more than once by his fellow chiefs. Erik was first forced to relocate to Iceland's west coast and was then banished from the island altogether.

According to the sagas, Erik eventually set up a farmstead on the west coast of Greenland. The incongruous name for this barren, frigid island dominated by a vast ice cap comes from the outcast's attempt to lure other settlers, demonstrating "a genius for advertising that made him prophetically American," Stefansson wrote. Erik heard tales of strange lands to the west from a Norse sailor blown off course en route to Greenland, and it was his son Leif who led the first expedition to the New World. Another was led by Erik's son Thorvald (who died in Vinland from an arrow wound). Thorfinn Karlsefni led a third.

Thorfinn's assumed lineage is distinguished: one ancestor was Aud the Deepminded, a queen from the British Isles, and another was Ugarval, a king of Ireland. Thorfinn had grown up in Iceland on a farm not far from Glaumbaer. A wealthy merchant notorious for his cleverness, Thorfinn was also a good leader. On a trading voyage to Greenland, he met and married Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir, the beautiful and charismatic widow of Erik's son Thorvald. (A history of Iceland written around 1120, as well as scattered church records, back up the genealogies and dates in the sagas.) During the winter of 1005 at Brattahlid, Erik's manor in Greenland's eastern colony, Thorfinn played board games and planned his trip to Vinland. Erik the Red's saga makes the planning sound boisterous and somewhat haphazard, noting that various other Norse chiefs decided to join the expedition seemingly on the spur of the moment.

While Leif Eriksson is the Viking name most familiar to Americans, the sagas devote as much space to Thorfinn and his voyage. Steinberg's discovery supports a long-held theory that Thorfinn was the principal teller of the sagas. (That would explain why he plays such a major role in them.) Steinberg notes that knowing the source of a text helps historians weigh the assertions.

Whoever their author was, the stories have challenged scholars to match the place names mentioned in them to real topography. For example, Thorfinn called two crucial places where he and his group camped in the New World Straumfjord (stream fiord) and Hop (lagoon) and described the first as having strong currents. Scholars have variously located Straumfjord, where Snorri was born, in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts; Long Island Sound; the Bay of Fundy; and L'Anse auxMeadows (the Norse site discovered by Helge and Anne Ingstad on the northern tip of Newfoundland). Different advocates have placed Hop near New York City, Boston and points north.

If in fact Thorfinn and company traveled as far south as Gowanus Bay in New York Harbor, as asserted by the British scholar Geoffrey Gathorne-Hardy in 1921, they would have sailed past some of the greatest stands of primeval hardwoods on the planet, not to mention grapes-treasured by Norse chiefs who cemented their status with feasts accompanied by copious amounts of wine-and unlimited fish and game.

Why would the Norse have abandoned them or similar inducements farther north? Perhaps the Vikings' Vinland was like Alexander the Great's India: a land of fabulous wealth so far from home that it was beyond the limits of his ability to impose his will. Both Norse sagas have Thorfinn beating a retreat north after some humbling battles with Native warriors. (See "Why Didn't They Stay?")
Freydis: Heroine or Murderer?
Thorfinn never went back to Vinland, but other Norse subsequently did. Evidence continues to accumulate that Norse traded with both Inuit and more southern tribes for skins, and that they regularly brought back wood and other items from the New World. Over the years, various accounts have placed Norse colonies in Maine, Rhode Island and elsewhere on the AtlanticCoast, but the only unambiguous Norse settlement in North America remains L'Anse aux Meadows.

Icelanders, for their part, need no persuading of the Viking's preeminence among Europeans in the New World. Asked who discovered America, 8-year-old Kristin Bjarnadottir, a third grader in Holar, Iceland, answers with complete confidence: "Leifur," naming the celebrated Viking explorer. She and other Icelandic kids often play a game called Great Adventurer, in which they take on the roles of the saga heroes. Steinberg's ongoing investigation of the turf house in Glaumbaer and other structures could well give Kristin and her friends rich new exploits of their Viking ancestors to act out.

Viking scholars have long debated the veracity of the Icelandic sagas. Are they literature or history, or both? The two conflicting versions of Freydis Eriksdottir, who was Erik the Red's daughter and the half sister of Leif Eriksson and who traveled to North America 1,000 years ago, are a case in point.

In Erik the Red's saga, Freydis and her husband Thorvard accompany Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir on their journey to the New World. When Natives attack their small colony, the Norse men run off. But a pregnant Freydis stands her ground, shouting: "Why do you flee from such pitiful wretches, brave men like you? . . . If I had weapons, I am sure I could fight better than any of you." She snatches up a sword from a fallen Norseman and exposes a breast (presumably to indicate that she's a woman), frightening off the attackers. When the danger had passed, Thorfinn came over to her and praised her courage.
Why Didn't They Stay?
But in the Greenlanders' saga, Freydis is a murderer. Freydis and her husband do not travel with Thorfinn and Gudrid, but instead undertake an expedition with two Icelanders, known as Finnbogi and Helgi. When they arrive in Straumfjord (thought by some scholars to be the site in Newfoundland known as L'Anse aux Meadows), they quarrel over who will live in the longhouses Leif Eriksson has left behind. Freydis wins, rousing the Icelanders' resentment. After a hard winter in which the two camps become more estranged, Freydis demands that the Icelanders hand over their larger ship for the journey home. She goads her husband and followers into murdering all the male Icelanders. When no one will kill the five women in the Icelanders' camp, she takes up an ax and dispatches them herself. Back in Greenland, word of the incident seeps out. "Afterwards no one thought anything but ill of her and her husband," concludes the story of Freydis' expedition.

Was Freydis a heroine? Or a homicidal maniac? Archaeologist Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, who directed much of the excavation of L'Anse aux Meadows, doesn't know for sure. "We try to sort out what's fact and fiction," she says. "We can't presume the saga writers knew the difference. What we do know is the writers were often anonymous.and male. They were Christian priests. Freydis was a pagan, while Gudrid was Christian. Gudrid's descendants were bishops and had an interest in making her appear as holy as possible and Freydis as bad as possible, for contrast." Wallace says the murder of the Icelanders is hard to believe. "Something bad happened," she says. "But can you imagine killing 35 Icelanders without all their relatives coming over to take revenge?"

The Viking presence in North America had dwindled to nothing long before Columbus began island hopping in the Caribbean. Why did the Norse fail where other Europeans succeeded? After all, Vikings were consummate seamen and peerless raiders who populated marginally inhabitable Greenland and who would push their way into the British Isles and France. And with their iron weapons and tools, they had a technological edge over America's indigenous peoples.

Several explanations have been advanced for the Vikings' abandonment of North America. Perhaps there were too few of them to sustain a settlement. Or they may have been forced out by American Indians. While the European conquest was abetted by infectious diseases that spread from the invaders to the Natives, who succumbed in great numbers because they had no acquired immunity, early Icelanders may not have carried similar infections.

But more and more scholars focus on climate change as the reason the Vikings couldn.t make a go of it in the New World. The scholars suggest that the western Atlantic suddenly turned too cold even for Vikings. The great sailing trips of Leif and Thorfinn took place in the first half of the 11th century, during a climatic period in the North Atlantic called the Medieval Warming, a time of long, warm summers and scarce sea ice. Beginning in the 12th century, however, the weather started to deteriorate with the first frissons of what scholars call the Little Ice Age. Tom McGovern, an archaeologist at Hunter College in New York City, has spent more than 20 years reconstructing the demise of a Norse settlement on Greenland. In the middle of the 14th century, the colony suffered eight harsh winters in a row, culminating, in 1355, in what may have been the worst in a century. McGovern says the Norse ate their livestock and dogs before turning to whatever else they could find in their final winter there. The settlers might have survived if they had mimicked the Inuit, who hunted ringed seal in the winter and prospered during the Little Ice Age.

With sea ice making the routes from Iceland to Greenland and back impassable for Norse ships for much of the year, the Little Ice Age probably curtailed further Norse traffic to North America. Iceland also fared badly during this time. By 1703, weather-related food shortages and epidemics of plague and smallpox had reduced Iceland's population to 53,000, from more than 150,000 in 1250.

It's worth pondering how the history of the West might have differed if the weather had remained balmy. Norse populations in Iceland and Greenland might have flourished, and the Vikings might have remained in North America. If the temperature had been a few degrees higher, some of North America might be speaking Norse today.

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The Vikings: A Memorable Visit to America

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Smithsonian Magazine | Roughly 1,000 years ago, the story goes, a Viking trader and adventurer named Thorfinn Karlsefni set off from the west coast of Greenland with three ships and a band of Norse to explore a newly discovered land that promised fabulous riches.

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Canada, as we know it today, is a country born from the European fascination with exploration, imperialism, and colonization that began in the 15th century - though some Canadians can trace their roots back even further.

Aboriginal Canada

Though today the majority of Canadians are white, the land that is now "Canada" was first occupied for thousands of years by the aboriginal peoples of North America. These people had lived on the northern half of the North American continent ever since homo sapiens first arrived from Asia, most likely via the Bering Land Bridge,around 21,000 B.C.

Over the centuries, North America's indigenous peoples, also known as Indians, Amerindians, Native Americans, or First Nations, lived in small, nomadic groupings across all parts of modern Canada, even extremely inhospitable areas like the barren central grasslands and northern arctic. Over the course of the centuries, these communities developed into organized societies that, although technologically simple by today's standards, nevertheless maintained sustainable economies, sophisticated political systems, complex spiritual beliefs, and rich, vibrant cultures.

Once European settlers began arriving in the 16th century, however, North America's indigenous peoples were systematically uprooted from their traditional homes and villages, either through war, forced relocation, or threats of violence, and pushed into remote areas where they wouldn't get in the way of European colonization. Outgunned by European technology and uniquely susceptible to European disease, the vast majority of Canada's aboriginal population quickly declined to a small minority as their death rate skyrocketed and European immigration increased. Though Europeans would often recruit natives to work as soldiers, hunters, and fur traders, the race remained chronically disliked, mistrusted, and mistreated by whites, and were always relegated to subordinate status. Only very recently have the descendants of the first peoples of Canada begun to enjoy equal and dignified treatment under the law.

You can learn more about Canada's aboriginal people in the First Nations chapter.

Exploration and Colonization (1534-1756)

New France

Canadians are taught to peg the symbolic start of Canada's European settlement to 1534, when a French explorer named Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Europe and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. As the traditional story goes, heplanted a giant crucifix into the shore of what is now Gaspé, Quebec, claiming all he could see for the King of France.

Ambitious though he was, Cartier's attempt to establish a permanent settlement in this new territory failed, and it was not until 1603 that another French explorer, Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635), really got things going. A zealous missionary, expert navigator, savvy political leader, and visionary nation-builder, Champlain presided over the founding of a colony called New France that sat along the coast of the St. Lawrence. As governor, he created several permanent cities for French farmers, fishermen, and fur-traders, most notably Quebec City (1608) and Trois-Rivières (1634), as well as Port-Royal (1605) on the Acadian Penisula (home of the modern day Maritime provinces). His death failed to slow things down, and in 1642 New France's new governor established the settlement of Montreal (1642), destined to be one of Canada's most important cities.

Buoyed by their success in New France, the French gradually moved east from the St. Lawrence coast towards the Great Lakes and then traveled down the Mississippi River. In 1682, they claimed much of the middle of North America, including the Mississippi Basin and Ohio Valley, as a massive French territory called Louisiana, where they began establishing further cities and settlements.

New England

The British, meanwhile, landed in North America around the same time as Champlain, and quickly set about building thriving little colonies of their own in the territory just south of New France and east of Louisiana. Starting with the famous settlements of Jamestown (1607), Plymouth (1620), and Boston (1630), the British would eventually build an impressive collection of 13 separate colonies occupying most of the eastern coast of North America, from Massachusetts in the north all the way down to Georgia at the furthest south.

For both strategic and economic reasons, the British were also interested in claiming territory to the north of New France. In 1670, after a path to enter North America through the north via Hudson's Bay was discovered, England audaciously declared ownership of the entire northern coast of the continent, which they named Rupert's Land. In contrast to the 13 colonies, which had large populations and a moderate degree of self-government, Britain allowed control of the vast and underpopulated Rupert's Land to be held entirely by the Hudson's Bay Company ( HBC), a private corporation headquartered in London. Controlling so much land gave the HBC enormous wealth and political power, and in time it began to function as its own empire, largely independent of the British government.

The Fur Trade

In the early colonial period, both the French and English colonial economies were based around killing animals and selling their skins back to Europe, where clothing companies made them into fashionable hats and sold them to rich people. This was known as the fur trade, and it quickly became a source of enormous rivalry between the French and English empires, both of whom wanted to conquer more and more of North America and thereby control more and more of the fur industry.

Armed conflict between rival groups of traders broke out almost immediately, and the years between 1613 and 1756 are known as the era of the Fur Wars, marked by near-constant violence between French, English, and aboriginal forces as everyone battled to seize land from one another or merely hold what they already had. This back-and-forth led to many brutal episodes, the most infamous being a 1755 British attack on France's Fort Beauséjour on the Acadian peninsula, which led to the forcible deportation of all of that area's French residents, known as Acadians, many of whom wound up relocating to Louisiana.

Britain's Conquest of New France

Steadily worsening relations between France and England in both North America and Europe saw the small conflicts of the Fur Wars gradually escalate into an all-out war for total control of the American continent. Described as either the North American front of the European Seven Years War (1756-1763) or a purely North American conflict called the French and Indian War (1754-1763), it's easily the most important military episode in Canadian history.

Going in, the two sides were relatively evenly matched. The British colonies had larger populations - and thus access to more soldiers - but the majority of aboriginal tribes sided with the French. A series of large-scale, surprise French attacks on critical English settlements generated a string of early British defeats, prompting the British to import thousands of troops from Europe in an attempt to turn the tide. In 1759, the military commanders of the two colonial armies faced off in the decisive 30-minute Battle of the Plains of Abraham, with the British ultimately victorious.

The terms of the Treaty of Paris (1763) that ended the war were devastating from a French perspective: all of New France and most of Louisiana was given to England, while the remaining scraps, for complicated geopolitical reasons, went to Spain. French rule of North America had effectively ended. But the Brits weren't completely sore winners. In 1774, New France was reorganized into a British colony called Quebec, governed by a charter known as the Quebec Act that promised to continue French law, protect the Catholic religion, and respect the unique French style of farming, known as the seigneurial system. It was an odd way to run a supposedly "British" colony, but given Quebec's large population was overwhelmingly French, the English didn't have a lot of options if they wanted to keep the peace.

The American Revolution

Controversy over the Quebec compromise quickly spread throughout the rest of British North America, and barely had the Seven Years War ended when unrest began to rumble in England's 13 colonies south of the former New France. In the aftermath of the French defeat, many New Englanders resented the way their British rulers chose to handle the new political realities of North America, and grew particularly sour once London began limiting their ability to migrate and settle in Britain's newly-acquired western territories in the former Louisiana. The war against France had also proven tremendously expensive for Great Britain, which led to dramatic and unpopular tax hikes on colonials and a scaling back of democratic rights to silence dissent.

In 1776, a group of influential New England politicians declared independence from Britain and launched a self-styled Revolutionary War (1775-1783) - backed by France - that ended with the establishment of a new country on eastern North American free from British rule: the United States of America.

But not all of England's colonies had been willing to join in. The English settlement of Nova Scotia - the former French Acadia - sometimes called the "14th colony," refused to participate, as did the conquered French subjects of Quebec. Both groups felt that despite England's often oppressive rule, their rights and security were ultimately better trusted to stable, reliable Britain than the radical American rebels.

The Loyalists

The Revolutionary War was not universally popular in the 13 colonies, either. Like the Quebecers and Nova Scotians, large segments of the New England population did not support the idea of breaking with British rule, and after war broke out, many families fled northward to Quebec, seeking to live somewhere where England was still in charge. These migrants, dubbed Loyalists for their steadfast allegiance to Britain and its king, are some of the most romanticized characters of Canadian history, but their precise motivations remain debated.

The traditional interpretation has been to characterize the Loyalists as fundamentally conservative folk (dubbed " Tories" after the conservative faction in English politics), dedicated to the cause of monarchy, Empire, and social hierarchy, rather than revolutionary American notions of republicanism, democracy, and egalitarianism. This became a popular theory among those who liked to think of Canada as a more traditional and culturally British country than the United States. Contemporary historians, in contrast, tend to argue the Loyalists actually comprised a fairly broad cross-section of New Englanders encompassing a diversity of backgrounds and political views, united only in their desire to not live in a revolutionary war zone with a deeply uncertain future. This interpretation portrays Canadians as a cautious, practical people.

In any case, the Loyalist migration dramatically swelled Quebec's English-speaking population in a few short years, causing great concern to the colony's French residents who were already anxious enough about the survival of their distinct culture and lifestyle. In 1791, Britain attempted to alleviate these concerns by splitting Quebec into two colonies: Upper Canada for the English and Lower Canada for the French. Each colony would have its own government, in order to give it a bit of political and cultural independence from the distrusted people next door.

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Canada, as we know it today, is a country born from the European fascination with exploration, imperialism, and colonization that began in the 15th century - though some Canadians can trace their roots back even further. Though today the majority of Canadians are white, the land that is now "Canada" was first occupied for thousands of years by the aboriginal peoples of North America.

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Interesting facts and figures about Cardiff you might not know

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Interesting facts and figures about Cardiff you might not know

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The capital of Wales, archaeological evidence suggests that people lived in the area as early as 6,000 years ago. Things began to solidify with the founding of a Roman Fort and later with William the Conqueror's invasion and the construction of Cardiff Castle. The city built itself around the castle and became its political center. The construction of the Cardiff Docks in the late 18th and early 19th Centuries brought new trade and wealth to the city, a status officially granted by King Edward VII in 1905, with official recognition as the capital in 1955. Today, Cardiff is a thriving metropolis and a centre of economy, culture, history, and more.

Numbers, Numbers, Numbers

With a population of roughly 354,294, it is the largest city in Wales and the ninth largest city in the United Kingdom. Of course, that's just the people who live there. Cardiff sees over 18 million visitors per year.

Sitting on the Dock of the Bay

One of Cardiff's largest tourist attractions is Cardiff Bay, which is also the largest waterfront redevelopment project in Europe. The project was started by the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation in 1987 to improve 2,700 acres of derelict land, which was completed in 2000. Newer buildings constructed since the corporation wound up in 2000 include St. David's Hotel & Spa, the Wales Millennium Centre, and the Senedd, home to the Welsh National Assembly.

City of Castles

Cardiff claims to have the most castles of any city in the world. Including Cardiff Castle, the city itself has at least three still standing (Castell Coch and St. Fagans Castle) while the surrounding Glamorgan County has another twenty-three.

World's Oldest

The oldest record store in the world can be found in Cardiff. Spillers Records was opened in 1894 and though it's not in its original location, you can find it at no. 27, The Morgan Arcade-just twenty feet away from its previous spot. The original Spillers was in the Queens Arcade, moved to the Hayes in the 1940s, then to Morgan Arcade in the 21st Century. The store originally sold wax cylinders for the photograph.

A Nice Place to Visit

Yours Magazine voted Cardiff as one its top places to visit in 2009 based on its attractions and their close proximity to each other.

Famous Residents

Plenty of well-known individuals come from Cardiff, including: singer Shirley Bassey, author Roald Dahl, footballer Ryan Giggs, singer Charlotte Church, infamous pirate Henry Morgan (aka Blackbeard), comedian Griff Rhys-Jones, and writer Terry Nation, the creator of the Daleks. Other famous persons simply passed through on their way to greatness or came to live in the city, such as Anthony Hopkins (graduated from the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama).

The River

Cardiff is also the mouth for the River Severn, which flows for 220 miles and begins at Plynlimon, the highest point of the Cambrian Mountains.

Allwch Chi Ddarllen y Frawddeg Hon?

Approximately ten percent of the city's population can understand the Welsh language, in contrast to twenty-one percent of the total Welsh population. Modern Welsh is a descendant of Common Brittonic. For many centuries, even after the Norman invasion, large groups of people spoke only Welsh, but it gradually began to die out. This and a nationalist campaign in the 20th Century led to the Welsh Language Act of 1993 and the Government of Wales Act of 1998 to make Welsh one of the nation's official languages and give it equal treatment in the public sector with English.

In Bloom

Held since 1963, the Britain in Bloom campaign was created to encourage greater horticultural in the UK. Cardiff has won the campaign's award for "Large City" twice, in 1988 and 2005.

The Doctor's Home

Since Doctor Who was brought back to television in 2005, its home has been with BBC Cardiff. The city has been featured in multiple episodes of the program since, including "The Unquiet Dead", "Boom Town", "Utopia", and "Last of the Time Lords". Other shows spun out of Doctor Who since its return have also filmed in Cardiff, including "Torchwood" and "The Sarah Jane Adventures." The Doctor Who Experience is an interactive exhibit that has been located in the city since 2012 and includes costumes, props, and even a full TARDIS console room set.

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Ten Interesting Facts and Figures about Cardiff, Wales You Might Not Know

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The capital of Wales, archaeological evidence suggests that people lived in the area as early as 6,000 years ago. Things began to solidify with the founding of a Roman Fort and later with William the Conqueror's invasion and the construction of Cardiff Castle. The city built itself around the castle and became its political center.

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American food: The 50 greatest dishes | CNN

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We have chips and grits. We have ribs and wings. We even have a salad. Do you have the appetite for the 50 greatest dishes of American food?

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Carved out in the Ice Age, Cheddar is Britain's largest gorge, boasting an elaborate cave system and limestone cliffs which rise spectacularly from the valley floor. . .

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Here Are The Must-Try Foods In Every State

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We put on our foodie thinking caps and chose one ingredient or dish to represent each of the 50 states. Find out which all-American food or dish represents your state.

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The New England colonies grew by a process of group settlement. The general courts of the various colonies, most notably that of Massachusetts Bay, would make a grant of land to a migrating group, fixing its boundaries carefully. This group would then establish a new town. Its common lands, fencing, grazing practices, and the mode of apportionment of farms were regulated by the general court or legislature, but each town then took control of land allotments and management. The legislature determined who should be admitted to the town as settlers and freeholders. The town meetings, or boards of town proprietors, laid out the land of each settlement as house lots, common fields, meadow and pasture, and ultimately divided it among owners. Inhabitants of each town commonly dwelt together for society and protection and traveled from the town centre to till their acres. The typical town was thus closely akin to an English manor, but with no lord of the manor at its head. The town was, of course, the church centre, and its pastor was the community leader. Militia service, elections, and taxation were based on the town.

In Virginia, settlement followed an entirely different pattern. There the colonists spread out widely up the creeks and rivers, soon moving westward as far as the falls of the James River, where the city of Richmond now stands. Partly because tobacco rapidly impoverished the soil, they tilled land in much larger units, known as plantations, with almost no village centres, and they made much greater use of servants-and, significantly, slaves-than did New England. This pattern was unfavourable to social life, cooperation, and communal activities, but it created a spirit of independence equal to that existing farther north. Throughout the 17th century the planters preferred white indentured servants to African slaves, and for a time as many as 1,500 arrived every year. They were mainly English, along with some Scotch and Irish, and in general bound themselves, in return for transportation and support, to work without wages for four to six years. This indenture or redemptioner system became a highly efficient aid to colonization. When they had worked out their terms, the servants moved up the streams, took land, began shipping tobacco from their own wharves, and thus became in turn independent planters or freehold farmers.

The natural political units in Virginia were parishes and counties. Parish institutions were chiefly ecclesiastical, but under the English system they included education; every minister kept a school and the vestry saw to it that all poor children could read and write. Children of prosperous families usually had private tutors. The counties increased in number to keep pace with the steady spread of population. By 1652 Virginia had 13 counties, of which 9 lay on the James River and 2 on the York. The county courts held large powers of local government and tended to come under the control of a few influential families. Until 1636 the House of Burgesses was practically elected on manhood suffrage; thereafter the vote was restricted, and, when Sir William Berkeley became governor under the Restoration, he kept a compliant house in power for 15 years.

Founding of the middle colonies

Henry Hudson's voyage of 1609 to what is now New York Bay was intended to serve trade rather than colonization. The Dutch wished for cargoes of fur, lumber, and tobacco. However, in 1621 the Netherlands government chartered the Dutch West India Company with power to build forts, to establish a government, and to colonize the land over wide areas, including the American coast. Two years later the heads of the company sent a vessel with 30 families of Walloons, Protestant refugees from the southern provinces of the Netherlands, to the mouth of the Hudson River, where they established the first permanent settlement on the island of Manhattan. More settlers arrived, and in 1626 Peter Minuit "purchased" the island from Indian sachems (variously characterized by historians as having belonged to the Lenape, Delaware, Munsee, or Algonquin people) and founded New Amsterdam as the seat of government for a colony. Fort Orange (now Albany) had been planted up the Hudson two years earlier as a fur trading post. New Amsterdam quickly became a cosmopolitan town, attracting people of various nations and faiths. It had the self-reliant lawless atmosphere of a seaport, full of privateers, smugglers, tavern keepers, and roistering sailors.

For several reasons New Netherland did not grow as vigorously as the English colonies. The Dutch West India Company was at first much more interested in preying on Spanish commerce in the Caribbean and Atlantic than in finding permanent settlers. It was also anxious to develop the fur trade and to share in the tobacco trade. When it turned to settlement in earnest, it adopted an unfortunate method. Beginning in 1629, it granted any patroon who brought out 50 families a great estate on which to settle them as tenants, with certain monopolies, as of milling, in the hands of the owner. This kind of feudalism gave a few great families an unhealthy share of wealth and power. Some small farmers did establish independent farms or boweries here and there, as did interloping Puritans from New England who sifted into Westchester and the northern reaches of Long Island, but they were not numerous. Finally, the governors and councils appointed by the Dutch West India Company, who ruled without any such popular assemblies as Virginia and New England possessed, were harsh, autocratic, and blundering. Far from gaining any popular following, they were generally disliked. The most famous of the governors, Peter Stuyvesant, was also the most headstrong and shortsighted.

The Print Collector/Heritage-Images

It was impossible for England to permit a Dutch colony to break the line of its possessions on the Atlantic seaboard for long. In 1664 a small English naval force obtained the surrender of the New Netherland without firing a shot. The 7,000 inhabitants of the area accepted the new regime without protest. Charles II appointed his brother James, the duke of York, ruler and proprietor of the colony of New York, a domain stretching from the Connecticut River to the Delaware. At once a more liberal regime began. The proprietor sent over a governor with instructions to treat the Dutch inhabitants generously, to permit them to keep their lands, and to make no interference with their language or religion. Immigration was encouraged and settlements thickened. In 1683 Gov. Thomas Dongan summoned a representative assembly for the province of New York.

The Surrender of Nieuw Amsterdam in 1664 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-DIG-pga-01466)

One of the greatest of all colonial figures presided over the founding of what became Pennsylvania and Delaware. William Penn, son of the prominent English admiral Sir William Penn, had been converted to the Society of Friends, or Quakers, in 1667, in his early 20s. He aspired to establish a colony where every race and every sect could find both political and religious freedom. His friendship with the duke of York, and the fact that the king owed a large unpaid debt to Admiral Penn, enabled William Penn to gain control of a great part of the imperial domain assigned to the duke. When the crown gave him a proprietary charter in 1681, he immediately began to advertise for settlers. Publishing a description of Pennsylvania in four languages, he offered newcomers land on very liberal terms: 50 acres free, larger farms at a purely nominal rent, and 5,000 acres for £100. Penn visited his "holy experiment" in 1682. And in that year he laid down a charter of government which provided for a small elective council, to sit with himself as governor and initiate laws, and a larger elective assembly to pass or reject the proposed laws. Within a few years the assembly gained much larger powers and itself proposed legislation. In 1701 Penn granted a new charter that lasted until the American Revolution.

It is not strange that Pennsylvania flourished beyond other colonies. Immigrants flocked in large numbers, from England and Germany especially, to enjoy the religious freedom, the humane criminal legislation, the easy terms for gaining fertile land, and the opportunities for trade and manufacture. Penn had hoped that Philadelphia, his "city of brotherly love," would always be "a green country town," with gardens surrounding every house, and it did become a beautiful as well as a prosperous city. Quakerism, softened from its originally somewhat rigid outlines, gave the colony a special atmosphere. It was in Pennsylvania that a number of institutions on which America later prided itself found their first full-scale trial: complete religious freedom, the distribution of land to actual settlers at very low cost, the encouragement of a melting pot of peoples, and the establishment of excellent schools open to all. Because of the high intellectual and moral standards of the Quakers, the cultural level of Pennsylvania soon became one of unusual elevation. It was noted for its libraries, its refined homes, its interest in science, and its architectural taste. When it was only 10 years old, it had the first printing press to be established outside of New England.

Before Penn died, he bought from the duke of York three counties on the Delaware River which became the province and state of that name. Though they shared their governor with Pennsylvania, from 1702 they had their own elective assembly. The other middle colonies also began under proprietors. Maryland had a history of special interest because of its initial status as a refuge for Roman Catholics. Charles I granted the district between the Potomac River and the 40th parallel in 1632 to George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, who was much interested in colonization. His son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, almost immediately succeeded to the grant and resolved to establish a colony where his fellow Roman Catholics could find peace. Early in 1634 the first shipload of Roman Catholic settlers chose a site at St. Marys on a tributary of the Potomac near its mouth. Actually, Protestants soon constituted a majority of the settlers, for the Roman Catholics preferred to stay in England. To meet this situation, Cecilius Calvert persuaded the assembly which he called to pass an act of religious toleration in 1649. Unfortunately, this act was repealed before many years.

Though Maryland profited from the proximity to Virginia, which gave it protection and trade, it had a troubled history. The Protestant settlers were irked by Calvert's bestowals of land, offices, and favours on his relatives and Roman Catholic friends. They were also irritated by the very limited authority that he allowed his assembly. Friction over religious and economic questions culminated in hostilities in 1654, the Protestant small farmers finally winning their main objectives. When William and Mary came to the throne in England in 1689, the Calverts lost control of Maryland; however, when a new Lord Baltimore embraced Protestantism in 1715, the family regained its rights.

Meanwhile, the future New Jersey had undergone some confusing and unprofitable changes of name and jurisdiction. The duke of York, the original proprietor, had given the lands between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to two friends, Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, as the province of Nova Cesaria, or New Jersey. To bring in more settlers, they drew up a charter or set of "concessions and agreements" which largely anticipated Penn's liberal ideas. That is, they offered generous terms for acquiring land, complete freedom of conscience, and a popular assembly. In 1674 Berkeley sold his half share to two Quakers, who took the southwestern part of the future state. In 1680 Carteret's widow sold the northeastern half to a new body of proprietors. Ultimately, in 1702, the crown took over both sections.

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American colonies - Land policy in New England and Virginia

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American colonies - American colonies - Land policy in New England and Virginia: The New England colonies grew by a process of group settlement. The general courts of the various colonies, most notably that of Massachusetts Bay, would make a grant of land to a migrating group, fixing its boundaries carefully.

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From Anne Boleyn to Jane Seymour to Catherine of Aragon, learn how all six of King Henry VIII's wives met their fate in the end.

King Henry VIII of England is one of history's most famous rulers, though not for his power as king. Henry VIII's fame instead lies in the number of wives that he had: six in total, though only three of them were deemed legal in the eyes of the church.

Henry VIII's wives became equally as famous as their husband, mostly because of the gruesome end that a few of them met.

So, who were all of the king's consorts - and what happened to them?

1. Catherine Of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was Henry VIII's first wife and his longest marriage. After his brother died, Henry obtained a papal dispensation to marry his wife, Catherine, as he had been in love with her for some time. For 23 years, Henry and Catherine remained married and produced a daughter named Mary.

Most scholars agree that Catherine of Aragon may have been the only one of Henry VIII's wives that he truly loved. Several declarations by him over the years professed undying love for her.

However, undying love proved to be not quite enough for Henry, because roughly twenty years after wedding Catherine of Aragon, he sought the Pope's approval for an annulment.

He pleaded his case with Thomas More and claimed that since his wife had previously been married to his brother, his marriage was invalid. When the Pope refused, Henry VIII began his own church, the Church of England.

While many believed that he truly felt his marriage was impure and invalid, there were those who believed that Henry VIII actually left Catherine and the Catholic Church at the behest of the woman he had been hoping to make his mistress: Anne Boleyn.

2. Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn became one of King Henry VIII's wives after her own sister had been tossed aside. Mary Boleyn had had an affair with the king during his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and had been dismissed after consummating their union.

Anne, hoping to avoid the same treatment as her sister, refused to become Henry VIII's mistress, instead, telling him he had to court her and marry her to bed her. Being denied the object of his affections eventually drove Henry to break from the Catholic Church and begin his own.

Henry VIII appointed the Boleyn family's chaplain as the head of his new church, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and wed Anne in a secret service.

As the Catholic Church began to move against Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn proved invaluable for the newly established Church of England. As it was aligned with her family, and she was aligned with the king, the Church of England fell under Henry VIII's command.

Despite being named Queen Consort of England and bearing a daughter to Henry VIII, there was soon trouble in paradise. Anne's inability to bear a son, a rightful male heir to the throne, proved to be her downfall.

Henry VIII soon lost interest in her, divorced her, and despite very little evidence against her, beheaded her for "adultery, incest, and treason."

Today, Anne Boleyn is considered to be the most famous of Henry VIII's wives and one of the most influential players in the English Reformation.

3. Jane Seymour

After beheading his second wife, Henry VIII moved on to one of her ladies in waiting, Jane Seymour, marrying her just 10 days after Anne's execution. It is widely believed that Henry VIII made her his mistress while married to Anne and that she was a key player in her predecessor's untimely execution.

The pair were married for a little over a year before Jane gave birth to a son, the king's third child and his first male heir. Unfortunately, due to complications with the birth, Jane died 12 days after her son was born.

Apparently, birthing his first male heir meant a lot to Henry, as it is said that his grief following her death was insurmountable.

Though she was the daughter of a knight, and therefore of lower social standing than many of Henry's other consorts, Jane Seymour was the only one of Henry VIII's wives to receive a proper Queen's burial, laid to rest in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle.

Upon Henry VII's death, he was buried beside her.

4. Anne Of Cleves

Anne of Cleves, a German princess, was the fourth of Henry VIII's wives and the shortest of all of his marriages. The pair were married for just six months and according to Anne, never consummated the marriage.

Despite being married to King Henry VIII, she had a pre-existing marriage agreement with another English monarch, which Henry VIII claimed was grounds for an annulment. Surprisingly, Anne of Cleves agreed to the annulment and was given a generous annulment settlement as a reward.

For the duration of her life, which lasted longer than Henry's, she lived in Hever Castle, the former residence of the Boleyn family. Though they were separated, Anne of Cleves maintained a close relationship with the king and his children. She was even given the name "The King's Sister."

5. Catherine Howard

Catherine Howard was the fifth of Henry VIII's wives and the second to be beheaded - ironic, as the first to be beheaded, Anne Boleyn, was her first cousin. She was 16 at the time of their marriage, while her husband King Henry VIII was 49.

Though their marriage was a year long, they produced no children and she was eventually accused of treason for committing adultery while married to Henry. Three months after being stripped of her title of queen, Henry had Catherine Howard beheaded.

6. Catherine Parr

The last of Henry VIII's wives was Catherine Parr, the most influential in making sure his lineage continued.

Catherine Parr became the restorer of his court, uniting his children and making sure they were presented to the world as a close-knit family. She was instrumental in his legitimate children's educations and passed legislation that made his previously illegitimate children (through annulment or divorce) legitimate again.

King Henry VIII trusted his last wife so much that when he went to war, he appointed her as his successor, naming her Queen Regent in the event of his death. When he did eventually die at the age of 55, Katherine was allowed to keep her gowns and jewels and reside in one of his castles. Catherine Parr even kept the title of Dowager Queen as well.

Though she is known as one of Henry VIII's wives, Catherine Parr created her own place in history. Having been married four times (Henry was her third husband), she became the most married queen of England.
After reading about King Henry VIII's wives, read about the confusing lineage of the British Royal Family. Then, check out the grisly, botched execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.

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From Divorces To Beheadings, Here Are The Grim Fates Of Henry VIII's Wives

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King Henry VIII of England is one of history's most famous rulers, though not for his power as king. Henry VIII's fame instead lies in the number of wives that he had: six in total, though only three of them were deemed legal in the eyes of the church.

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https://www.biography.com/explorer/christopher-columbus

First known trip to America was made by Christopher Columbus. In late August of 1492, Columbus left Spain from the port of Palos de la Frontera. Columbus wanted to sail west across the Atlantic to reach Asia, believing it would be quicker and safer route. He showed his idea to influential monarchies in europe but no one agreed. At last Spanish queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon gived christopher three ships. After 36 days of sailing westward across the Atlantic his crewmen and Columbus arrived at an island in the present-day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain. They met there timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors, exchanging glass beads, cotton balls, parrots and spears. Europeans noticed also bits of gold  which were worn by the locals. Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba (which he thought was China) and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which Columbus thought might be Japan). He didn’t saw any other natives of this lands again.

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1. Apple Pie

The saying is "American as apple pie" for a reason: this sweet treat is a national institution. Forget anybody who will try to tell you pecan or key lime is better, because they are lying. The simple combination of sugar, buttery pastry and tart sliced apples produces a dessert so extraordinary people have devoted their entire lives to perfecting it. For a particularly excellent example, try the apple pie with added green chilies at the Pie-O-Neer, in Pie Town, New Mexico. Phone ahead and Kathy Knapp, the self-proclaimed "Pie Lady of Pie Town", will save you a slice. See pieoneer.com.
See also: The best food festival in America, possibly the world
2. The Hamburger

Every single American will have a different idea about where to find the best hamburger in the country, ranging from fast food on the West Coast (In-N-Out Burger) to fine dining in New York (The Spotted Pig). But only one place is recognised by the Library of Congress as being the birthplace of hamburgers: New Haven, Connecticut. The year was 1900 and the establishment was Louis' Lunch, run by one Louis Lassen. Today his great-grandson, Jeff Lassen, guides the ship, which still serves burgers made from five-meat blend and cooked in a century-old cast iron grill. See louislunch.com.
See also: 20 things that will shock first time visitors to the USA
3. Clam Chowder

It is basically illegal to visit Boston without trying New England clam chowder. The fragrant soup is sold everywhere, and it looks hideous, being white and lumpy. But one taste is all it takes to fall in love. Whoever decided to mix the quahog shellfish with tender potatoes, salted pork, heavy cream and herbs is a total genius. There are many ways to eat it, but you may as well go all out and get a bread bowl at the Atlantic Fish Co., where the chefs carve out a cavity in a fresh boule, pour in the heavenly juice, then put the top back on. Edible dinnerware. See atlanticfishco.com.
See also: The 20 things you must do in Seattle
4. Bagel and Lox

Trying to narrow New York down to a single representative cuisine is a fool's errand. A Nathan's hot dog? Pastrami from Katz's? A bad cup of diner coffee? Let's pay respects to the city's strong Jewish population and go with bagels and lox, a weekend staple on many Manhattan tables. Scientific studies have been conducted trying to work out why the New York bagel reigns supreme over all others; legend attributes it to the water. Whatever the cause, head to Russ and Daughters on the Lower East Side and tell them you want a selection of smoked fish, cream cheeses and, if you're feeling flash, caviar. See russanddaughters.com.

Russ & Daughters, New York.

5. Deep-Dish Pizza

Pizza in Chicago looks and tastes different. The dish is deep, as the name suggests, meaning the crust rises high and allows for an artery-choking volume of cheese and tomato sauce. Unsurprisingly, they call it a "pie". It is not for the lighthearted and should only be attempted while wearing dark clothes or a large napkin. For a particularly authentic meal, pair the pie with sugary soda. You might like to do this at an Uno Pizzeria, which claims to have invented the Italian American hybrid dish in 1943. See unos.com.
See also: How not to be a bad tipper in the USA
6. Drop Biscuits and Sausage Gravy

A biscuit in America means, essentially, a flaky scone often made with lard and buttermilk. In places such as Montana, where people burn energy working on horse ranches, biscuits are eaten at breakfast smothered in a thick white gravy that is studded with bits of sausage. It certainly wakes you up in the morning. For a fun twist, try a musical version in Austin, Texas, where Biscuits and Groovy offers varies with names like "the Aretha Franklin" (maple bacon, colby jack cheese). See iwantbiscuits.com.
See also: Is this America's hippest city?
7. Texas Barbecue

Australians might like to stoke up a barbie on the weekend, but Texans live and die by the practice. Mesquite smoked meats and tenderising rubs are common obsessions, and it is not uncommon to go to football games and find people have brought entire ranges to the parking lots that are worth upwards of five or even ten thousand dollars - a pastime called "tailgating". For excellent brisket, head to the Dallas Farmers Market, stand in line for a bit, then find a seat at Pecan Lodge. Also good are the pork links, pulled pork, beef ribs and collard greens. Basically everything. See pecanlodge.com.

8. Hominy Grits

Southern food seems to exist in its own universe, and an entire list could be written just focusing on things like chicken and waffles (yes, you read that correctly). So perhaps it's a good idea to just go with one of the basics: hominy grits, which is essentially corn milled into a rough powder and then boiled up with butter or bacon grease. It sounds rough but it's actually sublime. For proof, try Blossom Restaurant in Charleston, South Carolina, which offers Geechie Boy grits with shrimp and andouille sausage. Pair it with brussels sprouts and sweetened ice tea. See blossomcharleston.com.

9. Tacos

Los Angeles is a city with a taqueria on every street corner, basically. With so many Spanish-speakers it's possible to find anything from greasy nachos on Venice Beach to exquisite Michoacan-style goat stews. For a good sampler, forget the chain stuff and try El Huarache Azteca, a tiny, no-fuss eatery in the neighbourhood of Highland Park, where menus run the full gamut from fajitas to mole verde and "flautas" - fried crisp taquitos stuffed with chicken. (Guacamole is a no-brainer.) Keep in mind that Mexican food and Tex-Mex are two very different things. See elhuaracheaztecala.com.

10. Thanksgiving

So "thanksgiving" isn't technically a food, but it's such a legendary date on the American culinary calendar (the fourth Thursday of each November), that it needs to be acknowledged. Officially, the holiday is about friends and family, but everybody knows it's really about turkey, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, green bean casserole and bellyaches. While the recipes, like most things on this list, seem custom-made to give you a heart-attack or diabetes, they're all delicious, and taken together create one of the most ridiculous and enjoyable feasts you could ever attend. Many restaurants offer a menu, for the most special option is always a friend's house, even if they burn the bird.
See also: America's next top city for foodies

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The 10 foods every visitor to the US needs to try

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The saying is "American as apple pie" for a reason: this sweet treat is a national institution. Forget anybody who will try to tell you pecan or key lime is better, because they are lying. The simple combination of sugar, buttery pastry and tart sliced apples produces a dessert so extraordinary people have devoted their entire lives to perfecting it.

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"I don't know anything about American fashion! I don't even think about American fashion. Everything for me is global. I sit around thinking how are we going to improve our sales in Asia and what are we going to do about Europe and why is the market dipping in this city or that city. I've never thought of myself as just an American designer." - Tom Ford

"American fashion has always been defined by the lifestyle brands like Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, Michael Kors and Tommy Hilfiger. These brands have the ability to sell anything, from underwear to evening gowns, in stores as diverse as T.J. Maxx to Bergdorf's. American fashion has also dominated denim and streetwear, bridging pop culture with fashion. At Holt Renfrew, we have embraced American-born brands that have a global approach to fashion, like Rick Owens, Thom Browne and The Row, along with Raf Simons' inspired reimagining of American style at Calvin Klein. We feel strongly about these brands as their European sensibility and directional aesthetic continue to resonate with both our male and female customers." - Mario Grauso, president, Holt Renfrew

"When you think about the French or Italians or the British, there's confidence. Like, 'This is what Milan or London or Paris looks like and we're confident in this.' And for some reason New York is always like, 'Uh I don't know. Maybe we're too commercial and it's boring.' Yes, that is true for a lot of work that is presented in New York, but I feel like to take that attitude....why be so down? There are really interesting things happening in this city, among the new people and the older brands. Look at what Marc Jacobs has been putting out the past two collections. It's pretty awesome and wild." - Mike Eckhaus, Eckhaus Latta

"[American fashion] lives without fear of offending, though sometimes lacks a strong message or identity." - Ashley Petrie, merchandise director, Fred Segal

"I feel like America has been great at producing things like Warby Parker and Bonobos, and things like that that...disrupt the industry economically. But creatively, they're stifling the industry, and they're not offering anything new or exciting. I think there's a huge push on VC and investors to repeat the success of Everlane and other size-fashion type of formulas where there's no push on creativity. That's a huge thing too. The Europeans really focus on creativity and storytelling and navigating the history via fashion and including that in their work. Whereas we're figuring out how to make things easier and easier, duller and duller and cost-effective, because it's like the Silicon Valley of creativity." - Kerby Jean Raymond, Pyer Moss

"Creativity goes in phases, from when it's at its height to periods where it's less creative. At the moment we feel this is a time where U.S. designers and fashion houses are trying to figure out the next step to show their collections, to redefine the format to adapt to the new landscape." - Sylvie Picquet, PR Consulting

" New York Fashion Week has become very democratic, which is great for newness, but bad for quality control. It's crowded [so it] doesn't give any designer the platform to stand out." - Lauren Santo Domingo, cofounder and chief brand officer, Moda Operandi

"When we talk about the state of American fashion today it's really 'world' fashion we're talking about. The influences and influencers driven and shared through the Internet have democratized and globalized fashion. And because of the speed and bombardment of all of these influences impacting all kinds of consumers, young designers today are more challenged than ever to create a strong identity for themselves and their brands and to sustain them over time." - Ralph Lauren

"To me, all this 'competition' against 'the Europeans' is all invented. I can see that it is frustrating to feel that the Paris season is seen as the international summit. Yet U.S. fashion in general should feel a certain triumph about taking sportswear (sneakers included) into such a forceful situation that an American influencer has become part of power brand Louis Vuitton.

"This may sound pretentious, coming from someone who has never lived in the U.S., but surely the discomfort in NY fashion compared to the energetic attitude on the West Coast must reflect the way your world is turning. My son lives and works in San Francisco for Google and he told me a decade ago that his suit was gathering mothballs and that his women colleagues also wore entirely casual clothes. I feel that the current look at Calvin Klein from Raf Simons could have been orchestrated from the beginning of the new Millennium.

"But in this digital age of start-ups and online purchases, is there any sense in talking about 'American fashion' or 'London' fashion? Surely it should be about individual creatives." - Suzy Menkes, international Vogue editor

"I think American fashion could use a bit more formality and focus in the design studio. Right now, it feels that so many designers have given themselves over to streetwear, ath-leisure or whatever you want to call it, that dreaming up wonderfully transporting ideas has become a rarity. I don't necessarily think I'm seeing designers' visions but rather their interpretation of what consumers are already wearing - and not necessarily looking all that great in. American designers don't seem to be as keen on challenging and pushing consumers to see beyond what's right in front of them." - Robin Givhan, fashion critic, The Washington Post

"The state of American fashion as opposed to the state of European fashion? I just wonder if fashion is going through a really bad cycle. This has come up so many times, so that's why I asked whether it's American fashion or fashion [in general]. I show in New York, and I know I'm considered an American fashion designer. In my head, I don't know if I'm any different than anybody anywhere else. So the state of fashion? Do people buy anything anymore? Do people go to stores anymore? Do shows mean anything more than just a showing of clothes? I just don't know." - Marc Jacobs

"On the whole, I'd say American fashion is facing an identity crisis. A lot of those cute young designers we all fluffed up for the past decade or so are starting to look a little tired or disillusioned, and the ones who have held on from previous generations hardly seem like they're having all that much fun, either. The old notion of American style being about optimistic, practical sportswear seems sadly antiquated, and replaced by what? Marketing drops and disruption?" - Eric Wilson, fashion news director, InStyle Magazine

"Being a part of the industry here has taught us how to clarify and convey the messages we want to send as a brand, and as a result, we have a very clear vision. The feeling of independence and freedom in America also has enabled us to continue expanding the ways we work as creatives whether it be in filmmaking, writing or other areas of design and business. It has provided us a platform to be bold and to be fearless.

"However, with Rodarte we have also been heavily criticized as falling too far outside of the typical ready-to-wear context and not being commercial enough, which we feel is unfair. Fashion is a delicate balance of art and commerce, and we believe that brands should be celebrated for expressing alternative points of views and for diversifying what American fashion means.

"American fashion is very focused on commerce and we think that narrow focus can be oppressive. Brands that have thrived in Europe like Dries van Noten, or even Yohji [Yamamoto] in Japan, have always been given ample space to be creative. U.S. brands are sometimes strangled by the pressure to perform commercially, and that mold isn't necessarily right for everyone. It's not one size fits all. - Kate and Laura Mulleavy, Rodarte

"The fact that what you hear the most is that people feel that they're in this rat race, this gerbil wheel that we've all built for ourselves. You could characterize American fashion as heavily dominated by brands that are completely faceless and driven by venture capitalists or private equity or whatever, or it's driven by struggling brands that are trying to figure out: 'I'm 22, I just graduated and I've been sold this idea that you, too, can start a line tomorrow.' I'm not in either of those camps. I'm not burdened by the investors checking in on me, and I hate that these 21-years-olds are sold this bill of goods that they should open a collection tomorrow. I'm a big believer in going out and getting lots of life experience and applying that to opening a business." - Amy Smilovic, Tibi

"American fashion brands are forward-thinking and open to change. We feel this is crucial to success in today's world. There is an inherent sense of inclusivity in American fashion, and to us, that is one of the most important things for a brand." - Kris and Laura Brock, Brock Collection

"We're not just competing with our peers, we're competing with everybody. Even a brand like Everlane is becoming competition. MM.LaFleur, for example, is seeing a lot of momentum. The consumer is choosing not just by price point or by designer brands anymore, she's choosing from everything. The other aspect of it is that American designers are simply not trending in Europe right now. We simply cannot compete with the massive resources that the European houses have. We can't afford the marketing dollars or the fancy trips, the extravagant sets or the celebrities. Some of the celebrities are on exclusive with the big brands, you know? So that's been challenging. The other fact is that most of us buy our fabric from Italy and France, so by the time we sell our goods there, we've incurred double duty. We are more expensive than the luxury brands in their homelands. And from a customer point of view, they simply do not see the value. Not to ignore the fact that our taxation for imports is changing every week right now and it's kind of making us very nervous." - Jason Wu

"The whole industry is currently going through a change and is searching for what is relevant. Digital has transformed everything, from publishing to retail to communication, creating an immediate and direct link that has never been more far-reaching. The question becomes, how to best use this direct access? What is the most we can make of it?....What is most constructive is to accept that this is an introspective time and to be tolerant and patient with the needed experimentation." - Julie Mannion, co-chairman, KCD

"I think that Americans are underrating their own fashion - in all senses. The history of American fashion and the tremendous world power of American style is no longer recognized by Americans themselves. They tried to become global players. They tried to combat European houses but at the same time we are losing what is quintessentially American....Nobody is proud enough of what you can call the Dapper Dan movement. The fact that Vogue-ing, hip-hop and rap now are at the steering wheels of luxury brands, activewear brands and so on - that's amazing. What [Dapper Dan[] predicted with his clothes is now happening. It is a super sort of power takeover, which is very significant. Also, because it's black. That is right now so important...when I walk in the streets of any city in the world, and I really analyze how people are dressed, the masses, you could say it's so American - T-shirts, hoodies, shorts, jeans, checkered, it's all there. Sometimes very well done, sometimes very shabby. So the inference is there but it doesn't translate to a higher goal, a better memory, or rewriting of history." - Li Edelkoort

"As an industry we are great at supporting, cultivating and launching new and young designers. Even though we excel at mentoring young talent, we also tend to push them into doing things that may not be the right fit for them at the moment. Such as producing very expensive fashion shows or trying to show their collections around the world right at the start. We need to create a platform that is more sustainable for up-and-coming talent." - Daniella Vitale, chief executive officer, Barneys New York

"What is very fun about New York is there are so many different kinds of people coming from all over the world. For example, a Korean seamstress may have a very delicate hand because there is something so specific about Korean fashion with its history. Sometimes they take a garment and make it in a completely different way than a European would. Or look at how Japanese people are working. It's more flat - look at the work of Comme des Garçons. It's so fascinating because they approach clothes in a completely different manner. That makes New York very rich. At Herrera, there were 80 people and 29 different nationalities." - Hervé Pierre

"The U.S. is not only a center for design, but a hub for vibrant culture and constant evolution. Rather than avoiding change, American designers are at the forefront of embracing and pioneering new technology. You see this through Instagram and other digital platforms that allow us to directly and openly talk to our customers. It's important to have a global vision as technology has allowed our audience to be hyper-connected across borders." - Cynthia Rowley

"American fashion still has a sensibility that resonates on the sales floor and translates to higher margins and profitability, [but] falls short when it tries to emulate European fashion....[Our[ strength will always be denim. It's our legacy. Denim and contemporary really best reflect the laid-back approach of the US, especially California. Ath-leisure is a perfect example of that. Veronica Beard is really nailing it in terms of what a woman wants-great fit, great quality, not too fussy. Mother Denim just keeps getting better. In the designer world, Monse, Oscar de la Renta, Altuzarra and Amiri speak directly to our customers' needs, day to night." - Elyse Walker

"American fashion is best in its display of contemporary brands with a very 'on-trend' feel. Right now there is also a good effort [made towards] diversity, which is a concept that is less developed in more traditional fashion weeks like Milan or Paris." - Federica Montelli, head of fashion, Rinascente

"American fashion is in a major transformation period and a time of self-questioning, as individual brands but as well as a collective group. In the entire time that I have built my company, it's taken me this long to have the sense of a designer community, which is something that I value a lot and was surprising. It comes at a time when people are self-reflective personally and professionally. But I've had more dialogue with my contemporaries than I've ever had in 17 years." - Zac Posen

"It seems as if there's a new designer brand every day. Social media is making it possible to become an overnight sensation. However, there seems to be way more designers than there are shops to carry them [and] it's a very difficult economy, so there will be a lot of attrition." - Nanette Lepore

"We're a little bit in shambles right now. I think people are moving fashion at a very fast pace...Everybody's got their own point of view. Where is the designer has a specific look, a consistent point of view of who that person is?...Is Calvin Calvin anymore? It's difficult for me to say. Is Ralph Ralph? Absolutely. Is Marc Marc? Yes. Marc is an artist. Marc has always been an artist. What is Marc? He's about coming up with something that's a wow. You know? He is a fashion artist. But what's happening right now, you take T-shirts, put a label on it and sell it for god only knows what price. When my grandson is the one who's buying fashion? He's 13 years old and he tells me every single label. If that's my market, I'm in trouble." - Donna Karan

"There are always benefits of being a US-based creative because you'll be surrounded by creatives and businesses from all over the world. America is definitely going through a lot of social and political changes right now, but change has always been a constant for Americans." - Arby Li, editor in chief, Hypebeast

"The strengths of American fashion coincide with Bloomingdale's signature business, which is contemporary fashion. Along with denim and casual at our contemporary core, the American industry has also created some great new fashion collections within the category." - Frank Doroff, vice chairman, Bloomingdale's

"Parlour X only buys Proenza Schouler and Calvin Klein from the U.S. I think they are the two best collections that fit into our offering. Calvin Klein is certainly at the forefront of desirability right now with Raf Simons at the creative helm. It's positioned amongst the coolest, latest 'it' brands seen and worn by global street style stars who are setting the benchmarks for what is cool and coveted. We would gladly buy more brands from the U.S. if they fit in with our portfolio, but I don't think there are any others of great interest right now." - Eva Galambos, director and buyer, Parlour X, Australia

"The world has become a very small place. Brands from all over the world - Australia, Sweden, the U.K. - have become staples in everyone's closets, and more than likely, the customer has no idea where the brand is designed or manufactured. Because of this, traditional American brands, with the exception of Levi's and Ralph Lauren, need to think and create on a global plain and tell their story in a way that crosses all borders." - Jane Siskin, Cinq à Sept

"The creativity is still superstrong in America in general. In the past three years, we've dedicated two of our exhibitions to the States: one on Brookyln and the [current one], focused on Los Angeles. Each time it's a complete overview of the city, including, of course, fashion." - Jennifer Cuvillier, style director, Le Bon Marché

"American fashion is a strong part of the overall fashion world and considered 'cool.' It represents the American way of life [to] the European customer. Big names such as Polo Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein, Seven (just to name a few), have created a striking visibility for American fashion all over the world. The strengths are the coolness, but [also] the authenticity and product knowledge, especially when it comes to denim." - Torsten Stiewe, head of fashion buying, The KaDaWe Group, Berlin

"Very few people are actually doing a serious collection. I don't mean to put anybody down, I just mean [doing something] very devoted to the standards and mantras that were collection - incredible workmanship, a full range of different categories, outerwear, eveningwear, daywear, knitwear. In Europe, a lot people continue to do [that], whether it's Gucci or Givenchy or Balenciaga. There are far [fewer] people doing that now in America.

"Now, [there's] street - youth, ath-leisure, athletic industrial kind of design, T-shirts and sweatshirts, that kind of look. At the same time, there's the category of pure contemporary, which pretty much ticks all the boxes of merchandising. So you have the summer floral dresses that are cold-shoulder, the tunics, the mini dresses and bright colors for clubbing, jeans galore, crop pants and wide pants, the big ruffled sleeves. That's not what Collection has been about, that I remember anyway.

Right now, you have the industrial, which I happen to like a lot, the silo of industrial unisex, police-type gear - neon, fluorescent, very Balenciaga-influenced but also riot gear, police, fireman. And also, techno sports - the Adidas, Knicks kind of thing.

And then you have 'collection,' which in most cases now looks relegated to eveningwear. In the old days, it meant [a full wardrobe. Still, there are certain people who try to maintain that [with] the expense and the excruciating journey that it is - the fabric development, the fittings. Collection has almost become the new couture, and I just don't think that's America. It's probably true in Europe as well, but it's very obvious here." - Vera Wang

"This is an exceptionally important time to be a U.S.-based designer, with the growth of streetwear celebrating how the young/digital generation are finding ways to build new ideas of luxury. The U.S. is very much in a state of self-actualization and revolution. There is a real generational change happening [as people are] looking to push through the status quo and explore new territories. U.S. designers/brands are working to encourage and reflect these beliefs on a global scale." - Mike Amiri

"There continues to be an excitement around American fashion. I am constantly looking for new and emerging brands. Last season we picked up Eckhaus Latta by design duo Mike Eckhaus and Zoe Latta, who explore a casual edit that veers toward the abstract while remaining wearable. We instantly collaborated with them as part of The Innovators and produced an exclusive capsule collection of items crafted entirely from deadstock material. It's wonderful to find such emerging talent." - Natalie Kingham, fashion and buying director at Matchesfashion.com

"American fashion is in a state of change at the moment. It's no secret that after the last few years the calendars and schedules have been changing and rotating. This is essentially a reflection of the state of the world today. Fashion is smaller. Technology has made fashion more accessible through social media to anyone anywhere in the world." - Roopal Patel, fashion director, Saks Fifth Avenue

"America is a country of capitalism, consumerism and innovation. This is an exciting moment for brands. We have this amazing ability to reach customers and to be our own media vehicles via social media and social commerce and e-commerce. We have a strong voice and ability to express creativity in dynamic ways. Weakness comes when you resist change, operationally and creatively. Businesses need to rethink seasons, rethink deliveries, and we need to focus more on [fewer] sku's and better product. As an industry, we need to transform Fashion Week to be geared directly to the consumer so that is generates business versus buzz." - Stacey Bendet, Alice & Olivia

"The American spirit is entrepreneurial and eternally optimistic - that's at the core of what we do as American innovators - but American fashion is in transition. Our DNA is rooted in the American sportswear tradition and bolstered by lifestyle - a concept created by American designers. For us, making beautiful things at accessible price points is what we do best. We should be proud of the creative, accessible fashion we create. Fashion has to be about honesty and authenticity." - Tory Burch

"As an American retailer known around the world, Saks supports and believes in American fashion and the exciting talent produced from NYFW. The American fashion community nurtures a wide range of talent - we look forward to seeing what this September brings." - Tracy Margolies, chief merchant, Saks Fifth Avenue

"We are enthusiastic about American fashion! American brands are smart about getting out there and sincerely wanting to get to know their customers. They understand American consumerism and know how to talk about their collections in a relatable way. They know that making a connection with customers and cultivating them is important. We are particularly supportive of American designers who are listening to customers and addressing the desire for having a broad range of sizes. Brandon Maxwell, Oscar de la Renta and Carolina Herrera have made a point to focus on this, and we are making progress with many other designers." - Tricia Smith, executive vice president and general merchandise manager, women's apparel, Nordstrom

"There is a social consciousness in American fashion today that is powerful. Designers and brands aren't afraid to talk about diversity, politics, the environment. And to engage with the customer more than ever through direct and meaningful dialogue, with more transparency and more commitment from their favorite brands to define their core value system, and American fashion has responded." - Wen Zhou, ceo, 3.1 Phillip Lim

"American sportswear, streetwear is very strong. I think we are playing a big role in sustainability and zero-waste in fashion, building an awareness of conservation. Where sustainability is concerned, we should take the lead. Not that we're going to, but we should." - Yeohlee Teng

"I have not seen any notable change in American fashion for the past few years. In a sense, this is what characterizes American fashion; it doesn't change. Women are always practical...[dressing] in what they like and feel comfortable in. From time to time, I do meet Europeanized fashionistas in the US, but only rarely. It's hard to find women who mix street trends with mode. On the other hand, American women are good at incorporating sports and outdoor wear into daily fashion. High-tech gear is effortlessly added oo daily styles, making this a big difference from Japanese women's fashion." - Yumi Sudo, director, Beams Boy, Tokyo

"Many of us American fashion designers embrace models and muses of all colors, shapes and sizes, genders and ages. For me, New York was always a beacon of my American dream, and now more than ever is a time to advocate for giving minorities a seat at the table. I hope to see this idea echo through our global fashion industry, because working together in solidarity is the best way we can bring change." - Prabal Gurung

"We see that our customer is more educated on issues that impact the industry: There is strength now in questioning the story behind the clothes. The challenge or weakness is with so much information out there, how do we hold her attention? We work to offer compelling stories around the people and practices behind our brand and products." - Eileen Fisher

"[American fashion] can sprout a small fashion creation into a big, global-scale business....American brands are easy to understand." - Kentaro Shishido, general manager, women's merchandising, Isetan Shinjuku

"I think we are all searching for ways to support young American talent and looking for a way to create a system that helps inspire creativity amidst increasing pressure to produce. And in a global economy where social media has blurred all boundaries I think we are wondering what makes something distinctly American, or if in fact, that question is even relevant anymore." - Stellene Volandes, editor in chief, Town & Country

"Our garments tend to be more commercially viable and we care greatly about what the consumer wants to wear. American designers created and endorsed the streetwear phenomenon and put the collaborations of art, music, fashion and subcultures into all industry conversations." - Jonathan Simkhai

"I feel our industry is in an extreme state of flux that offers myriad opportunities to change the status quo and reinvent. I find it amazing that an industry as creative as ours has allowed itself to become so stagnant and so entrenched in old, outdated ways of doing business." - Tracy Reese

"I believe fashion worldwide is in a state of evolution dealing with the realities of a more digitally focused business and a changing consumer. I see American fashion in general as having an edge in many ways because of the wider distribution opportunities in the U.S. market." - Josie Natori

"American fashion tends to reflect a distinctly American ease, simplicity and even accessibility. But moreover it taps into and expresses cultural values [of] American life. It is not about a set of rules or standards, but rather a reflection about what we value, how we see the world and how we live. It is dynamic and relevant, because it draws so heavily on a diverse set of cultural influences - class, race, gender identity, history, music, art, film, sport and technology. It doesn't follow rules. Much like the American version of the English language, it is alive, changing, evolving with the speed of culture and currency. It is usage-based, not rules-based. I love that." - Paul Gaudio, global senior vice president of creative direction and future, Adidas

"American fashion is having a moment. Having Raf Simons at the helm of Calvin Klein is one of the most exciting things about New York fashion right now. Then you have your core big businesses like Michael Kors, which have always been really prominent in the market. What we love is seeing the success of young designers like Jason Wu, Proenza Schouler and Gabriela Hearst. We are also excited about the new contemporary lines coming out of New York, such as Staud, Les Rêveries and Sies Marjan. This cool, new, young talent is really coming to the forefront and at Net-a-Porter we are able to really give them a platform to shine. Les Rêveries in particular has just launched as a brand and we are stocking their first ever collection exclusively." - Elizabeth von der Goltz, global buying director, Net-a-Porter

"There is a certain ease with American fashion; it's not always statement making but rather more runway to street. We're seeing brands challenge the stereotypes behind American sportswear, but the styles are still wearable and straight forward, and they know exactly what the consumer wants. In Paris and London, as a contrast, there tend to be more unconventional emerging designers, and we see mainstream designers always challenging the trends and making new statements with what they send down the runway." - Tiffany Hsu, fashion buying director, Mytheresa.com

"Prior to the Nineties, America's iconic talents - Calvin, Ralph, Donna - followed a similar path. They came of age on Seventh Avenue, eventually coming out from behind the curtain to form their own labels that grew into empires. Designers were strongly endorsed by powerful magazine editors and a robust department store community, which had enormous influence over American consumers....Today, with the rise of social media and the diminished role of traditional magazines and retailers in influencing customers, fashion customers are finding the brands on their own terms. This has moved beyond the traditional Seventh Avenue model. Virgil Abloh, James Jebbia and Mike Amiri are among the disruptors. I thought that it was great that the CFDA started to recognize talent beyond those in the traditional Seventh Avenue archetype this year." - Josh Schulman, president and ceo, Coach

"Fashion, like every other industry, is in the process of being 'disrupted' by Millennials and Gen Z. They don't have any allegiance to anything legacy (media, retail, brand names). That's dangerous for big, well-established brands, but possibly exciting for new ones. So what even is American fashion right now? I think we're watching the industry figure that out. It needs more diversity. More size-inclusivity." - Stella Bugbee, president and editor in chief, The Cut

"Something that's very peculiar to me: If you look at the American designers who were around in the late Nineties, whether it's Isaac [Mizrahi] or Todd Oldham or Daryl Kerrigan or Alice Roy, none of them were sustainable. There is this also weird question of - and I think it's true across the industry though, not just in New York - like, where is the next generation of really solid creative talent, the kind of creative talent that moves the needle?" - Cathy Horyn, critic at large, The Cut at New York Magazine

"I would love to see larger scale companies engage with the next generation of talent in America, Telfar, Eckhaus Latta, Matthew Adams Dolan, Rodarte, etc. Big American brands do not take enough risks for fear of upsetting the apple cart; meanwhile they are losing the plot." - Brian Phillips, founder, Black Frame

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What Is the Current State of American Fashion?

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"I don't know anything about American fashion! I don't even think about American fashion. Everything for me is global. I sit around thinking how are we going to improve our sales in Asia and what are we going to do about Europe and why is the market dipping in this city or that city.

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Synopsis

Calvin Klein was born on November 19, 1942, in the Bronx, New York. He studied fashion in New York City and apprenticed for a suit manufacturer. In 1968, he and Barry Schwartz opened their own company, with Schwartz running the business side of things and Klein responsible for design and artistic vision. The label was initially recognized for suits and coats, but Klein's sportswear line became popular as well. He received three Coty Awards for womenswear and the business eventually expanded to include menswear, jeans, cosmetics, fragrances and home collections. Having sold the company in 2003, Klein has also been the force behind model/celebrity-oriented ads that have become iconic parts of pop culture while simultaneously provoking much controversy and debate due to their provocative nature.

Background

Calvin Richard Klein was born on November 19, 1942, in the Bronx, New York, the middle child of two siblings. His father, originally from Hungary, owned a family grocery store in Harlem while his mother was a homemaker who took great delight in visiting her divorced mother's tailoring shop, helping to give shape to Klein's love of clothes and design. A driven youth, he started working on fashion sketches before his adolescence and eventually attended the High School of Industrial Arts and the Art Students League. He went on to graduate from the Fashion Institute of Technology in 1963.

Iconic Brand

Klein worked in various industry jobs before starting his own label. In 1968, he and his childhood friend Barry Schwartz became business partners when Schwartz took over his own family grocery business and gave Klein $10,000 to start the label. Renting a small showroom, Klein was eventually able to secure a deal with the department store Bonwit Teller after a chance encounter with one of its buyers. With the exposure provided by Teller and consumer demand, Klein was able to secure millions in sales by the early '70s.

Having initially focused on women's coats and coordinates, Klein eventually branched out into additional lady's apparel that could be mixed and matched, cultivating a minimalist, streamlined look that relied on sublime tailoring and fabric choices. Later in the decade he branched into menswear and jeans, eventually becoming a major player in a denim market dominated then by the likes of Gloria Vanderbilt, Jordache and Sasson. He hired fashion luminaries to help shape his vision, with some crediting former Vogue editor Francis Stein as being the force behind articulating the sensuality that Klein would become known for. By the 1980s, Klein's brand was also known for underwear and luxurious perfumes and colognes with corresponding ad campaigns. In the following decade, the label branched out further into home apparel.

The company faced major financial difficulty in the '90s and was saved by a financial bailout from friend David Geffen. Calvin Klein Inc. later filed a suit in 2000 against its licensee Warnaco Group for breaching contractual agreements and trademark law. (The case was settled out of court.) Having established an array of licensing agreements over the course of their career, Klein and Schwartz sold their company in 2003 to Phillips-Van Heusen Corporation for $430 million in cash and stock along with a limited royalty deal. As of 2016, Raf Simons has been appointed chief creative officer for Calvin Klein the brand, serving as the unified head of its divisions.

Provocative, Controversial Ads

Klein has generated mountains of publicity for the ad campaigns surrounding his brand due to their sexually provocative nature, especially with campaigns clearly marketed towards young people. One of the most talked about ads of all time was his commercial featuring a teenage Brooke Shields stating, "Do you know what comes between me and my Calvins? Nothing." That clip, along with another ad, was eventually banned by TV stations. Klein faced more outcry in 1995 when his CK Jeans label produced images featuring young models that to many evoked amateur pornography. The ads were pulled and both President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton spoke out against the images, with a U.S. Justice Department investigation launched to determine the age of the models. (In 2013 Klein stated that in retrospect, he probably went too far with the campaign.)

Along with the controversy and distaste, Klein has promoted ads that some agree evoke serene, classical sensuality with an adoration of the body. Model Kate Moss became a mainstay muse in a series of ads for Klein, though facing controversy for her thinness at the time and the eroticism of the photos, while Christy Turlington was used for the Eternity fragrance campaign, meant to symbolize stability and family, among other ads that showcased a sense of grace. Klein is also credited with bringing male beefcake into the contemporary mainstream as seen with his underwear campaigns featuring then rapper/actor Mark Wahlberg.

Over time an array of models, actors, athletes and performing artists have been featured in Calvin Klein campaigns, including Tom Hintnaus (the first Klein male underwear model), Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes, Antonio Sabato Jr., Zoe Saldana, Djimon Hounsou, Mehcad Brooks, Justin Bieber, Kendall Jenner, Travis Fimmel, Natalia Vodianova, Carolyn Murphy, Eva Mendes and FKA Twigs. The designer has also worked with a number of luminous photographers that include Richard Avedon, Irving Penn, Steven Klein, Herb Ritts, Mario Testino and Bruce Weber.

Personal Life

Though generally private, Klein has openly spoken about having intimate relationships with both women and men, declining to assign any specific labels to his sexual identity in interviews. However, he admits that the inspiration for much of his ad campaigns comes from what's happening in his personal life. He was married for 10 years to Jayne Centre, with the couple having a daughter, Marci. He later wed Kelly Rector in 1986, with the couple divorcing in 2006 on amicable terms after years of living separately.

A former avid night-lifer and denizen of the famed Studio 54, Klein has also struggled with drug and alcohol abuse, having checked himself into a rehab center in Minnesota in 1988. He later struggled with substance abuse again around the time of his company sale and was able to successfully complete rehab in Arizona.

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Calvin Klein was born on November 19, 1942, in the Bronx, New York. He studied fashion in New York City and apprenticed for a suit manufacturer. In 1968, he and Barry Schwartz opened their own company, with Schwartz running the business side of things and Klein responsible for design and artistic vision.

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About Calvin Klein, Inc.

Best known for its underwear, global fashion brand Calvin Klein also makes men's and women's sportswear (casual apparel), outerwear, fragrance, accessories, footwear, men's formalwear, women's dresses, suits and handbags, and items for the home. Its five brands are CK Calvin Klein, Calvin Klein, Calvin Klein Jeans, Calvin Klein Underwear, and Calvin Klein Performance. As well as making its own products, Calvin Klein does a roaring trading licensing its name to around 50 third-party producers of fragrance, women's apparel, footwear, eyewear, watches, and jewelry. Calvin Klein reaches customers across the globe through e-commerce and wholesale channels and via owned and licensed stores. The company was founded in 1968 by Barry Schwartz and designer Calvin Klein and is now owned by PVH.
Financial Performance

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Calvin Klein, Inc. | Company Profile | Vault.com

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Best known for its underwear, global fashion brand Calvin Klein also makes men's and women's sportswear (casual apparel), outerwear, fragrance, accessories, footwear, men's formalwear, women's dresses, suits and handbags, and items for the home. Its five brands are CK Calvin Klein, Calvin Klein, Calvin Klein Jeans, Calvin Klein Underwear, and Calvin Klein Performance.

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Tommy Hilfiger. Biography, news, photos and videos

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All about Tommy Hilfiger. Biography, news, photos and videos

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Founded in 1985, Tommy Hilfiger delivers premium styling, quality and value to consumers worldwide under the TOMMY HILFIGER and TOMMY JEANS brands, with a breadth of collections including HILFIGER COLLECTION, TOMMY HILFIGER TAILORED, men's, women's and kids' sportswear, denim, accessories, and footwear. In addition, the brand is licensed for a range of products, including fragrances, eyewear, watches and home furnishings. Founder Tommy Hilfiger remains the company's Principal Designer and provides leadership and direction for the design process.

Tommy Hilfiger, which was acquired by PVH Corp. in 2010, is a global apparel and retail company with more than 15,000 associates worldwide. With the support of strong global consumer recognition, Tommy Hilfiger has built an extensive distribution network in over 100 countries and more than 2,000 retail stores throughout North America, Europe, Latin America and the Asia Pacific region. Global retail sales of the TOMMY HILFIGER brand were US $8.5 billion in 2018.

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Founded in 1985, Tommy Hilfiger delivers premium styling, quality and value to consumers worldwide under the TOMMY HILFIGER and TOMMY JEANS brands, with a breadth of collections including HILFIGER COLLECTION, TOMMY HILFIGER TAILORED, men's, women's and kids' sportswear, denim, accessories, and footwear.

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Quick Facts

Name

Tom Ford

Occupation

Filmmaker

Birth Date

August 27, 1961 (age 58)

Education

Santa Fe Preparatory School, New York University, St. Michael's High School, Santa Fe, Bard College

Place of Birth

Austin, Texas

Full Name

Thomas Carlyle Ford

Zodiac Sign

Virgo

Tom Ford is a fashion designer and film director who was the Creative Director of Gucci from 1994-2004. He founded his own Tom Ford fashion label in 2004.

Synopsis

Tom Ford was born on August 27, 1961, in Austin, Texas. While studying architecture at the Paris campus of the Parsons School of Design, Ford decided to switch to fashion. He became Womenswear Designer for Gucci in 1990 and Creative Director in 1994. Under Ford's direction, Gucci's annual sales grew to $3 billion. Since resigning from Gucci in 2005, Ford has launched his own fashion brand and he also directed Colin Firth in the film The Single Man.

Early Life

Fashion designer Thomas Carlyle Ford was born on August 27, 1961, in Austin, Texas. His parents, Tom Ford, Sr. and Shirley Bunton, both worked as real estate agents, and Ford spent much of his childhood at his grandparents' ranch in the dusty town of Brownwood, Texas. His favorite childhood pastimes included lying out by his grandparents' pool and visiting Ralph the Swimming Pig-a popular tourist attraction in nearby Aquarena Springs. Ford also took an early interest in art and painting. "I was always very visual, always interested in design," he recalls. "I don't mean that I sat around at age 5 sketching clothes. But if my parents went out to dinner and left me alone, I would rearrange all the living room furniture before they came back home." Ford says that his parents "encouraged me to do anything. If I wanted art lessons, they found paint and a teacher."

Ford had two early role models in fashion: his mother and grandmother. "My mother was very chic, very classic," he recalls. "My paternal grandmother was very stylish in a very Texas way-everything big and flashy, from jewelry to car." Ford would later combine those two styles as he reinvented Gucci's image in the mid-1990s. "The images of beauty you get in your childhood stick with you for life," Ford later explained. "So there's a certain flashiness at Gucci-Texas-inspired-with a certain Western feel."

Design Education

Ford's family moved to Santa Fe, New Mexico, where Ford attended high school at the prestigious Santa Fe Preparatory School. He graduated at age 17, and then enrolled at New York University in 1979 as an art history major. While at NYU, Ford became a regular at the infamous Studio 54 nightclub, and his studies suffered. In 1980, after just one year at NYU, Ford dropped out and moved to Los Angeles, where he made a living acting in television commercials. A few years later, he moved back to New York and enrolled in the Parsons School of Design, studying architecture. Ford then transferred to Parsons' Paris campus, and it was while completing his final year of architecture study there that he suddenly decided to switch to fashion. He recalls, "I just woke up one morning and thought, 'What am I doing?' Architecture was just way too ... serious. I mean, every architectural project I ever did, I worked a dress into it somehow. So I realized that fashion was the right balance between art and commerce, and that was it."

In 1985, after graduating from Parsons, Ford sought to land a job with prominent sportswear designer Cathy Hardwick. Ford called Hardwick's office every day for a month straight. Hoping to finally get rid of this annoying caller, Hardwick herself finally answered the phone and asked Ford how soon he could take a meeting. Just under two minutes later, Ford arrived in her office. (He had been calling from the lobby.) Hardwick recalls their memorable first meeting: "I had every intention of giving him no hope. I asked him who his favorite European designers were. He said, 'Armani and Chanel.' Months later I asked him why he said that, and he said, 'Because you were wearing something Armani.'"

Gucci Prodigy

Hardwick offered Ford a job, and after two years as Hardwick's design assistant, Ford landed a job designing jeans for Perry Ellis on New York's Seventh Avenue. Then in 1990, Ford moved to Milan to assume the role of Womenswear Designer for Gucci. At the time, the exalted leather company was hampered by management infighting and a struggle to keep up with market trends. Ford instantly breathed new life into Gucci. He ascended quickly through the company's ranks, rising to Design Director in 1992 and to Creative Director in 1994.

Ford completely revamped Gucci's image-replacing the minimalism of the early 1990s with updated retro looks that oozed sex appeal. He expanded the company into a host of new ventures, including men's and women's sportswear, eveningwear and home furnishings. Under Ford's leadership, Gucci acquired the venerable French brand Yves Saint Laurent, fueling remarkable growth in the company's sales. Over the course of the decade, Ford served as Gucci's driving force (1994-2004), and the company's annual sales increased from $230 million to $3 billion.

After French multinational Pinault Printemps Redoute bought Gucci in 2004, Ford resigned from the company. In 2005, he founded his own fashion company, Tom Ford Brand, which offers menswear, eyewear and beauty products. Ford created significant buzz for his new company when he posed on the cover of a 2006 issue of Vanity Fair wearing Tom Ford Brand menswear, sandwiched between Keira Knightley and Scarlett Johansson, both of whom posed nude.

Film and Personal Life

In 2009, Ford made a foray into the film industry with his debut film, A Single Man, starring Colin Firth and Julianne Moore. Ford co-wrote and directed the film, based on the novel by Christopher Isherwood. A Single Man won wide critical acclaim, garnering Firth an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor and Ford an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best First Screenplay.

In 2016 Ford wrote, co-produced, and directed Nocturnal Animals, a psychological thriller based on a 1993 novel by Austin Wright. The film stars Amy Adams and Jake Gyllenhaal and garnered Ford a Golden Globe nomination for Best Director.

One of the most decorated designers of his generation, Ford has won numerous fashion awards for his work with Gucci and his own Tom Ford Brand. He has won five Council of Fashion Designers of America awards, four VH1/Vogue Fashion Awards and was named 2001's GQ designer of the year.

Although he is quite settled through his marriage to fashion journalist Richard Buckley, has a son Jack, and is perched atop a self-branded fashion empire, Ford continues to express his brand through youthful, sexually provocative campaigns. And he says he is untroubled by the seeming incongruity between his personal life and his public image. "I guess I'm hyper-self-conscious about people thinking that I'm egotistical," he says, "but there's a difference between being egotistical and knowing your value as a product and an actor. I know my value as a product, and I've divorced myself as a human from myself as a product."

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!

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Name Tom Ford Occupation Filmmaker Birth Date August 27, 1961 (age 58) Education Santa Fe Preparatory School, New York University, St. Michael's High School, Santa Fe, Bard College Place of Birth Austin, Texas Full Name Thomas Carlyle Ford Zodiac Sign Virgo Tom Ford is a fashion designer and film director who was the Creative Director of Gucci from 1994-2004.

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Tom Ford Wants to Change the Way We Shop

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Jeremy Scott is a American fashion designer born in Kansas, Missouri. Scott studied at Brooklyn's Pratt Institute and began his career in 1990s showcasing his work in the Paris Fashion Week. He is famous for creating comical and outrageous designs like one-legged pants. In order to establish his image and name, Scott did several shows in France before returning to the United States. In the Most Important People in Fashion list of Face's issue, Jeremy was ranked at thirty-one higher than Stella McCartney and Alexander McQueen.

Vogue magazine called his spring prêt-a-porter collection in the runway show of 2000, a humorous reply to all the critics who accused him of producing bizarre clothes that no one would like to wear. This shows that the designer knows how to pull himself up and not give up.

His unusual and out-of-the-box collections have been flaunted by celebrities, such as Kanye West, Björk, Lindsay Lohan, Cameron Diaz, Robyn, Paris Hilton, Madonna, Cory Kennedy, Kylie Minogue, Yelle, Lady Gaga, Hayley Williams, Gwen Stefani, Wonder Girls, ASAP Rocky, Beth Ditto, Justin Timberlake, Nickie Minaj, Fergie, Tori Amos, Santogold and Christina Aguilera among others.

In 2008, Scott collaborated with Adidas to launch an apparel and footwear collection that became popular among hip hop personalities. Prior to this, their first collaboration happened in 2002 for a project in which Scott made a jacquard in silk with an image of scattered money. Only hundred pairs were made of the design and distributed equally among Adidas and Jeremy Scott.

During the course of his career, he faced some accusations as well. In 2012, it was decided by Adidas to stop the distribution and selling of the JS Roundhouse Mids by Scott when the sneakers were criticized for resembling shackles and citing slavery. Scott denied any such links of his design to slavery and told the media that the shoes were inspired by My Pet Monster, a kid's toy. The designer stated in an interview that his work is sometimes misunderstood and he is okay with it since art is always open to interpretation. It is against his ideology to restrict any viewer to express his/her emotions, feelings and thoughts regarding his work. Another controversial story about Jeremy Scott took place in 2013 when was accused of copying the designs from Santa Cruz Skateboards and this incident led Scott to cease the collection's production.

In 1997, his formal catwalk presentation took place for the first time in Paris. It was called Rich White Women. The show displayed asymmetrical trouser cuts and malfunctioned t-shirts. However, the next year's show, Contrapied, pushed all the boundaries. It received a mixture of bemusement, derision and incredulity. Despite all this, Scott has received international recognition and he won the Venus de la Mode Award in 1996 and 1997 for being the Year's Best Designer. Two years later, he was acknowledged by the Council of Fashion designers of America and was selected for the Best Young Designer. He appeared in Wheel of Fortune as a contestant in 2002 and dressed Vanna White, its hostess.

Before moving his residence to Beverly Hills, Scott lived on a farm in the outskirts of Kansas. One of his collections, S/S 2012 for men reflected his inspiration from these two worlds - from where he started and where he ended up.

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Jeremy Scott | Fashion Designer Biography

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Jeremy Scott is a American fashion designer born in Kansas, Missouri. Scott studied at Brooklyn's Pratt Institute and began his career in 1990s showcasing his work in the Paris Fashion Week. He is famous for creating comical and outrageous designs like one-legged pants.

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Jeremy Scott is an American fashion designer. He is the creative director of the fashion house Moschino and the sole owner of his namesake label.[1] Since launching his brand in Paris in 1997, Scott has built a reputation as "pop culture's most irreverent designer",[2] and "fashion's last rebel".[1]

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Ralph Lauren | Biography, Fashion, Polo Shirts, Logo, & Facts

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Ralph Lauren, American fashion designer who, by developing his brand around the image of an elite American lifestyle, built one of the world’s most successful fashion empires. His creations were characterized by a moneyed style that evoked the look of English aristocracy as adapted by the sporty American East Coast.

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Quick Facts

"I don't think, 'Gee, I'd like to dress this person.' There was a picture in Us magazine. It was a jersey dress, and Courtney Love was wearing it. I have this thing about Courtney Love, this funny worship."

Name

Marc Jacobs

Birth Date

April 9, 1963 (age 57)

Education

Parsons School of Design

Place of Birth

New York, New York

Zodiac Sign

Aries

Designer Marc Jacobs is powerhouse in the fashion world fueled by the success of his own eponymous label.

Synopsis

Marc Jacobs was born April 9, 1963 in New York City. Marc's life was completely altered following the death of his father at the age of 7. He would eventually move in with his grandmother and that made all the difference. Marc entered the Parsons School of Design and later landed a position at Perry Ellis. He was creative director for Louis Vuitton from 1997 to 2014. Jacobs started his own labels, Marc Jacobs and Marc by Marc Jacobs, and he continues to be a powerhouse in the fashion world.

Early Life

Fashion Designer. Born April 9, 1963, in New York City. Jacobs' home life was turned upside-down at the age of 7, when his father died from ulcerative colitis-a condition that Marc also suffered from. According to Jacobs, his mother responded poorly to his father's death, embarking on a life of power dating and failed marriages that caused serious upheaval in the family. With each remarriage, Jacobs and his siblings would be forced to relocate to a new home, bouncing from New Jersey to Long Island and then the Bronx.

Feeling alienated from his mother and siblings, Jacobs moved in with his paternal grandmother on the Upper West Side of Manhattan when he was still a teenager. It was while living with his grandmother that Jacobs truly felt at home; well-traveled and educated, her love of aesthetically beautiful things and her appreciation for Jacobs' creative designs helped the grandmother and grandson forge a close relationship. "I always say I lived my life with my grandmother," Jacobs says. "She was emotionally stable, and she was very encouraging to me." Jacobs' grandmother also allowed Jacobs to enjoy a permissive adolescence full of self-exploration. "No one ever said 'no' to me about anything," he said. "No one ever told me anything was wrong. Never. No one ever said, 'You can't be a fashion designer.' No one ever said, 'You're a boy and you can't take tap-dancing lessons.' No one ever said, 'You're a boy and you can't have long hair.' No one ever said, 'You can't go out at night because you're 15 and 15-year-olds don't go to nightclubs.' No one said it was wrong to be gay or right to be straight."

Fashion Prodigy

Yet, for all his freedoms, Jacobs stayed focused on his dreams of becoming an important designer. By the age of 15, he was attending the High School of Art and Design during the day and, after school, working at the upscale clothing boutique Charivari. The staff of Charivari allowed their young stockboy to design sweaters for the store in between his tasks of folding clothes and dressing mannequins. The work helped Jacobs land a spot at the coveted Parsons School for Design, where he stood out among his classmates by winning both the Perry Ellis Gold Thimble Award and Design Student of the Year at graduation in 1984. Just after graduating, at the age of 21, he designed his first collection for the label Sketchbook for Reuben Thomas. He cited the visually rich films Amadeus and Purple Rain his inspirations for the line. In 1987, he became the youngest designer ever to win the Council of Fashion Designers of America Perry Ellis Award for New Fashion Talent.

Jacobs took over as the women's-wear designer for Perry Ellis, where he won the prestigious 1992 CFDA prize for Womenswear Designer of the Year (an award he would win again in 1997). In 1993, after Perry Ellis shuttered its manufacturing operations-and after Jacobs sent out a "grunge" collection for the label that critics loved but the company hated-Jacobs struck out on his own. With financial backing from his former bosses, he started his own company with longtime business partner Robert Duffy. The Marc Jacobs label soon proved a success.

Struggles and Success

In 1997, Jacobs was named creative director of the Louis Vuitton house of luxury goods in Paris. The job was a professional triumph, but it brought new pressures that threw Jacobs's personal life into a tailspin. He began a period of heavy drug use, with near-nightly binges of cocaine, heroin and alcohol. "It's a cliché," Jacobs later said of his addiction, "but when I drank I was taller, funnier, smarter, cooler." Friends, including model Naomi Campbell and Vogue editor Anna Wintour, persuaded Jacobs to seek help. He checked into rehab in 1999.

After getting clean, Jacobs threw himself back into his work, launching Louis Vuitton's first ready-to-wear line while expanding his own label. His three Marc Jacobs collections-two for adults and one for children-are sold at dozens of Marc Jacobs boutiques worldwide. He has also licensed his name to perfumes and accessories. The Council of Fashion Designers of America named him the Menswear Designer of the Year in 2002, and Accessories Designer of the Year in 1998/99, 2003 and 2005.

In January 2010, Jacobs married boyfriend Lorenzo Martone, a Brazilian PR executive, at a friend's home in St. Barts in the French West Indies. Years after his debut as the "boy wonder" of the fashion world, Jacobs' work continues to turn heads. "For some reason, Marc's show is always the most important place to be seen," one fan said, "the one place where you know all the people who matter will be."

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"I don't think, 'Gee, I'd like to dress this person.' There was a picture in Us magazine. It was a jersey dress, and Courtney Love was wearing it. I have this thing about Courtney Love, this funny worship."

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Why didn't the Pope allow Henry VIII a divorce, and who was Catherine of Aragon's relative who came and held siege?

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Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon were Roman Catholic, and the Church forbade divorce. As time went on without a male heir (they were married for 23 years), He

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20 quirky facts about British food

With dictionary look up - Double click on any word for its definition.
This section is in advanced English and is only intended to be a guide, not to be taken too seriously!

1. Avebury Rings, one of the largest Neolithic monuments in Europe, was saved from possible destruction in the 1930s by Alexander Keiller, when he bought it with part of the fortune he inherited from his family's Scottish marmalade business.

2. Queen Elizabeth I had the kitchen at Hampton Court moved from under her bedroom because she didn't like cooking smells wafting into her clothes and her furniture.

3. The most eaten 'convenience' food in the world was invented by an English aristocrat with a passion for gambling, the Earl of Sandwich. To ensure he didn't have to stop playing and to keep his hands clean for the cards, the Earl of Sandwich asked for meat to be put between two slices of bread.

4. King James I of England and VI of Scotland imported 10,000 Mulberry trees to start a silk industry. Unfortunately, he ordered the wrong variety and the silk worms wouldn't eat the leaves. The mulberry tree 'berries,' however, made excellent jam.

5. Beatrix Potter used the fortune she earned from writing illustrated books to save the Herdwick Sheep from extinction. Today, a descendent of her shepherd sells Herdwick meat at Borough Market in London.

6. The delicious Colchester oysters were one of the main reasons for the Romans invading Britain in 43AD.

7. Royal Ascot isn't just a place to wear a hat, it is also a place to enjoy great food. Last year's, punters enjoyed 120,000 bottles of champagne, six tons of salmon and more than four tons of strawberries.

8. The top prize for strawberry eating goes to the Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Club -- 27 tons of them are eaten (along with more than 1,500 gallons of cream) during the championship.

9. Crowdie, a soft, fresh milk cheese, was made in Scotland for centuries. The first farm to flavor it with garlic only did so after their cows had escaped from their field, wandered into woods and ate wild garlic. The flavor that went into the milk was so good that garlic crowdie quickly became a favorite item.

10. 'Bletted' Medlars were a much loved after dinner treat in Victorian homes in November and December. The fruit was gathered from trees in September, laid in sawdust and kept until the flesh turned dark and soft, as they had to be 'rotten to be ripe.'

11. During the spring, visitors can trace the routes of the Roman Army through the south of England by following the white blossom on tall, wild cherry trees. The soldiers brought cherries from Italy and spat the pips out as they marched.

12. It is not only Stilton cheese that is important to the people of the Heart of England. In 1734, the Mayor of Nottingham was bowled over with a 100 lb. cheese during a riot after stall-holders at an annual street market had increased cheese prices by more than a third.

13. Ice cream was so popular in London in the 19th century that massive 'ice wells' were dug in the city. Ice was imported from America, and later from Norway to fill them.

14. More than 163 million cups of tea are drunk every day in the Britain.

15. Mint sauce became the 'essential' accompaniment to roast lamb in the Britain thanks to Queen Elizabeth I. To stop her subjects eating lamb and mutton (and help the wool industry), she decreed that the meat could only be served with bitter herbs. Enterprising cooks discovered that mint made the meat taste better, not worse.

16. The world's first chocolate bar was made in Bristol in the late 1720s by Joseph Fry. His company was eventually taken over by Cadbury, another British, family owned firm.

17. The world's largest apple was grown in Kent in 1997 weighing 3.68 lbs.

18. Harry Ramsden's Fish and Chip restaurant in West Yorkshire can seat 250, serving nearly one million fish and chip meals a year.

19. Horseradish is the perfect partner for roast beef. To grow a plant you must buy a thong (that was what English gardeners called the sliver of root you need to start growing).

20. One of France's top wine experts, Philipe Faure-Brac, serves English sparkling wine at his Paris bistro. He starts by offering a 'blind' tasting to get over any preconceptions from his predominantly French clientele. Then, as they are complementing the quality he tells them the origins of the wines.

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Food Facts - British Culture, Customs and Traditions

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20 quirky facts about British food With dictionary look up - Double click on any word for its definition. This section is in advanced English and is only intended to be a guide, not to be taken too seriously!

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Quick Facts

"Now that Valentino has retired, I believe someone must wave the too-tanned flag."

Name

Michael Kors

Occupation

Reality Television Star, Model

Birth Date

August 9, 1959 (age 60)

Education

Fashion Institute of Technology

Place of Birth

New York

Originally

Karl Anderson Jr.

AKA

Karl Anderson

Michael Kors

Full Name

Michael David Kors

Zodiac Sign

Leo

Michael Kors is an American fashion designer best known for serving as a judge on the popular television show Project Runway. He's also known for designing Michelle Obama's dress for her first official portrait.

Synopsis

Michael Kors was born on August 9, 1959, on Long Island, New York. He moved to New York City to attend the Fashion Institute of Technology, but dropped out after two semesters. Kors launched his women's collection in 1981 and became a judge on Project Runway in 2004. First Lady Michelle Obama posed in a Michael Kors dress for her first official portrait. Kors lives in New York City.

Early Life

Born Karl Anderson Jr. on Long Island, New York, on August 9, 1959, famed fashion designer Michael David Kors was raised on New York's Long Island. As a toddler, Kors worked as a model, appearing in national campaigns for products such as toilet paper and Lucky Charms cereal. Kors's biological parents split when he was quite young, and he got his new name at the age of 5, when his mother married businessman Bill Kors. "My mother said, 'You're getting a new last name, so why don't you pick a new first name?'" Kors recalled. He chose Michael as his first name and his second-favorite, David, as his middle name. His mother also allowed him to design her wedding dress. Kors, already a fashion addict, was thrilled with the prospect. "The marriage didn't last, [but] the pictures are timeless," Kors quipped later.

From their suburban home in Merrick, New York, Kors scavenged every bit of fashion intelligence he could gather. "I practically hyperventilated every month when Vogue arrived, and I loved shopping," he said. Kors moved to New York City in the 1970s to attend the Fashion Institute of Technology. He loved the city more than the school, however, and dropped out after two semesters. In 1978, Kors went to work at the French boutique Lothar's, which allowed him to design and merchandise his first fashion collection. The well-received collection generated enough interest that Kors was able to start his own fashion line. Michael Kors Women's Collection launched in May 1981, and was sold in the high-end department stores Bergdorf Goodman and Saks Fifth Avenue.

Fashion Design Success

Kors's simple, elegantly tailored clothing and his charmingly persuasive sales techniques proved to be a winning combination. Kors traveled across the United States for small fashion shows at private homes, known as "trunk shows." When he was 23, he convinced the formidable fashion editor Anna Wintour-then of New York magazine, now the editor of Vogue -to view his collection. The glitzy Madison Avenue showrooms he'd later have were still a long way off; Kors displayed the collection laid out on his bed in his apartment. From these humble beginnings, he soon picked up celebrity fans like Barbara Walters and earned awards for his designs.

In 1990, however, Kors; company was forced to reorganize under Chapter 11 bankruptcy. After getting back on his feet, Kors launched KORS Michael Kors, a lower-priced line. He also became the creative director of Celine, a French fashion house, in 1997. In the six years he held that position, he continued to expand his own brand, launching menswear, accessory and perfume lines. In 2003, he won the coveted Menswear Designer of the Year award from the Council of Fashion Designers of America, the most prestigious prize in American fashion.

Project Runway

In 2004, Kors was asked to be a judge on a new reality television show called Project Runway. He almost turned it down. "Reality show? Fashion on television?" Kors recalled thinking. "I thought that only fashionista freaks, gays and men wanting to see Heidi Klum in a short dress would watch it." He was wrong. The show premiered on December 1, 2004, and became an immediate hit with fans and critics. Kors's quips and blunt criticisms were fan favorites, and he continued as a judge in subsequent seasons. Viewers of Project Runway often commented on his perennial tan, a source of pride for the beach-loving Kors. "Now that Valentino has retired, I believe someone must wave the too-tanned flag," the designer joked.

In 2012, Kors announced that he would be retiring from Project Runway. By that time, the series had garnered several Emmy Award nominations, among other honors.

Personal Life

Just a few weeks after gay marriage became legal in New York, Kors married his longtime partner Lance La Pere, vice president of Michael Kors Women's Design in August 2011. The pair had first met in 1990 when La Pere was an intern at the company.

Countless celebrities wear his garments, and U.S. first lady Michelle Obama posed in a Michael Kors dress for her first official portrait. With new lines constantly in production and more customers drawn in by his Project Runway appearances, Kors's fashion empire continues to grow.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!

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"Now that Valentino has retired, I believe someone must wave the too-tanned flag." Name Michael Kors Occupation Reality Television Star, Model Birth Date August 9, 1959 (age 60) Education Fashion Institute of Technology Place of Birth New York Originally Karl Anderson Jr.

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This statistic displays the number of restaurants and mobile food service enterprises in the United Kingdom (UK) from 2008 to 2018. After a decline in 2009, the number of restaurants in the UK has been steadily increasing. In 2018 there were 88,846 businesses operating in the restaurant and mobile food service industry in the UK.
The UK Restaurant industry
The restaurant and eating out market in the UK has experienced a period of growth, reflected in the increasing number of businesses operating in the industry. Between 2011 and 2016, net openings of food-led licensed premises were up, while drink-led sites were down, as businesses attempted to tap into the growing trend for dining out over drinking out.

Household spending on eating out in all types of food service venues has also been on the rise, suggesting a demand for new restaurant premises. In 2018 the eating out market in the UK reached 89.5 billion British pounds, an increase on the previous two years.

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This statistic displays the number of restaurants and mobile food service enterprises in the United Kingdom (UK) from 2008 to 2018. After a decline in 2009, the number of restaurants in the UK has been steadily increasing. In 2018 there were 88,846 businesses operating in the restaurant and mobile food service industry in the UK.

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These are the 10 most popular foreign dishes in Britain

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Italian, Mexican and Chinese cuisine make up Britain's favourite "international dishes", a new study suggests. Indeed, six out of 10 adults said that they prefer more-adventurous cuisine to traditional British meals, the survey of 2,000 families revealed.

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People are loyal to their snacks! From chips to cookies to candy, some brands have more power to sway consumers than others-and we know which they are. A recent study from YouGov highlighted the most popular grocery items across the nation. While the study specifically highlighted brands, we selected the most iconic foods produced by each and combined them with results from a recent Trader Joe's consumer survey to bring you this list encompassing all of the most popular items in America's biggest grocery stores.

Frozen foods

"Leggo my Eggo!" Who doesn't remember this iconic tag line for frozen waffles? While Eggo also makes pancakes, French toast, and breakfast sandwiches, the toaster waffles from this company have long been the ideal quick-and-easy breakfast for a weekday morning. It's a popular item in the freezer section, and one of the most popular grocery items at every store.

Stouffer's is a Nestle brand known for frozen American comfort food items like lasagna and meatloaf, but there's no question that its top product is the creamy, cheddar-based mac and cheese. And it's no surprise, seeing as Stouffer's first got its start as a creamery and dairy stand in 1914 in Ohio.

This brand has long framed itself as a competitor whose products are just as delicious as delivery pizza, and for many, the ease of this frozen option makes it a champion of nights when a no-hassle dinner is on the menu.

Frozen pizzas are only the beginning of what the freezer can offer in terms of Italian-adjacent delights. Even more popular than pizza bagels and pizza pockets are pizza rolls: The snack so popular they spawned a series of fake-out commercials on Saturday Night Live.

Ore-Ida has been bringing frozen Oregon and Idaho potatoes to American families for over 60 years. The company's oven fries are easy to cook up for a crowd and manage to get fried potato flavor on the table without the mess and hassle of deep-frying.

Cookies

Milk's favorite cookie is one of the most popular grocery items in the U.S., and while Double Stuf, Golden, and even special holiday versions of this cookie also appear on store shelves, the classic is still going strong. First introduced in 1912, Oreo remains the best-selling cookie in the world.

This punny brand from Nabisco is known for its crunchy chocolate chip cookies, though chewy versions (and versions with flavored or candy-coated chocolate morsels) have also become popular in recent years.

While these cookies require a bit more effort than some of the other brands on this list, they're comparatively super easy to prepare, and freshly baked, gooey, slice-and-bake cookies are an essential component of many childhood memories.

Nestlé Toll House is also better known for its cookie dough than for its cookies. It gets its name-and recipe-from the purported inventor of the chocolate chip cookie: Ruth Wakefield, operator of Massachusetts' Toll House Inn in the 1930s.

It's no surprise that Nabisco-an abbreviation of National Biscuit Company-is well-known for its cookies. While there are tons of individual products to choose from (including both Oreo and Chips Ahoy!), it's hard to argue with the nostalgia factor of bear-shaped Teddy Grahams.

Chips

Lay's may be one of the popular grocery items today, but originally, traveling salesman Herman Lay sold these chips out of the trunk of his car across the American South in the 1930s. Today, the chips are available in a variety of flavors, including Sour Cream & Onion, Hidden Valley Ranch, and Barbecue.

These crunchy corn chips are an essential ingredient in Frito pie, a popular Southern dish comprised of chili, cheese, and corn chips. While the dish is sometimes baked as a casserole, it can also be served directly out of a Fritos bag, as a single-serving treat.

These stackable chips were first invented in the 50s to combat issues with broken and stale chips that stemmed from traditional bags. Sold in cardboard tubes, Pringles are actually only about 40 percent potato; the rest of the chip is made with wheat starch, other flours, and seasonings.

Frito-Lay is the powerhouse brand behind the first two chips on this list, but it's also known for Ruffles, the ridged potato chips that are sturdier and crunchier than their flat cousins and therefore less likely to break - either in the bag or when dipped in sour cream and onion dip.

While this brand is best-known for boldly flavored Nacho Cheese, Flamin', or Cool Ranch varieties, the original Doritos were simple, unflavored toasted corn chips.

Canned goods

Immortalized in the work of Andy Warhol, Campbell's Tomato Soup is the flavor that started it all. Often served alongside a grilled cheese sandwich, this creamy condensed soup is a nostalgic treat.

Progresso has often been framed as an upmarket alternative to Campbell, thanks to its canned soups that are sold ready to eat rather than condensed. Classic chicken noodle soup is a go-to from this brand.

A pantry staple, StarKist's product line has expanded to include StarKist Selects: higher-quality tuna products often packed in flavored extra-virgin oil.

This pasta sauce brand from Campbell's now produces many varieties, including meat sauce and garlic-Parmesan, but the classic tomato-based pasta sauce is certainly the most famous.

Jessica Simpson catapulted this brand to fame on her 2003 MTV reality show when she questioned whether the cans contained chicken or fish. It's the latter, FYI.

This producer of Italian condiments including olive oil and balsamic vinegar is also known for its range of pasta sauces including alfredo, vodka, four-cheese, and more.

Dairy products

These yogurts now come in light, whipped, and even doughnut flavors, but the ultra rich-and-creamy originals, with flavors like strawberry, lemon, and peach, are decadent enough to be dessert in and of themselves.

This Vermont-based company started by two friends has catapulted into an ice cream and sorbet empire. Ben & Jerry's is known for its chunky ice creams with tons of texture, which were developed in part due to co-founder Ben's anosmia, or lack of sense of smell. Flavors often boast clever names and include Cherry Garcia, Phish Food, and Half-Baked, a combination of cookie dough and chocolate fudge brownie.

An essential ingredient in many queso and mac and cheese recipes, Velveeta is a cheese product that is processed to have a soft, smooth texture that won't split or pull when heated.

Pennsylvania-based Breyers may produce a number of different ice cream flavors, but its most famous is classic vanilla. In fact, the company sells four signature vanilla varieties and purports to be the leading seller of vanilla ice cream in the country.

Sargento is the brand for all of your shredded cheese needs. With the catchphrase "Home of Real Cheese People," Sargento alludes to its Wisconsin roots. It's also the first company to have sold packaged shredded cheese in a zippered pouch, for easy reusability.

RELATED: 150+ recipe ideas that get you lean for life.

Cereal

Quaker Oats is famous for good reason. First founded in 1877, the company is now known for its quick-cooking oats and microwaveable flavored oatmeal pouches, not to mention oatmeal-adjacent products like bars and squares.

One of the biggest names in breakfast foods, Kellogg's produces a huge variety of cereals, including All-Bran, Apple Jacks, and Special K. After Frosted Flakes, Kellogg's multicolored Froot Loops are the company's top-selling product, according to IRI, a Chicago-based market research firm.

This cereal brand from General Mills spawned several flavored options, but the plain, oat-based classic remains the most famous (and a top choice for introducing solid foods to young kids).

Known for its longtime mascot Tony the Tiger, who has repped the brand since its inception in 1952, this sugar-frosted cereal is "Gr-r-eat!"

This variation on classic Cheerios used to be made with actual almonds, though as of 2006, it's actually made with natural flavoring from peach and apricot pits. In the face of colony collapse disorder, Honey Nut Cheerios has championed endeavors to save bees around the world.

Condiments

First introduced in 1869, Heinz now uses the slogan "America's Favorite Ketchup"-and for good reason. Heinz ketchup is so emblematic, it holds an over 50 percent market share for ketchup in the U.S.

This butter substitute is actually made with vegetable oil and is now available in both spread and spray forms, as well as lighter, low-calorie versions.

Founded in 1897, this company now produces an array of peanut butter, peanut-butter-and-jelly combos, and other products. Still, it's best known for its jams, jellies, and preserves. Smuckers also produces Uncrustables, sealed crustless PB&J sandwiches, which it patented in 2004.

Seattle-based café Marie's was the birthplace of this range of salad dressings, of which the Chunky Blue Cheese is still the most famous. Made with non-GMO oils and packaged in BPA-free recyclable plastic, this company seeks to produce its dressings healthfully and sustainably.

This everything bagel seasoning blend has become ultra-popular in recent years as a topping for everything from avocado toast to pasta. As its name suggests, the little bottle contains a whopping load of flavors, with white and black sesame seeds, poppy seeds, sea salt, garlic, and onion. It's certainly a favorite at Trader Joe's, as well as one of the most popular grocery items out there.

Drinks

This packaged flavored milk beverage was a childhood favorite, and while strawberry and vanilla options exist, the classic chocolate flavor, made with real cocoa, is the most emblematic of all.

This non-dairy creamer comes in over 25 different flavors, but the original iteration, made of corn syrup, vegetable oil, and milk-derived casein, is certainly the most famous.

Maryland-based Horizon is the largest supplier of organic milk in North America. It buys milk from more than 700 dairies in 23 states across the nation to sell under one brand.

Organic Valley is the largest farmer-owned organic cooperative, producing a large variety of organic dairy products, including grass-fed butter and milk.

Since débuting in 2017, Trader Joe's flavored mineral waters have skyrocketed in popularity, surpassing other sparkling waters offered by the chain. The sugar-free waters come in several flavors, including grapefruit and island colada.

Candy

According to YouGov, M&Ms are the most popular and most famous food and snack brand in the country. First introduced by Mars in 1941, the colorful candy buttons are now available in a number of different flavors, like peanut, peanut butter, and pretzel. The company also markets seasonal M&Ms, with pastel-colored candies at Easter and a gingerbread flavor during the holidays.

Hershey's is known for chocolate bars, chocolate syrup, and more, but the company's eponymous Kisses, introduced in 1907, may be the brand's most famous sweet treat-and one of the most popular grocery items.

Created by H.B. Reese, a former worker at a Hershey dairy farm, these peanut-butter-and-chocolate confections were recently voted America's favorite Halloween treat in a poll from Monmouth University.

In the United States, Snickers is far more famous than the eponymous candy bar made by the Mars company. A combination of peanuts, nougat, and caramel covered in milk chocolate, this candy bar is a staple ingredient in Snickers salad, a popular combination of Snickers, apples, and whipped topping hailing from Iowa.

While the Reese's cup is the company's most famous product, Reese's Pieces skyrocketed to fame when they were featured in 1982's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. And to think director Steven Spielberg originally wanted E.T. to flip for M&Ms!

Meat

Arkansas-based Tyson is the world's second-largest processor of chicken, beef, and pork, but it's best-known for the former and has been since it was established in 1935, in a time when chicken fell outside of nationally-imposed rationing. Its value-added chicken products, including its chicken nuggets, are some of its most popular.

While Oscar Mayer produces a variety of meat products including bologna and Lunchables meal kits, the Oscar Mayer Wiener (and associated Wienermobile, which toured the U.S. for 70 years) is certainly the best known of the Kraft Heinz-owned company's offerings.

One of America's largest beef marketers, Omaha Steaks is known for its mail-order gourmet beef, pork, and chicken-and especially for its namesake flash-frozen steaks.

This Wisconsin-based company is the largest sausage brand by revenue in the country. It produces a large variety of sausage, including breakfast links and chicken sausage, but it's perhaps best known for its brats, the company's home state's favorite, and one of America's most popular grocery items.

Known for a vast variety of cooked and ready-to-cook chicken products, Perdue was the third-largest producer of whole broilers in the country in 2013. Today, it's also known for individually-wrapped chicken pieces that are ready to cook and eat, perfect for cooking for one.

Baked goods

Both a brand and a fictional character, Betty Crocker has long been synonymous with boxed cake mixes and canned frosting. The company's baking mixes can be prepared according to on-the-box instructions, but are also co-opted into recipes like dump cake or diet soda cake.

Hostess produces a vast variety of convenience store cakes like Twinkies and SnoBalls, but according to the YouGov survey, the most famous is the CupCake, a chocolate snack cake with a squiggle of white icing and a vanilla crème filling. You can almost find these beloved CupCakes anywhere-no wonder they are one of America's most popular grocery items.

According to General Mills, the idea-and recipe-for Bisquick come from an innovative train dining car chef from the 1930s, who pre-mixed his biscuit dough to ensure train clients would always have access to fresh biscuits. The baking mix may get its name from biscuits, but it's also a popular pancake and waffle base for American home cooks.

Regularly voted Trader Joe's most famous baked good, this Danish pastry is a seasonal offering sold in a variety of different flavors like almond, pumpkin, and raspberry.

Snacks

Buttery Ritz crackers are an American household classic. The oven-baked crackers are available in a variety of flavors and sizes and can even be purchased sandwiched around peanut butter or cheddar cheese spread.

While a great variety of shapes and flavors are now produced by Snyder's, this Campbell's-owned company's classic slow-baked German pretzel is by far the most popular.

These crunchy, cheese-flavored corn snacks are divisive: are you team puffy, or team crunchy? Either way, these popular snacks (and their emblematic Chester Cheetah mascot) are a real crowd-pleaser.

These cheddar cheese-flavored crackers were originally marketed as "a baked rarebit," in an evocation of the popular Welsh dish of melted cheese on top of toast. Now they are a fan favorite, and one of the most popular grocery items in America!

There may be no snack more American than peanut butter, and, according to YouGov, Jif is the most famous. Made by Smucker's, Jif has been the leading peanut butter brand in the U.S. since 1981, according to the company.

This party staple from General Mills combines Chex cereal with mixed nuts, pretzels, bagel chips, butter, and seasonings for a savory mix perfect to serve with drinks. While the company offers a recipe for Chex mix on the backs of its cereal boxes, it also pre-packages a variety of flavors of this snack mix.

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These Are the Most Popular Grocery Items in America | Eat This Not That

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People are loyal to their snacks! From chips to cookies to candy, some brands have more power to sway consumers than others-and we know which they are. A recent study from YouGov highlighted the most popular grocery items across the nation.

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Michael Kors' parent company announced this week it was acquiring Versace in a multibillion-dollar deal. It's just the latest big move for Michael Kors himself, who went from college dropout to fashion world multibillionaire. Here's how he did it.

From FIT to Bergdorf's

In 1977, Kors enrolled at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York, but dropped out nine months later when given the opportunity to sell his designs at New York shop Lothar's. Eventually, after a buyer saw his collections in the shop window, he was able to sell his designs at Bergdorf Goodman, and his career took off from there.

Kors started his namesake collection in 1981, and had his first runway show in 1984. He gained a group of celebrity fans, ranging from Aretha Franklin to Sharon Stone to Courtney Love.

A Downturn in the 1990s

Kors looks back at the 1990s as a down point in his career, because of a combination of financial issues and an economic downturn. "It was a domino effect....And then the next thing you knew, it was all about nose rings and ugly. I mean, it was a trifecta of a nightmare for me," he told , adding he learned to be true to himself during this slump. "The customer will appreciate that," he said, "and they will stick through thick or thin with you if you do that."

He ended up filing for bankruptcy protection in 1993, when an Italian company declined to continue producing his lower-priced licensed collection, KORS Michael Kors. "Because of the loss of licensing income," he told The New York Times at the time, "we had no choice but to do this. Quite frankly, it was a combination of many things, including the loss in volume as a lot of stores, especially small boutiques, went out of business. In the last two years, we lost a good 15 to 20 stores nationwide."

Bouncing Back, With Help From Céline

Kors restructured in 1997 when LVMH invested in his company and he launched a lower-priced line. That same year, he was hired as the designer of LVMH-owned Céline, and became the brand's creative director the following year. At Céline, he was credited with turning the brand around with well-received ready-to-wear collections and accessories. He stayed until 2004, when he decided to leave to focus on his own brand.

A lot happened very quickly around that time. In 2003, Sportswear Holdings Ltd. bought an 85 percent stake in the company. In 2004, he launched MICHAEL Michael Kors, a diffusion line that performed well during the recession, and expanded into perfume, watches, and handbags, while also opening "lifestyle" stores across the country. He also signed up for Project Runway, where he'd become a mainstream household name beyond the fashion world as a judge. He stayed on the judges' panel until 2012.

Going Public, and Making Bank

In 2011, Michael Kors Holdings went public. By 2014, Kors became a billionaire after shares of the company went up by 18 percent. reported he had a $360 million stake of the company, plus more money from the value of the stock he sold over the previous few years. Two people with controlling stakes in his company, Silas Chou and Lawrence Stroll of Sportswear Holdings Ltd., became billionaires before he did thanks to the company's success.

In 2015, his company raked in more than $4.5 billion in net sales. Even still, the company announced in 2017 they would close up to 125 stores because of low sales. Nevertheless, in 2017, Michael Kors Holdings bought Jimmy Choo in a deal worth $1.2 billion.

What's Ahead for Michael Kors and Versace

Michael Kors Holdings is changing its name to Capri Holdings Ltd. after purchasing Versace for about $2.2 billion. And reports the company has big plans for Versace, like doubling the brand's sales. It plans to do so by boosting e-commerce, opening new stores, and expanding to markets in Asia. It also plans to sell more shoes and accessories.

"If you look at some of the other Italian luxury brands-which will remain nameless-they are doing in the billions of euros today," Kors CEO John Idol said on a conference call announcing the acquisition. "So Versace is terribly underdeveloped and that's really going to change now that they'll have the resources of Capri behind them."

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How Michael Kors Became a Billionaire, Before His Company Ever Bought Versace

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Michael Kors' parent company announced this week it was acquiring Versace in a multibillion-dollar deal. It's just the latest big move for Michael Kors himself, who went from college dropout to fashion world multibillionaire. Here's how he did it.

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Misia's magazine was interesting in read. It has a lot of photos which make magazine clear. Thanks to this project i expanded my knowledge about americain cuisine. The only thing i would add is a table of contents.

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The most popular dining brands in the UK | Food | YouGov Ratings

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The most popular dining brands in the UK according to YouGov Ratings. Popularity is based on millions of responses from the British public and YouGov's innovative survey methodology.

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The most popular food & snack brands in the UK | Food | YouGov Ratings

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The most popular food & snack brands in the UK according to YouGov Ratings. Popularity is based on millions of responses from the British public and YouGov's innovative survey methodology.

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The most popular beverages in the UK | Food | YouGov Ratings

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The most popular beverages in the UK according to YouGov Ratings. Popularity is based on millions of responses from the British public and YouGov's innovative survey methodology.

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12 Reasons Why You Should Visit York, England

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12 Reasons Why You Should Visit York, England

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To admire the views from the top of York Minster

The best views in the city can be seen from the top of the 275 steps that climb up York Minster's Central Tower to the highest point in the city. From here you can look down on York and admire the rooftops of the old and new buildings and the sight of the River Ouse snaking around the city. Before you head up to the roof, take some time to admire the dramatic Gothic structure of the Minster, including descending to the underground chambers to experience audio-visual exhibits of the building's past.

To visit the greatest railway museum in the world

If you're interested in locomotives, there's no better destination than York. The National Railway Museum has its home here, displaying over a million different objects related to the history of the railway. Alongside an impressive collection of trains and related paraphernalia, including the only Japanese Bullet Train outside of Japan, the museum also offers a variety of fun activities to keep children happy.

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12 Reasons Why You Should Visit York, England

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The best views in the city can be seen from the top of the 275 steps that climb up York Minster's Central Tower to the highest point in the city. From here you can look down on York and admire the rooftops of the old and new buildings and the sight of the River Ouse snaking around the city.

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Coronavirus is the plague that reveals. The global nature of the pandemic has illuminated national characteristics as it crosses borders: China exerts ferocious control over its population; Italy has a large elderly population with a tradition of warm social interactions, ideal conditions for the spread of disease; Korea is the best-organized nation on Earth; Israel can switch to a war footing more or less instantaneously.

And the United States?

This moment is to the United States what the 1957 Suez Canal crisis was for the British Empire. The coronavirus pandemic is the event that has stripped away any lingering pretensions of global U.S. leadership. It has uncovered an emptiness.

Every empire has its bluff called eventually. In 1957, when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, Israel invaded Sinai alongside French and British forces. But President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who needed Arab support against the Soviets, insisted on a retreat and threatened to sell American reserves of the British pound if they didn't concede the territory back to Egypt. Everybody learned who was really in charge. The loss of the canal mattered infinitely less than the demonstration that the British and French no longer possessed the ability to control foreign territories at will. Invincible no more, the Empire crumbled almost overnight. Fourteen French colonies were their own countries by 1960. Within a decade, 24 British colonies gained independence.

Covid-19 demarcates a similar moment of transition, a revelation of a new global structure of power. It has shown that the United States, under the Trump administration, is radically unprepared to face the realities of the interconnected world and that it lacks the basic characteristics that every other country considers essential to the functioning of a state: a government that can respond to existential threats with authority and a civil service that can deal effectively with matters of public health. From the outside, the United States appears uncoordinated, unsystematic, chaotic. Leadership is isolated, state by state. Political squabbling has continued in the middle of a plague, overtaking even the economic response. From the point of view of other nations, a disorderly country cannot be relied upon. The scenes at O'Hare International Airport in Chicago earlier this month of U.S. citizens returning from overseas, packed together with no signs of protection, were open demonstrations of dysfunction. Now, the world's largest economy with the world's greatest military has abandoned its citizens overseas.

A Norwegian university declared all its citizens should return from the United States as soon as possible because the American health-care system was unprepared to meet the incipient crisis; many countries have been sending the same message in more guarded language. Trump's unpredictability has strained foreign relations from the beginning of his term; covid-19 has only revealed how dangerous that unpredictability is.

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Almost alone in the world, the United States does not consider access to medical care a fundamental human right. In response to the pandemic, the Trump administration made its priorities clear: It suggested a suspension of the payroll tax while covid-19 screening remained widely unavailable. A private system such as the American one simply cannot respond to public health crises. Private companies are being asked to provide the services that states normally provide, often much better, everywhere else: Google was tasked to create a national coronavirus website; the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has busied itself preparing at-home testing kits; Amazon must regulate price-gouging (Amazon chief executive Jeff Bezos owns The Washington Post). Meanwhile the Department of Homeland Security, essential to maintaining order in the current situation, is operating with 65 percent of the top jobs vacant or filled only by acting appointees.

This American chaos did not begin in 2020, nor with the Trump administration. Americans have been actively dismantling their government for a generation, and the current crisis is the fruit. Ronald Reagan, in the 1980s, made massive cuts to the budget of the Department of Health and Human Services. Reagan famously said the nine scariest words in the English language are " I'm from the government, and I'm here to help." I have nine that are scarier: "Contact your HMO if you experience symptoms of covid-19." In most wealthy countries, and the more fortunate developing ones, the people expect governments to protect them; governments expect it of themselves. But even disease will not affect the hyperpartisanship of the country: Republicans are much less worried than Democrats about the effects of the coronavirus, though the difference is narrowing. As recently as last week, 29 percent of Americans believed coronavirus was made in a lab.

I have lupus. Stop hoarding the drug I need to survive.

The consequences of covid-19 on American foreign relations are already apparent if not yet manifest. For the foreseeable future, every American product, every American person, every American idea, will be suspect. This is not about historical memory or anybody's feelings about the United States or even Donald Trump. Because the American networks - informational, political, medical - are so weak, the health of any given American citizen is now an unknown.

The coronavirus has not revealed any weakness in democracy generally. South Korea and India and Japan have been at least as effective at containment as China. But the American political order under Trump - a half-democracy, half-oligarchy in which corporations possess power but no responsibility - has had its fundamental instability and contempt for people demonstrated in a way that is obvious, at the very least, to those of us outside the borders of the United States.

Trump is giving people false hope of coronavirus cures. It's all snake oil.

The effects of the Suez crisis were not immediate, but they were profound. Nationalists throughout Africa realized the British and French capacity to withstand international pressure was nil. The stampede for the exits of European empires didn't begin until the 1960s, but after Suez, country after country proceeded toward independence with deeper determination and confidence. Britain was no longer a broker in world affairs. It gave up the power of empire for the vague branding exercise of the Commonwealth, a toothless organization that amounts to little more than a goodwill circle. Britain's influence on world affairs has declined every year since 1957 until the present, when it is just a small country on the edge of Europe. America's prestige, its impression of dominance, its assumption of the superiority of its political system, its claim to be the most advanced country in the world, has been shattered in the same way.

The fallout of that shattered prestige will be far-reaching and unknowable. It will play out in the decades to come, long after covid-19 is a piece of history. But America's place in the world is already transitioning: Nobody seems to know whether the Americans are well enough to meet with others.

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Perspective | The Suez crisis toppled the British Empire. The pandemic will bring down ours.

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Coronavirus is the plague that reveals. The global nature of the pandemic has illuminated national characteristics as it crosses borders: China exerts ferocious control over its population; Italy has a large elderly population with a tradition of warm social interactions, ideal conditions for the spread of disease; Korea is the best-organized nation on Earth; Israel can switch to a war footing more or less instantaneously.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Mateusz , Catalog: How did the British Empire fell, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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The AfternoonTea.co.uk Team

Here at Afternoon Tea Towers the team are always on the look out for Afternoon Tea related news, reviews, seasonal menus, special events and competitions.

You can get in touch with us via Twitter, Facebook and Google+ or email us at team@afternoontea.co.uk if you have anything you would like to share or contribute.

Here at AfternoonTea.co.uk, we often get asked about the rules and etiquette that one must follow when indulging in this delightful institution. How long should you brew the tea for? Should you put the milk or tea in first? Fear not, as we have compiled together a list of the essential "dos and don'ts" of our favourite meal of the day.

Save for queuing and complaining about the weather, there are very few traditions more British than 'Afternoon Tea'. What we now know as Afternoon Tea derives from the Duchess of Bedford's desire to fill the gap between lunch and dinner with a light meal of tea, cakes and sandwiches in order to satisfy the hunger pangs. The practice proved so popular that it soon developed into an established social occasion amongst the higher classes and has endured until today, where it has become more popular than ever.

Read on below to ensure you are fully equipped when enjoying Afternoon Tea at one of our many venues, but remember it is usually a matter of personal taste and preference.

1 - What is the dress code for Afternoon Tea?

First things first, before you even sit down to enjoy a delectable Afternoon Tea it is likely that you will be wondering about the dress code for what seems such a formal occasion.

Most venues have a relaxed 'smart casual' dress code these days, so there is no need for men to wear a jacket and tie (unless otherwise specified) - trousers or smart jeans, collared shirt and clean/un-scuffed shoes are acceptable. No sportswear or trainers (sneakers). For the ladies it's the perfect excuse to get dressed up!

2 - Cream Tea or Afternoon Tea or High Tea or Royal Tea?

The terminology used often confuses people when talking about Afternoon Tea. A 'Cream Tea' is usually just scones with cream and preserves served with tea. 'Afternoon Tea' is traditionally sandwiches, scones and a selection of cakes, served with tea.

Visitors from overseas often refer to the British Afternoon Tea as 'High Tea' but this term traditionally signifies an entirely different meal, usually comprising more savoury foods and an altogether heartier meal, historically taken by the lower classes. Some hotels, such as the Ritz in London advertise 'High Tea in London' due to the popularity of Afternoon Tea with overseas visitors.

'Royal Tea' is a less widely used term signifying the addition of a glass of champagne to a traditional Afternoon Tea, for those extra special occasions!

3 - Is it acceptable to dunk biscuits into my tea?

There is not much to say on this matter, other than a very stern and finger wagging no! In the privacy of your own home this is a perfectly acceptable and enjoyable practice, however, we suggest you do not partake in this when taking Afternoon Tea in one of the finest hotels in the country.

An integral part of an Afternoon Tea experience is the inclusion of freshly baked, warm scones with cream, butter and preserves. This conundrum, along with the meaning of life and how long is a piece of string, is yet another of life's on-going debates. Both the Cornish and Devonshire people lay claim to the invention of the Cream Tea, and each have a view on the order of the toppings. The Devon tradition is cream first with jam spread on top, whilst the Cornish tradition is to slather the jam on and top it off with clotted cream. At the end of the day, it remains a matter of preference.

5 - How should I stir the tea?

When preparing your tea, there are many ways in which you can tailor the drink to your own personal tastes. This can be through the addition of lemon, sugar or milk. No matter what your accompaniment, there is one thing that always stands: you must remember to stir correctly! Place your spoon in a 6 o'clock position in the cup and fold the tea towards the 12 o'clock position whilst making sure not to 'clink' the spoon against the sides of the cup. You must also remember to not leave the spoon in the cup, instead placing it on the saucer to the side of the cup.

6 - How long should I let my tea brew for?

This is another common question, and another that lies firmly in the realm of personal preference, although there is some science involved as well. Depending on your own taste and the type of tea used you can alter brewing time to suit, but the longer you brew the tea the higher the level of antioxidants called flavonoids, which research has shown to have many health benefits. We would recommend three to six minutes of brewing time, no longer, so as to avoid damaging the flavour of the tea.

7 - What type of tea should I use?

There are hundreds of different varieties of tea and each particular tea suits certain tastes, accompaniments and brewing times, however we would always stress the use of loose leaf tea when crafting your perfect Afternoon Tea, so as to obtain the finest experience possible. Tea bags and the popular brands of tea certainly have their place, but the use of a speciality loose leaf tea not only enhances the flavour, as well as the overall experience of taking Afternoon Tea.

Absolutely not. The common misconception is that outstretching one's little finger aids the balance of the cup when taking a sip of tea; this is almost certainly not the case and is not only pointless, but slightly silly. We wouldn't recommend grasping the cup in the palm of your hand, but there is no need to stick a pinkie out. It has rapidly become one of Afternoon Teas most common faux pas.

9 - How should I eat my scones?

Common practice dictates that when eating the scone section of an Afternoon Tea you would break small pieces off and top each section with the desired amount of butter, cream or jam eating them individually so as to avoid any social mishaps. This however is a far less observed guideline and some may choose to slice the scone in half and top each section with the desired preserves and cream.

10 - Should I put milk or tea in to the cup first?

The question of the order in which you add milk to tea or tea to milk is quite possibly the most hotly debated of all the tea related enigmas and unfortunately, like many good tea connoisseurs before us, we are unable to offer the definitive answer.

Both schools of thought have notable benefits. If you put the tea in first then you allow the guest to flavour their own tea to their personal preference. Putting milk in first apparently offers a better combination of the two liquids and traditionally the cold milk protected delicate china from boiling tea that may crack or damage it. You can usually make the decision yourself by pouring your own tea, but at some of the top hotels the tea is poured for you and you add the milk afterwards.

Despite all of the quaint practices associated with the experience, the important thing to remember is that Afternoon Tea is meant to be fun, and you can't let the etiquette get too much in the way of your own personal enjoyment.

More posts from The AfternoonTea.co.uk Team

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afternoon tea etiquette - top 10 dos & don'ts

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Afternoon Tea Etiquette - Top 10 Dos & Don'ts

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Here at Afternoon Tea Towers the team are always on the look out for Afternoon Tea related news, reviews, seasonal menus, special events and competitions. You can get in touch with us via Twitter, Facebook and Google+ or email us at team@afternoontea.co.uk if you have anything you would like to share or contribute.

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The UK food and beverage industry is continuing to grow at a healthy pace despite worries about Brexit's effect on success and profits. This industry is one of the largest manufacturing sectors in the UK, with annual turnover exceeding GBP 95.4 billion. Food manufacturing companies and suppliers in this region are increasingly investing in research and development and turning to innovation to increase revenue and sales. Here is BizVibe's list of the top 10 UK food and beverage manufacturers:

1.Mars: In the UK, Mars operates as Mars Food UK Limited and has headquarters in Slough, Berkshire. The company offers food and beverage products under more than 40 different brands, including Orbit, Skittles, Mars Drinks, Altoids, Bounty, Celebrations, and Snickers.

2. Unilever: The company's food and drink product portfolio-offered under the Unilever Food Solutions business segment-includes soups, sauces, noodles, ready-made meals, spreads and cooking fats, ice creams, and other products under 14 brand names. Unilever recently rejected a takeover bid worth GBP 115 billion from Kraft Heinz.

3. Diageo PLC: The company is a major producer of alcohol beverages, especially beer, and is one of the world's largest distillers. Its brands include Smirnoff, Johnnie Walker, Bailey's, and Guinness. The company is headquarted in London, the United Kingdom, and its pre-tax profits at the end of 2016 amounted to almost GBP 3 billion.

4. Associated British Foods PLC: The company operates in five segments, which are Sugar, Agriculture, Retail, Grocery, and Ingredients. The company was founded in 1935 and is headquartered in London, the United Kingdom. Its food and drink offerings include hot beverages, sugar and sweeteners, vegetable oils, bread and baked goods, cereals, ethnic foods, herbs and spices, and meat

5. ABP Food Group: The company offers beef, lamb, and sausage products to customers around the world and is one of the UK's and Europe's leading food processors. ABP Food Group specializes in de-boning, beef processing, and retail packaging. It offers its products under the Scotch Prime Export, Surrey Farm, Herdsman, Dorset Crown, Wessex Foods, and Debbie & Andrew's brand names.

6. United Biscuits: The company manufactures and distributes biscuits, savory snacks, and chilled and frozen foods through its subsidiaries. Its pre-tax profits at the end of 2016 totalled more than GBP 105 million. It offers its products under the McVitie's, Jacob's, go ahead!, Carr's, Verkdale, BN, Sultana, Crawford's, and Haansbro brands.

7. Noble Foods: The company supplies eggs and egg products (including shell eggs, as well as scrambled, boiled, and liquid eggs), desserts, animal feeds, and poultry products (including hens, chickens, and boiler breeders) to retailers and customers in the UK. The company was founded in 1920.

8. Lakeland Dairies: Lakeland offers a variety of dairy products, including skim, fat-filled, and full cream milk powders; purified milk protein; dairy fats, including butter fat and cream; and ice cream and frozen yogurt. The company is headquartered in Ireland.

9. Moy Park: The company provides whole chickens, portions, deboned thighs, fillets and mini fillets, ingredients, and livers; turkeys; cooked whole birds, marinated chicken, snacking products, and cooked sliced meats; and nuggets and goujons, chicken kievs, steaks and patties to retailers, restaurant chains, and foodservice providers in the UK and continental Europe.

10. Premier Foods PLC: The company employs more than 4,000 people in 14 sites across Britain. It offers a wide range of bakery and other food products, including bread, cakes, baking products, spreads and preserves, convenience foods, desserts, cooking sauces, stocks, gravies, pies, pickles, condiments, table sauces, salt, and stuffings.

Thousands of leading UK food and beverage manufacturers can be in your contact list if you join BizVibe today. Whether you are looking for reliable suppliers, top food and drink manufacturers, wholesalers and potential customers in over 70 countries, or want to find out what your competitors are buying and which suppliers they're using, BizVibe can help you reach out to sales prospects and decision-makers across the globe.

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Top 10 UK Food and Beverage Manufacturers - Bizvibe

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The UK food and beverage industry is continuing to grow at a healthy pace despite worries about Brexit's effect on success and profits. This industry is one of the largest manufacturing sectors in the UK, with annual turnover exceeding GBP 95.4 billion.

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Systemic racism is both a theoretical concept and a reality. As a theory, it is premised on the research-supported claim that the United States was founded as a racist society, that racism is thus embedded in all social institutions, structures, and social relations within our society. Rooted in a racist foundation, systemic racism today is composed of intersecting, overlapping, and codependent racist institutions, policies, practices, ideas, and behaviors that give an unjust amount of resources, rights, and power to White people while denying them to people of color.

Definition of Systemic Racism

Developed by sociologist Joe Feagin, systemic racism is a popular way of explaining, within the social sciences and humanities, the significance of race and racism both historically and in today's world. Feagin describes the concept and the realities attached to it in his well-researched and readable book, "Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations." In it, Feagin uses historical evidence and demographic statistics to create a theory that asserts that the United States was founded in racism since the Constitution classified Black people as the property of White people. Feagin illustrates that the legal recognition of slavery based on race is a cornerstone of a racist social system in which resources and rights were and are unjustly given to White people and unjustly denied to people of color.

The theory of systemic racism accounts for individual, institutional, and structural forms of racism. The development of this theory was influenced by other scholars of race, including Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Du Bois, Oliver Cox, Anna Julia Cooper, Kwame Ture, Frantz Fanon, and Patricia Hill Collins, among others.

Feagin defines systemic racism in the introduction to "Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations":

"Systemic racism includes the complex array of antiblack practices, the unjustly gained political-economic power of whites, the continuing economic and other resource inequalities along racial lines, and the white racist ideologies and attitudes created to maintain and rationalize white privilege and power. Systemic here means that the core racist realities are manifested in each of society's major parts [...] each major part of U.S. society-the economy, politics, education, religion, the family-reflects the fundamental reality of systemic racism."

While Feagin developed the theory based on the history and reality of anti-Black racism in the U.S., it is usefully applied to understanding how racism functions generally, both within the U.S. and around the world.

Elaborating on the definition quoted above, Feagin uses historical data in his book to illustrate that systemic racism is primarily composed of seven major elements, which we will review here.

The Impoverishment of People of Color and Enrichment of White People

Feagin explains that the undeserved impoverishment of people of color (POC), which is the basis of the undeserved enrichment of White people, is one of the core aspects of systemic racism. In the U.S. this includes the role that the enslavement of Black people played in creating an unjust wealth for White people, their businesses, and their families. It also includes the way White people exploited labor throughout the European colonies prior to the founding of the United States. These historical practices created a social system that had racist economic inequality built into its foundation and was followed through the years in numerous ways, like the practice of " redlining" that prevented POC from buying homes that would allow their family wealth to grow while protecting and stewarding the family wealth of White people. Undeserved impoverishment also results from POC being forced into unfavorable mortgage rates, being channeled by unequal opportunities for education into low-wage jobs, and being paid less than White people for doing the same jobs.

There is no more telling proof of the undeserved impoverishment of POC and the undeserved enrichment of White people than the massive difference in the average wealth of White versus Black and Latino families.

Vested Group Interests Among White People

Within a racist society, White people enjoy many privileges denied to POC. Among these is the way that vested group interests among powerful White people and "ordinary Whites" allow White people to benefit from their racial identity without even identifying it as such. This manifests in support among White people for White political candidates, and for laws and political and economic policies that work to reproduce a social system that is racist and has racist outcomes. For example, White people as a majority have historically opposed or eliminated diversity-increasing programs within education and jobs, and ethnic studies courses that better represent the racial history and reality of the U.S. In cases like these, White people in power and ordinary White people have suggested that programs like these are "hostile" or examples of " reverse racism." In fact, the way White people wield political power in the protection of their interests and at the expense of others, without ever claiming to do so, maintains and reproduces a racist society.

Alienating Racist Relations Between White People and POC

In the U.S., White people hold most positions of power. A look at the membership of Congress, the leadership of colleges and universities, and the top management of corporations makes this clear. In this context, in which White people hold political, economic, cultural, and social power, the racist views and assumptions that course through U.S. society shape the way those in power interact with POC. This leads to a serious and well-documented problem of routine discrimination in all areas of life, and the frequent dehumanization and marginalization of POC, including hate crimes, which serves to alienate them from society and hurt their overall life chances. Examples include discrimination against POC and preferential treatment of White students among university professors, more frequent and severe punishment of Black students in K-12 schools, and racist police practices, among many others.

Ultimately, alienating racist relations makes it difficult for people of different races to recognize their commonalities, and to achieve solidarity in fighting broader patterns of inequality that affect the vast majority of people in society, regardless of their race.

The Costs and Burdens of Racism Are Borne by POC

In his book, Feagin points out with historical documentation that the costs and burdens of racism are disproportionately borne by people of color and by Black people especially. Having to bear these unjust costs and burdens is a core aspect of systemic racism. These include shorter life spans, limited income and wealth potential, impacted family structure as a result of mass incarceration of Black and Latino people, limited access to educational resources and political participation, state-sanctioned killing by police, and the psychological, emotional, and community tolls of living with less, and being seen as "less than." POC are also expected by White people to bear the burden of explaining, proving, and fixing racism, though it is, in fact, White people who are primarily responsible for perpetrating and perpetuating it.

The Racial Power of White Elites

While all White people and even many POC play a part in perpetuating systemic racism, it is important to recognize the powerful role played by White elites in maintaining this system. White elites, often unconsciously, work to perpetuate systemic racism via politics, law, educational institutions, the economy, and racist representations and the underrepresentation of people of color in mass media. This is also known as white supremacy. For this reason, it is important that the public hold White elites accountable for combatting racism and fostering equality. It is equally important that those who hold positions of power within society reflect the racial diversity of the U.S.

The Power of Racist Ideas, Assumptions, and World Views

Racist ideology-the collection of ideas, assumptions, and worldviews-is a key component of systemic racism and plays a key role in its reproduction. Racist ideology often asserts that white people are superior to people of color for biological or cultural reasons, and manifests in stereotypes, prejudices, and popular myths and beliefs. These typically include positive images of whiteness in contrast to negative images associated with people of color, such as civility versus brutishness, chaste and pure versus hyper-sexualized, and intelligent and driven versus stupid and lazy.

Sociologists recognize that ideology informs our actions and interactions with others, so it follows that racist ideology fosters racism throughout all aspects of society. This happens regardless of whether the person acting in racist ways is aware of doing so.

Resistance to Racism

Finally, Feagin recognizes that resistance to racism is an important feature of systemic racism. Racism has never been passively accepted by those who suffer it, and so systemic racism is always accompanied by acts of resistance that might manifest as protest, political campaigns, legal battles, resisting white authority figures, and speaking back against racist stereotypes, beliefs, and language. The white backlash that typically follows resistance, like countering "Black Lives Matter" with "all lives matter" or "blue lives matter," does the work of limiting the effects of resistance and maintaining a racist system.

Systemic Racism Is All Around Us and Within Us

Feagin's theory and all of the research he and many other social scientists have conducted over 100 years illustrate that racism is in fact built into the foundation of U.S. society and that it has over time come to infuse all aspects of it. It is present in our laws, our politics, our economy; in our social institutions; and in how we think and act, whether consciously or subconsciously. It's all around us and inside of us, and for this reason, resistance to racism must also be everywhere if we are to combat it.

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Systemic racism is both a theoretical concept and a reality. As a theory, it is premised on the research-supported claim that the United States was founded as a racist society, that racism is thus embedded in all social institutions, structures, and social relations within our society.

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Sociologist Joe Feagin, in his book "Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, & Future Reparations", developed the Systemic Racism theory and summarized it as racism in all the social, political, and economic institutions, structures, and social relationships within a society. Scholars like Oliver Cox, Frederick Douglass, Anna Julia Cooper, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Kwame Ture supported the research and development of this theory. Feagin did comprehensive research and analysis that led to his conclusion that society's foundation, particularly that of American society, is racist in nature and manifests in institutions, practices, policies, ideas, and behaviors all of which favor the majority white population at the expense of other races. Though based on racist history in the US, this theory also explains how racism and other forms of ethnic marginalization functions all over the world.

Cost of Systemic Racism in the US

Because white people enjoy political, social, economic, and cultural power, they have certain privileges not available to People of Color (POC) as a. A majority of the white population also oppose US diversity programs within the education and employment sectors and often claim this is reverse racism. Slogans such as "Black Lives Matter" do not go unanswered as some members of the white population usually respond with slogans like "all lives matter" or "blue lives matter" without a background reason for the slogans. Systemic racism has repercussions for POC especially blacks which include; shorter lifespans, lesser income and wealth, limited access to quality education, limited political participation, inferiority complex and state-sanctioned killings by security organs among others. Worse still, whites still expect POC to carry the burden of proving racism even though whites contribute most to the vice. Upon providing proof, POC still have to bear the backlash of more accusations and excuses that follow.

Examples of Systemic Racism in the US Justice System

Although a politically controversial topic, there are overwhelming facts to support the notion that the US justice system is racist especially looking at the targeting and punishing of African-Americans. Looking at data on police stoppings, shootings, drug arrests, bailing process, legal representation, trial, sentencing, jury selection, freedom, and parole, a trend of biasness appears. On drug use, African-Americans constitute 13% of the population and 14% of drug users, but 37% of drug-related arrests and 56% of inmates of crimes relating to drugs. In New York, colored people make up 50% of the population but Latinos and Blacks make up over 80% of NYPD stops. In fact, in most US cities, Blacks are thrice likely to be arrested than whites. During a trial, African-Americans are more likely to be in prison as they wait for trial than whites and since most may not afford to hire lawyers, underpaid and undermotivated public defenders are more likely to defend such cases. Data from Alabama also indicates that a higher representation in the jury is white, especially in cases involving death penalty whereas US Sentencing Commission reported that blacks tend to receive 10% longer sentences than whites for the same crime. The US Bureau of Justice and Statistics indicated that 32% (one in three) of blacks, 17% of Latinos, and 6% of whites have a chance of being arrested. With a black-juvenile population of 16%, they represent 28% of arrests and 37% of inmates.

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Sociologist Joe Feagin, in his book "Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, & Future Reparations", developed the Systemic Racism theory and summarized it as racism in all the social, political, and economic institutions, structures, and social relationships within a society. Scholars like Oliver Cox, Frederick Douglass, Anna Julia Cooper, W.E.B.

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Institutional racism, also known as systemic racism, is defined as policies and practices that exist throughout a whole society or organization that result in and support a continued unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment of others based on race. It manifests as discrimination in areas such as criminal justice, employment, housing, healthcare, education and political representation.

The term institutional racism was first coined in 1967 by Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton in Black Power: The Politics of Liberation. Carmichael and Hamilton wrote in 1967 that, while individual racism is often identifiable because of its overt nature, institutional racism is less perceptible because of its "less overt, far more subtle" nature. Institutional racism "originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation than [individual racism]".

In the past, the term "racism" was often used interchangeably with "prejudice," forming an opinion of another person based on incomplete information. In the last quarter of the 20th Century, racism became associated with systems rather than individuals. In 1977, David Wellman in his book Portraits of White Racism, defined racism as "a system of advantage based on race," illustrating this definition through countless examples of white people supporting racist institutions while denying that they are prejudiced. White people can be nice to people of color while continuing to uphold systemic racism that benefits them, such as lending practices, well-funded schools, and job opportunities. The concept of institutional racism re-emerged in political discourse in the mid and late 1990s, but has remained a contested concept. Institutional racism is where race causes a different level of access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society.

Professor James M. Jones theorised three major types of racism: personally mediated, internalized, and institutionalized. Personally mediated racism includes the deliberate specific social attitudes to racially prejudiced action ( bigoted differential assumptions about abilities, motives, and the intentions of others according to their race), discrimination (the differential actions and behaviours towards others according to their race), stereotyping, commission, and omission (disrespect, suspicion, devaluation, and dehumanization). Internalized racism is the acceptance, by members of the racially stigmatized people, of negative perceptions about their own abilities and intrinsic worth, characterized by low self-esteem, and low esteem of others like them. This racism can be manifested through embracing "whiteness" (e.g. stratification by skin colour in non-white communities), self-devaluation (e.g., racial slurs, nicknames, rejection of ancestral culture, etc.), and resignation, helplessness and hopelessness (e.g., dropping out of school, failing to vote, engaging in health-risk practices, etc.).

Persistent negative stereotypes fuel institutional racism and influence interpersonal relations. Racial stereotyping contributes to patterns of racial residential segregation and redlining, and shapes views about crime, crime policy and welfare policy, especially if the contextual information is stereotype-consistent.

Institutional racism is distinguished from racial bigotry by the existence of systemic, institutionalized policies, practices and economic and political structures that place minority racial and ethnic groups at a disadvantage in relation to an institution's racial or ethnic majority. One example of the difference is public school budgets in the United States (including local levies and bonds) and the quality of teachers, which are often correlated with property values: Rich neighborhoods are more likely to be more "white" and to have better teachers and more money for education, even in public schools. Restrictive housing contracts and bank lending policies have also been listed as forms of institutional racism.

Some sociological investigators distinguish between institutional racism and " structural racism" (sometimes referred to as "structured racialization"). The former focuses upon the norms and practices within an institution, and the latter upon the interactions among institutions, which interactions produce racialized outcomes against non-white people. An important feature of structural racism is that it cannot be reduced to individual prejudice or to the single function of an institution.

D. C. Matthew has argued in favor of "distinguishing between 'intrinsic institutional racism', which holds that institutions are racist in virtue of their constitutive features, and 'extrinsic institutional racism', which holds that institutions are racist in virtue of their negative effects."

The French political thinker Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) supported colonization in general, and particularly the colonization of Algeria. In several speeches on France's foreign affairs, in two official reports presented to the National Assembly in March 1847 on behalf of an ad hoc commission, and in his voluminous correspondence, he repeatedly commented on and analyzed the issue. In short, Tocqueville developed a theoretical basis for French expansion in North Africa. He even studied the Quran, sharply concluding that Islam was "the main cause of the decadence... of the Muslim world". His opinions are also instructive about the early years of the French conquest and how the colonial state was first set up and organized. Tocqueville emerged as an early advocate of "total domination" in Algeria and subsequent "devastation of the country".

On 31 January 1830, Charles X capturing Algiers made the French state thus begin what became institutional racism directed at the Kabyle, or Berbers, of Arab descent in North Africa. The Dey of Algiers had insulted the monarchy by slapping the French ambassador with a fly whisk, and the French used that pretext to invade and to put an end to piracy in the vicinity. The unofficial objective was to restore the prestige of the French crown and gain a foothold in North Africa, thereby preventing the British gaining advantage over France in the Mediterranean. The July Monarchy, which came to power in 1830, inherited that burden. The next ten years saw the indigenous population subjected to the might of the French army. By 1840, more conservative elements gained control of the government and dispatched General Thomas Bugeaud, the newly appointed governor of the colony, to Algeria, which marked the real start of the country's conquest. The methods employed were atrocious; the army deported villagers en masse, massacred the men and raped the women, took the children hostage, stole livestock and harvests and destroyed orchards. Tocqueville wrote, "I believe the laws of war entitle us to ravage the country and that we must do this, either by destroying crops at harvest time, or all the time by making rapid incursions, known as raids, the aim of which is to carry off men and flocks."

Tocqueville added: "In France I have often heard people I respect, but do not approve, deplore [the army] burning harvests, emptying granaries and seizing unarmed men, women and children. As I see it, these are unfortunate necessities that any people wishing to make war on the Arabs must accept." He also advocated that "all political freedoms must be suspended in Algeria". Marshal Bugeaud, who was the first governor-general and also headed the civil government, was rewarded by the King for the conquest and having instituted the systemic use of torture, and following a " scorched earth" policy against the Arab population.

Once the conquest of Algiers was accomplished, soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidise its settlement by European farmers, which triggered a land rush. He became governor general in 1835 and used his office to make private investments in land by encouraging bureaucrats and army officers in his administration to do the same. The development created a vested interest in government officials for greater French involvement in Algeria. Merchants with influence in the government also saw profit in land speculation, which resulted in expanding the French occupation. Large agricultural tracts were carved out, and factories and businesses began exploiting cheap local labour and also benefited from laws and edicts that gave control to the French. The policy of limited occupation was formally abandoned in 1840 and replaced by one of complete control. By 1843, Tocqueville intended to protect and extend expropriation by the rule of law and so advocated setting up special courts, which were based on what he called "summary" procedure, to carry out a massive expropriation for the benefit of French and other European settlers. French and other European settlers could thus purchase land at attractive prices and live in villages, which the colonial government had equipped with fortifications, churches, schools and even fountains. Tocqueville's belief, which framed his writings and influenced state actions, was that the local people, who had been driven out by the army and robbed of their land by the judges, would gradually die out.

Following the defeats of the resistance in the 1840s, colonisation continued apace. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French. The leader of the Colons delegation, Auguste Warnier (1810-1875), succeeded in the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue Algeria's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation. In 1881, the Code de l'Indigénat made the discrimination official by creating specific penalties for indigenes and by organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands. By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all of the agricultural exports. The colonial government imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans. The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes from which the Colons were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. Also, Colons controlled how the revenues would be spent and so their towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, but Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little, if at all, from tax revenues.

The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading, writing and religion. In 1843, the state appropriated the habus lands, the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools, but colonial officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated madrasa often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual and bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, and were rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954, only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen received formal schooling. Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "civilising mission" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims, the (literally "evolved ones"), had been created.

Following its conquest of Ottoman Algeria in 1830, France maintained for well over a century its colonial rule in the territory that has been described as "quasi- apartheid". The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that it established "the formal structures of a political apartheid". Camille Bonora-Waisman writes, "In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", the "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.

Under the French Fourth Republic, Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, but the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of 'French' civil status and of 'Muslim' civil status, to keep their hands on power." The "internal system of apartheid" was met with considerable resistance by the Algerian Muslims affected by it, and it is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection.

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Following the views of Michel Foucault, the French historian Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison spoke of a "state racism" under the French Third Republic, a notable example being that the 1881 Indigenous Code applied in Algeria. Replying to the question "Isn't it excessive to talk about a state racism under the Third Republic?", he replied:

"No, if we can recognize 'state racism' as the vote and implementation of discriminatory measures, grounded on a combination of racial, religious and cultural criteria, in those territories. The 1881 Indigenous Code is a monument of this genre! Considered by contemporary prestigious jurists as a 'juridical monstruosity', this code planned special offenses and penalties for 'Arabs'. It was then extended to other territories of the empire. On one hand, a state of rule of law for a minority of French and Europeans located in the colonies. On the other hand, a permanent state of exception for the "indigenous" people. This situation lasted until 1945".

During a reform effort in 1947, the French created a bicameral legislature with one house for French citizens and another for Muslims, but it made a European's vote worth seven times a Muslim's vote. Even the events of 1961 show that France had not changed its treatment of the Algerians over the years, as the police took up the institutional racism that the French state had made law in its treatment of Arabs who, as Frenchmen, had moved to Mainland France.

Original text: Library of Congress Country Study of Algeria

Aussaresses, Paul. The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955-1957. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) ISBN 978-1-929631-30-8.

Bennoune, Mahfoud. The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)

Gallois, William. A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony (2013), On French violence 1830-1847 online review

Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962, (Viking Adult, 1978)

Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina

The Battle of Algiers

The 1961 massacre was referenced in a 2005 film by Michael Haneke.

The 2005 French television drama-documentary Nuit noire, 17 octobre 1961 explores in detail the events of the massacre. It follows the lives of several people and also shows some of the divisions within the Paris police, with some openly arguing for more violence while others tried to uphold the rule of law.

Drowning by Bullets, a television documentary in the British Secret History series, first shown on 13 July 1992.

It is estimated that the population of Aboriginal peoples prior to the European colonisation of Australia (starting in 1788) was about 314,000. It has also been estimated by ecologists that the land could have supported a population of a million people. By 1901, they had been reduced by two-thirds to 93,000. In 2011, First Nations Australians (including both Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people) comprised about 3% of the total population, at 661,000. When Captain Cook landed in Botany Bay in 1770, he was under orders not to plant the British flag and to defer to any native population, which was largely ignored.

Land rights, stolen generations, and terra nullius

Torres Strait Islander people are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are in the Torres Strait between the northernmost tip of Queensland and Papua New Guinea. Institutional racism had its early roots here due to interactions between these islanders, who had Melanesian origins and depended on the sea for sustenance and whose land rights were abrogated, and later the Australian Aboriginal peoples, whose children were removed from their families by Australian federal and state government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments. The removals occurred in the period between approximately 1909 and 1969, resulting in what later became known as the Stolen Generations. An example of the abandonment of mixed-race (" half-caste") children in the 1920s is given in a report by Walter Baldwin Spencer that many mixed-descent children born during construction of The Ghan railway were abandoned at early ages with no one to provide for them. This incident and others spurred the need for state action to provide for and protect such children. Both were official policy and were coded into law by various acts. They have both been rescinded and restitution for past wrongs addressed at the highest levels of government.

The treatment of the First Nations Australians by the colonisers has been termed cultural genocide. The earliest introduction of child removal to legislation is recorded in the Victorian Aboriginal Protection Act 1869. The Central Board for the Protection of Aborigines had been advocating such powers since 1860, and the passage of the Act gave the colony of Victoria a wide suite of powers over Aboriginal and " half-caste" persons, including the forcible removal of children, especially "at risk" girls. By 1950, similar policies and legislation had been adopted by other states and territories, such as the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld), the Aborigines Ordinance 1918 (NT), the Aborigines Act 1934 (SA) and the 1936 Native Administration Act (WA).

The child-removal legislation resulted in widespread removal of children from their parents and exercise of sundry guardianship powers by Protectors of Aborigines up to the age of 16 or 21. Policemen or other agents of the state were given the power to locate and transfer babies and children of mixed descent from their mothers or families or communities into institutions. In these Australian states and territories, half-caste institutions (both government Aboriginal reserves and church-run mission stations) were established in the early decades of the 20th century for the reception of these separated children. Examples of such institutions include Moore River Native Settlement in Western Australia, Doomadgee Aboriginal Mission in Queensland, Ebenezer Mission in Victoria and Wellington Valley Mission in New South Wales.

In 1911, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in South Australia, William Garnet South, reportedly "lobbied for the power to remove Aboriginal children without a court hearing because the courts sometimes refused to accept that the children were neglected or destitute". South argued that "all children of mixed descent should be treated as neglected". His lobbying reportedly played a part in the enactment of the Aborigines Act 1911; this made him the legal guardian of every Aboriginal child in South Australia, including so-called "half-castes". Bringing Them Home, a report on the status of the mixed race stated "... the physical infrastructure of missions, government institutions and children's homes was often very poor and resources were insufficient to improve them or to keep the children adequately clothed, fed, and sheltered".

In reality, during this period, removal of the mixed-race children was related to the fact that most were offspring of domestic servants working on pastoral farms, and their removal allowed the mothers to continue working as help on the farm while at the same time removing the whites from responsibility for fathering them and from social stigma for having mixed-race children visible in the home. Also, when they were left alone on the farm they became targets of the men who contributed to the rise in the population of mixed-race children. The institutional racism was government policy gone awry, one that allowed babies to be taken from their mothers at birth, and this continued for most of the 20th century. That it was policy and kept secret for over 60 years is a mystery that no agency has solved to date.

Similarly, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia, A. O. Neville, wrote in an article for The West Australian in 1930: "Eliminate in future the full-blood and the white and one common blend will remain. Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture and eventually, the race will become white".

Official policy then concentrated on removing all black people from the population, to the extent that the full-blooded Aboriginal people were hunted to extinguish them from society, and those of mixed race would be assimilated with the white race so that in a few generations they too would become white.

By 1900, the recorded First Nations Australian population had declined to approximately 93,000.

Western Australia and Queensland specifically excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from the electoral rolls. The Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 excluded "Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and Pacific Islands except for New Zealand" from voting unless they were on the roll before 1901.

In 1981, a land rights conference was held at James Cook University, where Eddie Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander, made a speech to the audience in which he explained the land inheritance system on Murray Island. The significance of this in terms of Australian common law doctrine was taken note of by one of the attendees, a lawyer, who suggested there should be a test case to claim land rights through the court system. Ten years later, five months after Eddie Mabo died, on 3 June 1992, the High Court announced its historic decision, namely overturning the legal doctrine of terra nullius, which was the term applied by the British relating to the continent of Australia - "empty land".

In his 2008 address to the houses of parliament apologising for the treatment of the First Nations population, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made a plea to the health services regarding the disparate treatment in health services. He noted the widening gap between the treatment of First Nations and non-Indigenous Australians, and committed the government to a strategy called " Closing the Gap", admitting to past institutional racism in health services that shortened the life expectancy of the Aboriginal people. Committees that followed up on this outlined broad categories to redress the inequities in life expectancy, educational opportunities and employment. The Australian government also allocated funding to redress the past discrimination. First Nations Australians visit their general practitioners (GPs) and are hospitalised for diabetes, circulatory disease, musculoskeletal conditions, respiratory and kidney disease, mental, ear and eye problems and behavioural problems yet are less likely than non-Indigenous Australians to visit the GP, use a private doctor, or apply for residence in an old age facility. Childhood mortality rates, the gap in educational achievement and lack of employment opportunities were made goals that in a generation should halve the gap. A national " Close the Gap" day was announced for March of each year by the Human Rights Commission.

In 2011, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that life expectancy had increased since 2008 by 11.5 years for women and 9.7 years for men along with a significant decrease in infant mortality, but it was still 2.5 times higher than for the non-indigenous population. Much of the health woes of the First Nations Australians could be traced to the availability of transport. In remote communities, the report cited 71% of the population in those remote Fist Nations communities lacked access to public transport, and 78% of the communities were more than 80 kilometres (50 miles) from the nearest hospital. Although English was the official language of Australia, many First Nations Australians did not speak it as a primary language, and the lack of printed materials that were translated into the Australian Aboriginal languages and the non-availability of translators formed a barrier to adequate health care for Aboriginal people. By 2015, most of the funding promised to achieve the goals of "Closing the Gap" had been cut, and the national group monitoring the conditions of the First Nations population was not optimistic that the promises of 2008 will be kept. In 2012, the group complained that institutional racism and overt discrimination continued to be issues, and that, in some sectors of government, the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was being treated as an aspirational rather that a binding document.

This section needs expansion with: Missing information about systemic discrimination against black Canadians. You can help by adding to it.

Many in Europe during the 19th century (as reflected in the Imperial Report of the Select Committee on Aborigines), supported the goal put forth by colonial imperialists of 'civilizing' the Native populations. This led to an emphasis on the acquisition of Aboriginal lands in exchange for the putative benefits of European society and their associated Christian religions. British control of Canada (the Crown) began when they exercised jurisdiction over the first nations and it was by Royal Proclamation that the first piece of legislation the British government passed over First Nations citizens assumed control of their lives. It gave recognition to the Indians tribes as First Nations living under Crown protection.

It was after the treaty of Paris in 1763, whereby France ceded all claims in present-day Canada to Britain, that King George III of Great Britain issued a Royal Proclamation specifying how the Indigenous in the crown colony were to be treated. It is the most significant pieces of legislation regarding the Crown's relationship with Aboriginal people. This Royal Proclamation recognized Indian owned lands and reserved to them all use as their hunting grounds. It also established the process by which the Crown could purchase their lands, and also laid out basic principles to guide the Crown when making treaties with the First Nations. The Proclamation made Indian lands transferred by treaty to be Crown property, and stated that indigenous title is a collective or communal rather than a private right so that individuals have no claim to lands where they lived and hunted long prior to European colonization.

In 1885, General Middleton after defeating the Metis rebellion introduced the Pass System in western Canada, under which Natives could not leave their reserves without first obtaining a pass from their farming instructors permitting them to do so. While the Indian Act did not give him such powers, and no other legislation allowed the Department of Indian Affairs to institute such a system, and it was known by crown lawyers to be illegal as early as 1892, the Pass System remained in place and was enforced until the early 1930s. As Natives were not permitted at that time to become lawyers, they could not fight it in the courts. Thus was institutional racism externalized as official policy.

When Aboriginals began to press for recognition of their rights and to complain of corruption and abuses of power within the Indian department, the Act was amended to make it an offence for an Aboriginal person to retain a lawyer for the purpose of advancing any claims against the crown.

Unlike the effect of those Indian treaties in the North-West, which established the reserves for the Indigenous, the protection of Métis lands was not secured by the scrip policy instituted in the 1870s, whereby the crown exchanged a scrip in exchange for a fixed (160-240 acres) grant of land to those of mixed heritage.

Although Section 3 of the 1883 Dominion Lands Act set out this limitation, this was the first mention in the orders-in-council confining the jurisdiction of scrip commissions to ceded Indian territory. However, a reference was first made in 1886 in a draft letter of instructions to Goulet from Burgess. In most cases, the scrip policy did not consider Métis ways of life, did not guarantee their land rights, and did not facilitate any economic or lifestyle transition.

Most Métis were illiterate and did not know the value of the scrip, and in most cases sold them for instant gratification due to economic need to speculators who undervalued the paper. Needless to say, the process by which they applied for their land was made deliberately arduous.

It was hoped that indigenous peoples would renounce their native heritage and culture and embrace the 'benefits' of civilized society. Indeed, from the 1920s to the 1940s, some Natives did give up their status to receive the right to go to school, vote or drink. However, voluntary enfranchisement proved a failure when few natives took advantage.

In 1920, a law was passed to authorize enfranchisement without consent, and many Aboriginal peoples were involuntarily enfranchised. Natives automatically lost their Indian status under this policy and also if they became professionals such as doctors or ministers, or even if they obtained university degrees, and with it, they lost their right to reside on the reserves.

The enfranchisement requirements particularly discriminated against Native women, specifying in Section 12 (1)(b) of the Indian Act that an Indian status woman marrying a non-Indian man would lose her status as an Indian, as would her children. In contrast non-Indian women marrying Indian men would gain Indian status. Duncan Campbell Scott, the Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs, neatly expressed the sentiment of the day in 1920: "Our object is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no Indian question and no Indian Department" This aspect of enfranchisement was addressed by passage of Bill C-31 in 1985, where the discriminatory clause of the Indian Act was removed, and Canada officially gave up the goal of enfranchising Natives.

With the goal of civilizing and Christianizing Aboriginal populations, a system of 'industrial schools' was developed in the 19th century that combined academic studies with "more practical matters" and schools for Natives began to appear in the 1840s. From 1879 onward, these schools were modelled after the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, whose motto was " Kill the Indian in him and save the man". It was felt that the most effective weapon for "killing the Indian" in them was to remove children from their Native supports and so Native children were taken away from their homes, their parent, their families, friends and communities. The 1876 Indian Act gave the federal government responsibility for Native education and by 1910 residential schools dominated the Native education policy. The government provided funding to religious groups such as the Catholic, Anglican, United Church and Presbyterian churches to undertake Native education. By 1920, attendance by natives was made compulsory and there were 74 residential schools operating nationwide. Following the ideas of Sifton and others like him, the academic goals of these schools were "dumbed down". As Duncan Campbell Scott stated at the time, they did not want students that were "made too smart for the Indian villages": "To this end the curriculum in residential schools has been simplified and the practical instruction given is such as may be immediately of use to the pupil when he returns to the reserve after leaving school."

The funding the government provided was generally insufficient and often the schools ran themselves as "self-sufficient businesses", where 'student workers' were removed from class to do the laundry, heat the building, or perform farm work. Dormitories were often poorly heated and overcrowded, and the food was less than adequately nutritious. A 1907 report, commissioned by Indian Affairs, found that in 15 prairie schools there was a death rate of 24%. Indeed, a deputy superintendent general of Indian Affairs at the time commented: "It is quite within the mark to say that fifty percent of the children who passed through these schools did not benefit from the education which they had received therein." While the death rate did decline in later years, death would remain a part of the residential school tradition. The author of that report to the BNA, Dr. P.H. Bryce, was later removed and in 1922 published a pamphlet that came close to calling the governments indifference to the conditions of the Indians in the schools 'manslaughter'.

Anthropologists Steckley and Cummins note that the endemic abuses - emotional, physical, and sexual - for which the system is now well known for "might readily qualify as the single-worst thing that Europeans did to Natives in Canada". Punishments were often brutal and cruel, sometimes even life-threatening or life-ending. Pins were sometimes stuck in children's tongues for speaking their Native languages, sick children were made to eat their vomit, and semi-formal inspections of children's genitalia were carried out. The term Sixties Scoop (or Canada Scoops) refers to the Canadian practice, beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the late 1980s, of taking ("scooping up") children of Aboriginal peoples in Canada from their families for placing in foster homes or adoption.

The overt institutional racism of the past has clearly had a profoundly devastating and lasting effect on visible minorities and Aboriginal communities throughout Canada. European cultural norms have imposed themselves on Native populations in Canada, and Aboriginal communities continue to struggle with foreign systems of governance, justice, education, and livelihood. Visible Minorities struggle with education, employment and negative contact with the legal system across Canada.

Perhaps most palpable is the dysfunction and familial devastation caused by residential schools. Hutchins states; "Many of those who attended residential schools have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder, suffering from such symptoms as panic attacks, insomnia, and uncontrollable or unexplainable anger. Many also suffer from alcohol or drug abuse, sexual inadequacy or addiction, the inability to form intimate relationships, and eating disorders. Three generations of Native parents lost out on learning important parenting skills usually passed on from parent to child in caring and nurturing home environments, and the abuse suffered by students of residential schools has begun a distressing cycle of abuse within many Native communities." The lasting legacy of residential schools is but only one facet of the problem.

The Aboriginal Justice Inquiry in Manitoba, the Donald Marshall Inquiry in Nova Scotia, the Cawsey Report in Alberta and the Royal Commission of Aboriginal People all agree, as far as Aboriginal people are concerned, racism in Canadian society continues institutionally, systematically, and individually.

In 2020, after the death of Joyce Echaquan, the Prime Minister of Canada, Justin Trudeau, recognized a case of systemic racism.

In 2022, Pope Francis visited Canada for a week-long tour called a "pilgrimage of penance." Vatican officials called the trip a "penitential pilgrimage". The Pope was welcomed in Edmonton, where he apologized for Indigenous abuse which took place in the 20th century at Catholic-run residential schools, which have since closed. During his stay, he met with Indigenous groups to address the scandal of the residential schools. "I am sorry," The Pope said, and asked forgiveness for the church and church members in "projects of cultural destruction and forced assimilation" and the systematic abuse and erasure of indigenous culture in the country's residential schools.

The Chinese Immigration Act, 1923, better known as the "Chinese Exclusion Act", replaced prohibitive fees with a ban on ethnic Chinese immigrating to Canada - excepting merchants, diplomats, students, and "special circumstance" cases. The Chinese who entered Canada before 1923 had to register with the local authorities and could leave Canada only for two years or less. Since the Exclusion Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese-Canadians referred to Canada Day (Dominion Day) as "Humiliation Day", refusing to celebrate it until the Act's repeal in 1947.

There are records of slavery in some areas of British North America, which later became Canada, dating from the 17th century. The majority of these slaves were Aboriginal, and United Empire Loyalists brought slaves with them after leaving the United States.

Under the leadership of China's Paramount Leader and Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping, the Uyghurs - a mostly Muslim ethnic minority group living in the Chinese Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region - have faced widespread persecution from authorities and mass detentions. Since 2017, it has been reported that at least one million Uyghur Muslims have been detained in " re-education camps" commonly described as concentration camps, where they have been subject to torture, forced labor, religious discrimination, political indoctrination and other human rights abuses. Testimonials from escaped inmates have indicated inmates are subject to forced sterilization.

Birth rates in two Xinjiang regions have dropped by more than 60% between 2015 and 2018, a result of measures by the Chinese government to lower the Uyghur population artificially. The situation has been described as an ongoing genocide by numerous sources, and others have argued that it is likely the "largest mass detention of a religious minority group" since the Holocaust according to the New Statesman. A study from 2013 found local government officials in China "were 33 percent less likely to provide assistance to citizens with ethnic Muslim names than to ethnically-unmarked peers."

Since the People's Republic of China gained control of Tibet in 1951, there has been institutional racism in the form of an elaborate propaganda system designed by the Chinese Communist Party to portray Tibetans as being liberated from serfdom through China and Han Chinese culture. A state-organized historical opera performed in 2016 in China portrayed Tibet as being unsophisticated prior to Princess Wencheng's marriage to Songtsen Gampo, a Tibetan emperor, in the year 641. This propaganda is described by Tibetan activist Tsering Woeser as being a "...vast project that rewrites history and 'wipes out' the memory and culture of an entire people."

During the 2008 Tibet protests, a local eyewitness claimed Chinese military police "were grabbing monks, kicking and beating them" after riots around the closure of the Sera monastery near Lhasa.

Racism against African people or people perceived to be of African descent has long been documented in China.

Published in 1963, African student Emmanuel Hevi's An African Student in China details "the arrests of Chinese girls for their friendships with Africans, and particularly, Chinese feelings of racial superiority over black Africans." One notable instance was the Nanjing anti-African protests of 1988, in which African university students were the subject of racist beatings and other attacks. In some cases, Chinese university students shouted racist slogans such as "'Down with the black devils!' and 'Blood for blood!'" Despite these obvious instances of racism against Africans, the Chinese state media portrayed the attacks as being instigated by the African students.

In modern China, racism remains an issue in certain universities, such as the state-funded Zhejiang Normal University. A black graduate student described how "African students would hear Professors and classmates make xenophobic comments, such as 'Africans are draining our scholarship funds'" and how African students, despite having higher grades, were receiving lower level scholarship funds through the ZJNU's three-tiered scholarship system than their classmates.

One study noted how Africans were being portrayed as "waste" and "triple illegals" through racial profiling by police in Guangzhou. In 2007, African nationals were targeted in Beijing's Sanlitun district by police during an anti-drug raid. They were the victims of police brutality and targeted on the basis of their skin color, something which the police later denied.

State media reports from 2008 referred to Africans in a racist manner, as Cheng explains: "...[the] language often remained demeaning regarding Africans as much less civilized people. Chinese words such as 部落 (buluo, "tribes") or 聚居地/ 群居/群落 (jujudi/qunju/qunluo, habitats), instead of 社区 (shequ, community) were often used to refer to Africans."

Yinghong Cheng asserts in a 2011 journal article that " Cyber racism against Africans is certainly not the only racial thinking but it is perhaps the most explicit and blatant one." He details the ubiquity of "manifestations of racial stereotypes, hierarchy perception and insensitivity", in addition to how "systematic discourse of race has developed in much more articulate, sophisticated and explicit ways in education and pop culture to accommodate contemporary Chinese nationalism." The adoption of a more state capitalist form of government in the PRC has led to the widespread internet popularity of commercialized Chinese singers and songwriters, some of whose material is racial in subject matter. As Cheng notes: "'The Yellow Race' (Huangzhongren 黄种人) and 'Yellow' (Huang 黄), [were] created in 2006 and 2007 respectively and dedicated to China's hosting of the Olympics. The racist language in these songs, such as 'the Yellow Race is now marching on the world,' combined with nationalist claims such as 'After 5,000 years, finally it is the time for us to show up on the stage,' coloured Xie's popularity among his young Chinese fans."

An anti-Japanese sign at the Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center in 2007.

In 2018, CCTV New Year's Gala, a state media television programme which has in the past been viewed by up to 800 million people included a racist neocolonial skit featuring a Chinese actress who wore blackface makeup. The skit "praises Chinese-African cooperation, showing how much Africans benefit from Chinese investment and how grateful they are to Beijing." Later the same year, the Daily Monitor reported that citizens of Uganda and Nigeria were discriminated against in Guangzhou by the Chinese government, through incidents such as taxis being halted and passports from African countries being confiscated, as well as hotels and restaurants being ordered to erect notices banning service to Africans. In addition, some African-owned stores were forcibly shut down.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple instances of systemic racism against African people were documented, including misinformation and racist stereotyping which portrayed Africans as carriers of the virus. According to The Guardian, Africans were "refused entry by hospitals, hotels, supermarkets, shops and food outlets. At one hospital, even a pregnant woman was denied access. In a McDonald's restaurant, a notice was put up saying 'black people cannot come in.'" The local government in Guangzhou implemented mass surveillance, compulsory testing, and enforced a 14-day quarantine for all African nationals, regardless of whether they had traveled outside of China in the past two weeks.

Anti-Japanese sentiment exists as a modern issue in China, largely due to historical grievances. There have been reports of restaurants and public institutions refusing service or entry to Japanese people, which stems especially due to the Second Sino-Japanese War which had included Japanese war crimes such as the Nanjing massacre and Unit 731.

Malaysians of Chinese and Indian descent - who make up a significant portion of ethnic minorities in Malaysia, with them making up around 23.2% and 7.0% of the population respectively - were granted citizenship by the Malaysian Constitution but this implied a social contract that left them at a disadvantage and discriminated in other ways, as Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia refers to the special "position" and "privileges" of the Muslim Malay people as supposed initial dwellers of the land.

However, due to the concept of Ketuanan Melayu (lit. Malay supremacy), a citizen that is not considered to be of Bumiputera status face many roadblocks and discrimination in matters such as economic freedom, education, healthcare and housing. Opposition groups, government critics and human rights observers has labeled the Malaysian situation as being highly similar to apartheid policies due to their status as de facto second-class citizens. Such policies has also led to a significant brain drain from the country.

As for the elite Malays, this 'privilege' has been abused to the point where the poor Malays remain poor, while the rich Malays becomes richer; which is the result of Malay cronyism, non-competitive and non-transparent government project tender processes favouring Bumiputera candidates - causing deeper intra-ethnic inequality. However, the actual indigenous people or better known as Orang Asli remain marginalised and have their rights ignored by the Malaysian government. Since Article 160 defines a Malay as "professing the religion of Islam", those eligible to benefit from laws assisting bumiputra are, in theory, subject to religious law enforced by the parallel Syariah Court system.

While 179 countries around the world have ratified the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), Malaysia is not one of them. The Pakatan Harapan (PH) government that replaced Barisan Nasional (BN) from 2018 to 2020 had indicated a readiness to ratify ICERD, but has yet to do so due to the convention's conflict with the Malaysian constitution and the race and religious norms in Malaysia established since its independence. Furthermore, a mass rally was held in 2018 by Malay supremacists at the country's capital to prevent such ratification, threatening racial conflicts if they do so. The PH government would eventually lose power amid the 2020-2022 Malaysian political crisis to BN.

Nigeria contains over 250 ethnic groups, but the country is politically dominated by three major ethnic groups - the Hausa-Fulani of the north, the Igbo of the southeast, and the Yoruba of the southwest. National politics in Nigeria have largely revolved around competition between the three dominant ethnic groups, with the minority ethnic groups having less political representation.

Public universities in Nigeria favour indigenes during the admissions process, and non-indigenes are subject to discriminatory admissions policies that attempt to limit the number of non-indigene students. Non-indigene students are required to pay higher tuition and they are denied academic scholarships. Non-indigenes are often unable to participate in local politics and they are also excluded from government jobs. In some cases, non-indigenes have faced mass purges from government jobs in order to create more jobs for indigenes.

Human Rights Watch has claimed the indigeneity policies relegate "millions of Nigerians to the status of second-class citizens". Nigerian Vice President Yemi Osinbajo compared indigeneity policies to apartheid.

Nigeria is an oil-rich country where much of its oil resources can be found in the Niger Delta region, which is inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Ogoni and Ijaw. The native inhabitants of the Niger Delta do not receive much of the wealth generated by Nigeria's vast oil industry, and it is, paradoxically, one of Nigeria's poorest regions. Oil wealth has been used to develop other parts of Nigeria while the Niger Delta region itself remains underdeveloped. The Niger Delta is constantly polluted and destroyed by the activities of both the Nigerian government and oil companies such as Shell Nigeria and Chevron Nigeria. Struggle for oil wealth has fueled violence in the Niger Delta, causing the militarization of nearly the entire region by ethnic militia groups and Nigerian military and police forces.

The Ijaw and Ogoni people have been subject to human rights violations in the form of environmental destruction and pollution. A 1979 amendment to the Nigerian constitution gave the federal government the authority to seize and distribute Ogoni territory to oil companies without any compensation. In 1990, the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People was founded by Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa to seek self-determination for the Ogoni people, compensation for environmental destruction, and payment of royalties from oil production. In 1995, he was arrested and executed, along with nine other Ogoni activists, by the regime of the Nigerian military dictator Sani Abacha, which was internationally condemned as a violation of human rights.

The Igbo people traditionally maintain a system of discrimination from the Odinani religion that discriminates against a class of people known as Osu ( Igbo: outcast). Osu are regarded to be spiritually inferior beings, and they are distinguished from Nwadiala or diala ( Igbo: real born). They are ostracized from wider society and Igbo are discouraged from marrying them. They were historically either sold into slavery or were delivered to be enslaved to certain deities who were believed to ask for human sacrifice during festivals in order to clean the land from abomination, thus leading to the purchase of a slave by the people.

The status of Osu is permanent and inherited at birth. Despite influence from colonialism and Christianity, discrimination against Osu still persists in the modern day. In modern times, Osu are often barred from marriage, traditional leadership positions, and running from political office.

According to some human rights groups who are calling for its abolishment, some of the punishments meted out against the Osu include: parents administering poison to their children, disinheritance, ostracism, denial of membership in social clubs, violent disruption of marriage ceremonies, denial of chieftaincy titles, deprivation of property and expulsion of wives.

Furthermore, post-apartheid racism is still rife in South Africa, both black-on-white and white-on-black, with white-on-black racism being more advertised in the news. In 2015, black staff at a restaurant near Stellenbosch allegedly were verbally attacked and degraded by a group of white students. In response, a black student declared that everyone who did not speak Afrikaans in the area was an alien in the area. "They were whistling at them as they were whistling at dogs," he claimed. He further claimed that the white students even leapt over the counter and patted them as if they were dogs. Three white men and four other young white men allegedly followed him outside after he left the restaurant and assaulted him. The University of Stellenbosch did not continue with disciplinary action which shows the racism in academic institutions.

The South African government has done things to combat racial economic disparity in South Africa for example, BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) is a South African government programme aimed at facilitating black people's fuller participation in the economy, particularly to address imbalances established by apartheid. It offers incentives to businesses that contribute to black economic empowerment through a variety of measurable criteria, such as partial or majority black ownership, hiring black employees, and contracting with black-owned suppliers, as well as preferential treatment in government procurement processes. BEE's preferential procurement feature has been hailed as a model for a long-term procurement strategy in which government procurement is used to accomplish social policy goals.

The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Report, and the public's response to it, were among the major factors that forced the Metropolitan Police to address its treatment of ethnic minorities. More recently, the former Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Ian Blair said that the British news media are institutionally racist, a comment that offended journalists, provoking angry responses from the media, despite the National Black Police Association welcoming Blair's assessment.

The report also found that the Metropolitan Police was institutionally racist. A total of 70 recommendations for reform were made. These proposals included abolishing the double jeopardy rule and criminalising racist statements made in private. Macpherson also called for reform in the British Civil Service, local governments, the National Health Service, schools, and the judicial system, to address issues of institutional racism.

In the English and Welsh prison system, government data that was compiled in 2020 showed that youths of color are disproportionally subject to punishment that the UN regards as violating the Mandela Rules on the treatment of prisoners. The COVID-19 pandemic had caused some minors being held in pre-trial detention to be placed in solitary confinement indefinitely. Minorities under 18 comprised 50% of the youth inmates held and 27% of the overall prison population. Ethnic minorities made up 14% of the overall population.

Asian women are twice as likely as whites to die in pregnancy. Black women are twice as likely to have a stillborn baby than whites.

According to the Institute for the Study of Academic Racism, scholars have drawn on a 1979 work by social psychologist Michael Billig - "Psychology, Racism, and Fascism" - that identified links between the Institute of Psychiatry and racist/ eugenic theories, notably in regard to race and intelligence, as for example promoted by IOP psychologist Hans Eysenck and in a highly publicised talk in August 1970 at the IOP by American psychologist Arthur Jensen. Billig concluded that "racialist presuppositions" intruded into research at the Institute both unintentionally and intentionally. In 2007, the BBC reported that a "race row" had broken out in the wake of an official inquiry that identified institutional racism in British psychiatry, with psychiatrists, including from the IOP/Maudsley, arguing against the claim, while the heads of the Mental Health Act Commission accused them of misunderstanding the concept of institutional racism and dismissing the legitimate concerns of the black community in Britain. Campaigns by voluntary groups seek to address the higher rates of sectioning, overmedication, misdiagnosis and forcible restraint on members of minority groups. According to 2014 statistics, black adults had the lowest treatment rate of any ethnic group, at 5.2%. The treatment rate for whites is 17.3%. Figures from March 2019 show that black people were more than four times as likely as white people to be detained under the Mental Health Act in the previous year.

In a 2009 report by the Department for Innovations and Business Skills, it was found that black students were the most likely to receive under-predicted grades by their teachers. It was found that 8.1% of black students received higher actual grades compared to 4.6% of white students, 6.5% of Asian students and 6.1% of mixed-race students.

Critics contend that part of the institutional racism in education in the UK is in the curriculum. Arguments for and against decolonizing the curriculum are outlined on the BBC's Moral Maze podcast.

Standards of employment in the UK, as well as in the United States and other Western European countries, often disregard how certain standards, such as eye contact, have different meanings around the world. Asian, Latin American and African cultures can consider eye contact as disrespect or as challenging authority, often resulting in them maintaining an on-and-off eye contact to show respect in interviews and employment processes. Opposingly, most people in countries in North America and Western Europe see eye contact as expressing enthusiasm and trust.

California Governor Gavin Newsom speaking about institutional racism in 2020

Institutional racism in the housing sector could be seen as early as the 1930s with the Home Owners' Loan Corporation. Banks would determine a neighborhood's risk for loan default and redline neighborhoods that were at high risk of crime. These neighborhoods tended to be African-American neighborhoods, whereas whites were able to receive housing loans. Over several decades, as whites left the city to move to nicer houses in the suburbs, predominantly African-American neighborhoods fell apart. Retail stores also started moving to the suburbs to be closer to the customers and to avoid being robbed. Commencing with President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930s and through the 1960s, the FHA contributed to the economic growth of the white population by providing loan guarantees to banks, which in turn financed white homeownership and enabled white flight, and it did not make loans available to black people. As minorities were not able to get financing and aid from banks, whites pulled ahead in equity gains. Moreover, many college students were then, in turn, financed with the equity in homeownership that was gained by having gotten the earlier government handout, which was not the same accorded to black and other minority families. The institutional racism of the FHA's 1943 model has been tempered after the Great Recession by President Barack Obama's efforts to stabilize the housing losses of 2008 with his Fair Housing Finance ( GSE) reform.

These changes, which were brought on by government-funded programs and projects, have led to a significant change in inner-city markets. Due to robberies, black neighborhoods have been left with fewer food stores, but more liquor stores. The low-income neighborhoods are left with independently owned smaller grocery stores that tend to have higher prices. Poor consumers are left with the option of traveling to middle-income neighborhoods, or spending more for less.

The racial segregation and disparities in wealth between European Americans and African-American people include legacies of historical policies. In the Social Security Act of 1935, agricultural workers and servants, who disproportionately were black, were excluded because key whites did not want governmental assistance to change the agrarian system. In the Wagner Act of 1935, "blacks were blocked by law from challenging the barriers to entry into the newly protected labor unions and securing the right to collective bargaining." In the National Housing Act of 1939, the property appraisal system tied property value and eligibility for government loans to race. The 1936 Underwriting Manual used by the Federal Housing Administration to guide residential mortgages gave 20% weight to a neighborhood's protection, for example, zoning ordinances, deed restrictions and high-speed traffic arteries, from adverse influences, such as infiltration of inharmonious racial groups. Thus, white-majority neighborhoods received the government's highest property value ratings, and whites were eligible for government loans and aid. Richard Rothstein, in his book "The Color of Law," tells of a history of residential segregation in America. He noted that government institutions in all branches and at all levels and were complicit in excluding African Americans from home-ownership. "We have created a caste system in this country, with African Americans kept exploited and geographically separate by racially explicit government policies," he wrote. In covering topics like racial covenants - where loans to developers were contingent on contracts that spelled out specific exclusion of black people, he showed that it was a policy spelled out by the Federal Housing Administration's underwriting manual, which denied any guarantees for a federal bank loan to a developer if they were to sell properties to African Americans in white communities. Homeowners in one such subdivision, Levittown, Long Island, New York, were forbidden to rent or sell to persons "other than members of the Caucasian race". Between 1934 and 1962, less than two percent of government-subsidized housing went to non-white people.

The long-outlawed practice of redlining (in which banks choke off lending to minority communities) recently re-emerged as a concern for federal bank regulators in New York and Connecticut. A settlement with the Justice Department and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau was the largest in the history of both agencies, topping $33 million in restitution for the practice from New Jersey's largest savings bank. The bank had been accused of steering clear of higher crime neighborhoods and favoring whites in granting loans and mortgages, finding that, of the approximately 1,900 mortgages made in 2014, only 25 went to black applicants. The banks' executives denied bias, and the settlement came with adjustments to the banks' business practices. This followed other successful efforts by the federal, state and city officials in 2014 to expand lending programs directed at minorities, and in some cases to force banks to pay penalties for patterns of redlining in Providence, Rhode Island; St. Louis, Missouri; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Buffalo and Rochester, New York. The Justice Department also has more active redlining investigations underway, and officials have stated to reporters that "redlining is not a thing of the past". It has evolved, they explained, into a more politically correct version, where bankers do not talk openly about denying loans to black people. The Justice Department officials noted that some banks quietly had institutionalized bias in their operations. They have moved their operations out of minority communities entirely, while others have moved in to fill the void and compete for clients. Such management decisions are not the stated intent, it is left unspoken so that even the bank's other customers are unaware that it is occurring. The effect on minority communities can be profound as home ownership, a prime source of neighborhood stability and economic mobility can affect its vulnerability to blight and disrepair. In the 1960s and 1970s, laws were passed banning the practice; its return is far less overt, and while the vast majority of banks operate legally, the practice appears to be more widespread as the investigation revealed a vast disparity in loans approved for black people as compared to whites in similar situations.

Studies in major cities, such as Los Angeles and Baltimore, show that communities of color have lower levels of access to parks and green space. Parks are considered an environmental amenity and have social, economic, and health benefits. The public spaces allow for social interactions, increase the likelihood of daily exercise in the community and improve mental health. They can also reduce the urban heat island effect, provide wildlife habitat, control floods, and reduce certain air pollutants. Minority groups have less access to decision-making processes that determine the distribution of parks. A recent study published by Suffolk University found that black renters face discrimination when renting compared to similarly situated white renters.

Institutional racism impacts health care accessibility within non-white minority communities by creating health disparities among racial groups. For example, from 1865 to 1906, many black veterans were unfairly denied disability pension by the Union Army disability pension system. Racism may also account for disproportionate rates of diseases, such as AIDS, among ethnic minorities. In a 1992 article, Janis Hutchinson argues that the federal government has responded slowly to the AIDS epidemic in minority communities and that their attempts have been insensitive to ethnic diversity in preventive medicine, community health maintenance, and AIDS treatment services. In addition, the mass incarceration of black males along, with vectors for addiction in co-relation to the higher number of minority females found infected with the HIV virus after 2000, has been the subject of study, and findings have shown that previous analyses of the rise incorrectly attributed it to male-on-male sex habits, rather than the causal effects found in current studies. Public health studies found incarcerated men, when returned to their communities, raise the risk of infection by passing the virus on to heterosexual partners, having acquired it in prison due to higher than average rates of sexual assault and rape, no access to condoms, injectable drugs and lack of clean needles, along with tattooing, and inadequate access to health care and treatment after being released due to poverty and unemployment. The studies also found that the high rates of incarceration reduced the number of available men in black communities and rupture social relationships, leading each man to have an increase in the number of concurrent sexual partners.

Institutional racism can affect minority health directly through health-related policies, as well as through other factors indirectly. For example, racial segregation disproportionately exposed black communities to chemical substances such as lead paint, respiratory irritants such as diesel fumes, crowding, litter, and noise. Members of racial minority groups that have a disadvantaged status in education and employment are more likely to be uninsured, which significantly impedes them from accessing preventive, diagnostic, or therapeutic health services.

Racial minorities in the United States are exposed to greater health and environmental risks than the general population. In 1982, there was a proposed polychlorinated biphenyl landfill in an African-American community in Warren County, NC. PCBs are toxic chemicals that can leach into the groundwater and contaminate the drinking water supply. The community resisted and said this was an act of environmental racism. This incident is considered to be the beginning of the environmental justice movement: a movement to address the injustice that communities of color face. Research shows that there is racial discrimination in the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations. People of color and the poor are more likely to live, work and play in America's most polluted environments. Communities of color tend to be disproportionately exposed to lead, pesticides, and petrochemical plants. Unfortunately, race and class is a reliable indicator of where industrial plants and waste facilities are located. Institutional environmental racism encompasses these land use decisions that contribute to health issues such as asthma, obesity and diabetes.

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected African Americans, with more dying of the disease during its initial wave than other racial groups. In testifying before Congress, the leading epidemiologist on the U.S. Coronavirus task force, Dr. Anthony Fauci, testified that a combination of factors affect the disproportionate numbers of minorities infected. In responding as to whether institutional racism has played a part in the data gleaned by the CDC, he pointed out the risk of infection along with underlying conditions in certain demographics was a factor, but affirmed his opinion that this was the case. A Queen's University Belfast study found that there is insufficient evidence to attribute the greater susceptibility of black, Middle-Eastern and Asian individuals to the virus.

Black women are two and one-half times more likely to die from maternal causes than are white women. The infant-mortality rate for African Americans is 11 per 1,000 births, which is higher than the 2018 U.S. average of 5.7. There exists a persistent racial gap between black and white Americans in life expectancy; on average this life-expectancy gap is around 4 years. However, this greatly varies depending on both the state and city level. For example, in Wisconsin, the black-white life expectancy gap is about 6 years for females and 7 years for males, and in Washington D.C this gap is about 12 years for females and greater than 17 years among males.

Although approximately one third of crack cocaine users are white or Hispanic people (reported past-year use in 2013 of 0.8%, 0.3% and 0.1% for blacks, whites and Hispanics, respectively), a large percentage of people convicted of possession of crack cocaine in federal courts in 1994 were black people. In 1994, 86.3% of the defendants convicted of crack cocaine possession were black people, while 10.3% were whites and 5.2% were Hispanics. Possession of powder cocaine was more racially mixed, with 52% of the offenders being whites, 29.7% blacks, and 17% Hispanics. Within the federal judicial system, a person convicted of possession with intent to distribute powder cocaine carries a five-year sentence for quantities of 500 grams or more, while a person convicted of possession with intent to distribute crack cocaine faces a five-year sentence for quantities of 5 grams or more. With the combination of severe and unbalanced drug-possession laws, along with the rates of conviction in terms of race, the judicial system has created a racial disparity. In 2015, sitting President Barack Obama visited a federal prison (a presidential first) to discuss how disparate sentencing affected prisoners and highlight how, in the United States, excessive sentencing was a detrimental outcome of harsh sentencing laws, as well as to discuss the need to change the approach. In the Senate, top Republican and Democratic senators, in a rare bipartisan effort, negotiated for months to produce concrete fixes to these laws. The law was changed in 2010 to reduce disparity; it affected only new cases. The need, according to Senate, was for a retroactive fix to reduce the thousands serving long sentences after four decades of extreme sentencing policies. Studies have shown it is possible to reduce both prison populations and crime at the same time. The U.S. Sentencing commission announced a retroactive reduction in drug sentences following a year-long review, which will result in a mass release of 6,000 prisoners, all of whom have already served substantial time in prison. This action was done in an effort to reduce overcrowding and provide comfort to wrongfully accused drug offenders who were sent to jail over the past couple of decades. Some of those to be released will be deported, and all will be subject to further judicial review.

The issue of policies that target minority populations in large cities, also known as stop and frisk and arrest quotas, as practiced by the NYPD, have receded from media coverage due to lawsuits that have altered the practice. In Floyd vs City of New York, a ruling that created an independent Inspector General's office to oversee the NYPD, the federal judge called a whistle-blower's recordings of superiors' use of " quotas" the 'smoking gun evidence' that police were racially profiling and violating civilians' civil rights. The police officer at the center of the case settled with the city for $1.1 million and in a separate case won an additional settlement against the hospital where he was involuntarily confined after cops retaliated and unlawfully placed him in a psych ward for reporting fudged stats in his precinct. After taking office in 2014, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio declined to continue litigating stop-and-frisk practices, and the number of minorities stopped under the practice dropped dramatically. The use of quotas to pad arrest figures also has fallen after lawsuits exposed the practice as carried on by drug enforcement officers.

A Stanford University study that analyzed 93 million traffic stops in the United States revealed that African Americans are twenty percent more likely to be stopped despite being less likely to be in possession of contraband compared to white people. In the state of California, 38% of people halted by police officers in Los Angeles were black people, despite accounting for only 9% of the population. In Washington, D.C., black people make up 46% of the population but composed 72% of the people stopped even though the difference in contraband hit rates between blacks and whites are not statistically significant. In Boston, blacks made up 64% of those stopped despite making up only 24% of the population; even after controlling for alleged gang involvement and prior arrest records, blacks were more likely to experience repeat police encounters and to be frisked or searched during an encounter. In Illinois, minority drivers are stopped 1.5 more times than white drivers, and Latino drivers are nearly 2 times more likely to be subjected to dog-sniff searches than are non-Hispanic whites but are found with contraband 1.6 times less often.

A Harvard University study found that in Massachusetts's criminal justice system minorities face greater risk to be represented across all parts of the criminal justice system in excess of their proportion of the population in that state. The likelihood that they will get arrested and convicted due to drug or weapons charges is eight times greater than for whites. Black people were found to receive average sentences that were 238 days longer, and Latino people 178 days longer, for the same offences. The study concluded that regarding ' stop and frisk' "The disparity in searches was more consistent with racial bias than with differences in criminal conduct,". The 24 percent of the city of Boston's population that was black made up 83 percent of those interrogated or frisked by police.

The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) has found that, since 2008, after Barack Obama's election into office, racist hate groups have increased above 400%. The SPLC asserts that racism at the institutional level dies hard, and is still prevalent in many U.S. institutions, including law enforcement and the criminal justice system. Frequently these institutions use racial profiling along with greater police brutality. Another major disparity between race and capital punishment in the United States is that murder cases with white victims were more likely than those with black victims to result in a death sentence.

A recent report by former Homeland Security secretary Jeh Johnson found both overt and institutional racism to be a pervasive problem in the NYS court system. Citing a "Second class system of justice for people of color in NYS", Johnson's report set out recommendations to combat bias and systematic racism in interactions between the court system and people of color, particularly in New York City. Chief administrative Judge Lawrence K. Marks found the reports findings troubling and said the state would attempt to implement all the report's solutions. The report also highlighted intolerant racism among court officers. The team conducted interviews of over 300 court personnel, including lawyers whom reported instances of discrimination from court officers and Judges. Judges who were interviewed said that the lack of resources in the busiest courts had a disparate impact on minority clients making up the bulk of cases, and judicial diversity failed to mitigate the effect as few black candidates could pass muster in Upstate New York, where connections mattered in their appointment as judges. One judge said the reluctance to provide funding to New York city courts was "the very definition of institutional bias".

Members of Congress and state legislators believed these harsh, inflexible sentences would catch those at the top of the drug trade and deter others from entering it. Instead, this broad response to the drug problem brought in more low-level offenders, which resulted in overcapacity prison populations and increased burdens for taxpayers. Mandatory sentencing laws disproportionately affected minorities and, because of their severity, families were destroyed. As a result, many states are experiencing efforts to roll back these laws and there are efforts in Congress to end mandatory minimums. ( See Mandatory sentencing.)

Coupled with zero-tolerance discipline in schools, a "one-size-fits-all solution" decried by the American Bar Association, black and Latino youths are more likely to encounter negative contact with law enforcement and accrue violations, which leads to fines and failure to pay, which in turn leads to warrants and/or probation violations. This cycle has been shown to put children, particularly low-income minorities, in the school-to-prison pipeline.

In 2010, two Washington state supreme court justices, Richard B. Sanders and James M. Johnson, were baffled at a court meeting to determine the fate of $25,000 in funding for various boards and commissions. They stated that there was too much African-American representation in the prison population because African Americans are known to commit a number of crimes and not because of their race. A black lawyer said that she was shocked to hear these two justices refer to a former Legal Aid lawyer's assertions in a report using the phrase poverty pimp. Shirley Bondon, a state Administrative Office of the Courts (AOC) manager who oversaw court programs critical of the legal system, told the justices that she believed that there was racial "bias in the criminal-justice system, from the bottom up." The response from Justice Saunders was critical of black people, stating that he did not believe that the barriers existed, except for poverty because it might restrict the ability to afford an attorney. James M. Johnson, who was noted as the most conservative judge on the court, agreed, noting that African Americans commit crimes against their own communities, to which Bondon objected, requesting a closed-door meeting with the court. Within, Justice Debra Stephens said that she heard Sanders and Johnson make the comments, including Johnson using the words "you all" or "you people" when he stated that African Americans commit crimes in their own communities. Others who attended the meeting stated that they were offended by the justices' remarks, saying that the comments showed a lack of knowledge and sensitivity. A Kitsap County District Court judge, James Riehl, concurred, as he was "acutely aware" of barriers to equal treatment in the legal system. In 2010, African Americans represented 4 percent of Washington State's population but 20 percent of the prison population. Nationwide, similar disparities have been attributed by researchers to sentencing practices, inadequate legal representation, drug-enforcement policies and criminal-enforcement procedures that unfairly affect African Americans.

In 1918, the U.S. Department of Justice pursued charges against 21 officers and executives of the Phelps Dodge Mining Company for the kidnapping of 1,200 workers across state lines from Bisbee, Arizona. The men were subsequently released based on a pre-trial motion from the defense, claiming that the federal government had no basis for charging them, as no federal law was broken. Arizona officials never initiated criminal proceedings in state court against those responsible for the deportation of workers and their lost wages and other losses. The Justice Department appealed, but in United States v. Wheeler, 254 U.S. 281 (1920), Chief Justice Edward Douglass White wrote for an 8-to-1 majority that the U.S. Constitution did not empower the federal government to enforce the rights of the deportees. Rather it "necessarily assumed the continued possession by the states of the reserved power to deal with free residence, ingress, and egress." Only in a case of "state discriminatory action" would the federal government have a role to play. By this calculated reasoning, the officials situated at the Supreme Court erred in not taking the side that in today's legal lexicon had every right to seek justice and redress, not only for the stolen wages, union busting, false imprisonment and other crimes, but for the inherent right not to be forcibly removed from your home by men with guns and shipped in cattle cars across state lines as many homeowners were. That 8 of the 9 Supreme Court justices concurred and, based on anti-radical speech sentiment at the time (post WWI anti-union and IWW), leads to the conclusion that the government gave the company cover to remove the workers, many of whom were Mexicans advocating for better pay and working condition, to a place in the next state closer to the border with the admonition never to return. That few deportees returned and those that contested the deportations lost their cases to have their homes returned to necessity, and that in 1966 Finally, in United States v. Guest, 383 U.S. 745 (1966), the Supreme Court overruled Chief Justice White's conclusion that the federal government could protect the right to travel only against state infringement.

At the end of the conflict, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and others advocated for a peacetime equivalent of the Sedition Act, using the Bisbee events as a justification. They stated that the only reason the company representatives and local law enforcement had taken the law into their own hands was that the government lacked the power to suppress radical sentiment directly. If the government was armed with appropriate legislation and the threat of long prison terms, private citizens would not feel the need to act. Writing in 1920, Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee mocked that view: "Doubtless some governmental action was required to protect pacifists and extreme radicals from mob violence, but incarceration for a period of twenty years seems a very queer kind of protection." That this was considered vigilante actions by private citizens duly deputized by the local sheriff gives no weight to the racist component directed towards those of Mexican descent in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, who were being systematically forced from their homes in the United States beginning in 1910.

Vigilante actions and other acts of violence against Mexicans in the Southwest were documented from the 1850s to the 1930s. At least hundreds perhaps thousands of Mexicans were killed by white Anglo Americans and government forces, many of the victims were American citizens. Some of them were killed by people who wanted to drive them off their land and others were killed because they were suspected of being bandits or rebels. Many of them were lynched, including some who were taken from jail cells and killed in front of hundreds of people. 571 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928. Some Mexicans were killed in response to bandit raids, others were killed after they were accused of committing murders, others were killed after they were accused of stealing cattle, others were killed after they were accused of cheating at cards, and others were killed after they protested against injustice. For example, a month after the Brite Ranch raid in Texas, Rangers committed the Porvenir massacre near the Mexican border where 15 men and boys were executed and falsely accused of being involved in the raid. Efforts to increase awareness of the Porvenir massacre were initially stalled by the state commission on historic places, with the chairwoman of the local historical commission opposing the construction of a marker, claiming that it was being used by 'militant Hispanics' who wanted to receive reparations. She was later over-ruled by the head of the State Historical Commission, who brokered a deal by promising to erect a marker at the site of the Porvenir massacre in addition to promising to erect markers at Anglo ranches that were attacked by suspected Mexican Villistas.

According to the United States Department of Justice, Palmer violated his oath of office by misusing the Department of Justice to go illegally after those advocating for better wages. Strikers became targets of agent provocateurs who infiltrated meetings of "communist labor" and anti-war activists. After the Bisbee deportations became exposed in the press, Americans were divided about the treatment of illegal aliens, who were purported communists. Former President Theodore Roosevelt opined in the press that the Bisbee miners "had it coming, as they were hell-bent on havoc!" The Department of Justice went from advocating for persons deprived of rights and liberty by state actors to detaining them under dubious warrants and suspicion of radicalism. The Red Scare that fueled institutional racism in the 1920s against Russian Jews and other Eastern European immigrants was a backlash to the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia and a bombing campaign early in 1919 by Italian anarchists advocating the overthrow of the government. The result was the infamous Palmer raids, ostensibly a deportation measure to remove dangerous aliens. In 1919 Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer began a series of raids cooked up to remove radicals and anarchists from the United States. Warrants were requested from compliant officials in the Labor Department, and a number of foreign nationals caught up in the sweeping raids were eventually deported. As only the department of labor had the legal right to deport aliens, they did object to the methods; nevertheless, under color of law, the raids began on 7 November 1919. It was led by a 24-year-old J. Edgar Hoover heading a new division of the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation, called the General Intelligence Division. Armed with responsibility for investigating the programs of radical groups and identifying their members, the raids began with agents of the Bureau of Investigation, together with local police, executing a series of well-publicized and violent raids against the Union of Russian Workers in 12 cities.

Newspaper accounts reported some were "badly beaten" during the arrests. Many later swore they were threatened and beaten during questioning. Government agents cast a wide net, bringing in some American citizens, passers-by who admitted being Russian, some not members of the Russian Workers. Others were teachers conducting night school classes in space shared with the targeted radical groups. Arrests far exceeded the number of warrants. Of 650 arrested in New York City, the government managed to deport just 43. Hoover organized the next raids. He successfully persuaded the Department of Labor to ease its insistence on promptly informing those arrested that they had the right to an attorney. Instead, Labor issued instructions that its representatives could wait until after the case against the defendant was established, "in order to protect government interests". Less openly, Hoover decided to interpret Labor's agreement to act against the Communist Party to include a different organization, the Communist Labor Party. Finally, despite the fact that Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson insisted that more than membership in an organization was required for a warrant, Hoover worked with more compliant Labor officials and overwhelmed Labor staff to get the warrants he wanted. Justice Department officials, including Palmer and Hoover, later claimed ignorance of such details.

The Justice Department launched a series of raids on 2 January 1920, with follow-up operations over the next few days. Smaller raids extended over the next six weeks. At least 3,000 were arrested, and many others were held for various lengths of time. The entire enterprise replicated the November action on a larger scale, including arrests and seizures without search warrants, as well as detention in overcrowded and unsanitary holding facilities. Hoover later admitted "clear cases of brutality". Some cases in Boston included torture, where detainees were placed in a 'hot box' above a furnace and given one glass of water and a slice of bread a day and kept there for 50 hours. The raids covered more than 30 cities and towns in 23 states, but those west of the Mississippi and south of Ohio were "publicity gestures" designed to make the effort appear nationwide in scope. Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation. In a few weeks, after changes in personnel at the Department of Labor, Palmer faced a new and very independent-minded Acting Secretary of Labor in Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis Freeland Post, who canceled more than 2,000 warrants as being illegal. Of the 10,000 arrested, 3,500 were held by authorities in detention; 556 resident aliens were eventually deported under the Immigration Act of 1918.

On 28 May 1920, the ACLU published its "Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice", which carefully documented the Justice Department's unlawful arrest of suspected radicals, illegal entrapment by agents provocateurs, and unlawful incommunicado detention. Such prominent lawyers and law professors as Felix Frankfurter, Roscoe Pound and Ernst Freund signed it. Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee criticized the raids and attempts at deportations and the lack of legal process in his 1920 volume Freedom of speech. He wrote: "That a Quaker should employ prison and exile to counteract evil-thinking is one of the saddest ironies of our time." The Rules Committee gave Palmer a hearing in June, where he attacked Post and other critics whose "tender solicitude for social revolution and perverted sympathy for the criminal anarchists...set at large among the people the very public enemies whom it was the desire and intention of the Congress to be rid of." The press saw the dispute as evidence of the Wilson administration's ineffectiveness and division as it approached its final months.

In Montana, copper miners were dissatisfied with the Western Federation of Miners and thus clashes between the miners were formed leading to the detainment of many workers in the field. The U.S. District Court Judge George M. Bourquin, wrote in a decision granting a writ releasing them on 12 February 1920, "The Declaration of Independence, the writings of the Fathers of our Country, the Revolution, the Constitution and the Union, all were inspired to overthrow the like governmental tyranny. They are yet living, vital, potential forces to safeguard all domiciled in the country, aliens as well as citizens. If evidence of the alien's evil advocacy and teaching is so wanting that it exists in only that herein, and as secured herein, he is a far less danger to this country that are the parties who in violation of law and order, of humanity and justice, have brought him to deportation. They are the spirit of intolerance incarnate, and the most alarming manifestation in America today." In so saying, he placed the blame for the actions taken squarely on those creating a hysteria against a primarily Russian ethnic minority, and who managed to sidestep all blame by continuing to call such actions lawful. Hoover went on to head the FBI, which over its history also came to be known for the institutional racism of the COINTELPRO, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X operations and Palmer lost all support for his bid seeking the Democratic presidential nomination to replace Wilson. The judge summed it up neatly; "Thoughtful men who love this country and its institutions see more danger in them and in their practices and the government by hysteria they stimulate, than in the miserable, hated "Reds" that are the ostensible occasion of them all. Those people may confidently assume that even as the "Reds", they too in due time will pass, and the nation still lives. It is for the courts to deal with both, to hold both in check when brought within the jurisdiction." Zechariah Chafee went on to write many significant works about civil liberties. His first book, Freedom of Speech, established modern First Amendment theory.

Many other minority groups were also victims of institutional racism. For example, immigration bans were imposed on Chinese people. On the West Coast during the 1870s, the intensifying competition for jobs between Chinese workers and whites motivated some whites to launch an anti-Chinese movement. The first Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed to prohibit Chinese from immigrating to the United States, as a result, only ten Chinese immigrants entered the United States in 1887. The 1917 Asiatic Barred Zone Act, sought to block immigration from Turkey to Indonesia and China, eliminating virtually all new arrivals from the South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. There were other anti-immigration policies throughout U.S. history against France and Ireland in the late 1700s, and Southern Europeans, Eastern Europeans, Jews, Africans, Arabs, East Asians and Indians with the Immigration Act of 1924. Anti-immigration sentiment can also affect minorities who have been U.S. citizens for many generations, such as the internment of Japanese Americans during the World War 2 and Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s. The 1965 Immigration Act reversed the national-origins quota system that had been in place since the 1920s, which had discriminated against certain ethnic minorities, particularly those originating in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Between 1929 and 1939, during the Great Depression, 355,000 to one million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were repatriated or deported to Mexico, 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens, overwhelmingly children. Voluntary repatriation was more common than formal deportation. The government formally deported at least 82,000 people to Mexico between 1929 and 1935. According to the INS, around 400,000 to 1 million Mexicans and Mexican-Americans moved to Mexico during the 1930s. Few were formally deported, with most going to Mexico from their own towns where officials using threats of deportation coerced them; or were repatriated through voluntary - though often coercive - repatriation programs directed by state and local governments, and charitable aid agencies.

The repatriation campaign was a response to migration west by the Oakies and housing and wage labor shortages in the United States during the Great Depression. Until the Great Depression, many American citizens had seen the value of the Mexicans as cheap labor. With increased poverty and fewer jobs, many Americans and officials scapegoated Mexicans. The Secretary of Labor in the Hoover administration, William N. Doak ( Hoovervilles) scapegoated "illegal immigrants" ( migrant workers) as taking jobs from Americans. While not specifying Mexicans, repatriation campaigns overwhelmingly targeted Mexicans. In 1931, the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, the Wickersham Commission found the methods employed by Doak's subordinates to be unconstitutional. The policy continued into the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.

According to Abraham Hoffman, "from 1931 on, cities and counties across the country intensified and embarked upon repatriation programs, conducted under the auspices of either local welfare bureaus or private charitable agencies". The Los Angeles chairman of the board of supervisors' charities and public welfare committee (and later Los Angeles mayor), Frank L. Shaw had researched the legality of deportation but was advised by that only the federal government was legally allowed to deport people. As a result, the L.A. County supervisors called their campaign " repatriation", which Balderrama asserts was a euphemism for deportation.

C.P. Visel, the spokesman for Los Angeles Citizens Committee for Coordination of Unemployment Relief began his "unemployment relief measure" that would create a "psychological gesture" intended to "scarehead" Mexicans out of Los Angeles, through a series of "publicity releases announcing the deportation campaign, a few arrests would be made 'with all publicity possible and pictures', and both police and deputy sheriffs would assist". The Bureau of Immigration was responsible for many mass raids and deportations, and the local government was responsible for the media attention given to these raids to "scarehead" immigrants, specifically Mexicans, provoking many complaints and criticisms from the Mexican Consulate and the Spanish-language magazine La Opinión.

Numerous books have been written about the repatriations including 'Decade of Betrayal', by social history professor Raymond Rodriguez and Francisco Balderrama. In 1995, they wrote a book, which sparked legislative hearings and formal apologies from the state of California and Los Angeles County officials. In 2006, the House of Representatives congresspersons Hilda Solis and Luis Gutierrez called for an apology from the U.S. Government for the Repatriation. The Mexican repatriation campaign is not widely discussed in U.S. textbooks. In a 2006 survey of the nine most commonly used American history textbooks in the United States, four did not mention the topic, and only one devoted more than half a page to the topic. In total, they devoted four pages to the repatriation.

The Mexican labor that supplied U.S. agribusiness has cycled between needing workers and calls to repatriate them. Some calls were by Mexican farmers, because from time to time there were acute labor shortages in Mexico. With the growing diplomatic and security issues surrounding illegal border crossings, the INS increased its raids and apprehensions beginning in the early 1950s leading up to Operation Wetback in 1954 in cooperation with the Mexican government. While the Bracero program was in force, the INS deported one million Mexicans starting in 1954. Those apprehended were often deported without recovering property or contacting family and were often stranded without food or employment when they entered Mexico. Deported Mexicans often faced extreme conditions, and some were left in the desert; 88 deported workers died in 112-degree heat in July 1955. Most deported were sent by ship to Veracruz or transported by land to southern Mexican cities. During the Operation, recruitment of illegal workers by American growers continued due to the inexpensiveness of illegal labor and desire to avoid the bureaucratic obstacles of the Bracero program.

Merit-based hiring to civil service titles are race-blind in terms of hiring preferences; in practice, however, there are titles that have resisted integration to the present day. Institutions that resist even past the civil right fights of the 1950s and 1960s resulted in court interventions in the 1970s and even up to the last decade. Many of the Consent Decrees that resulted from court intervention came about as a result of the federal government intervening due to EEOC complaints in hiring or attempts to litigate discrimination that was overt. Until 2007, when the Vulcan Society of the FDNY prevailed in court using the legal theory of disparate impact, many lawsuits resulted in racial quotas being imposed in hiring. Police and Fire Departments across the country have been slow to change the insular culture that kept them lacking in diversity and open to challenges.

Civil Service, as an institution, was traditionally used to prevent nepotism and the influence of politics in appointments to the position. Authorized at the federal level in 1871, it came about due to reforms of the spoils system in place since the 1830s, and abuses of the post-Civil War era, when Congress authorized the president to appoint a Civil Service Commission and prescribe regulations for admission to public service. A dissatisfied office-seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881, and Congress was motivated to pass the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883, which firmly established the Civil Service. During Reconstruction, this enabled the federal government to provide jobs for newly freed black people in the South (primarily the Postal Service) where no other employment opportunities existed for them. Since the inception of the merit system in 1881, the numbers of black people in federal Civil Service positions rose from 0.057 to 5.6% by 1910. Since 1883, the majority of federal employees are placed in positions that are classified by Civil Service designations. (see Also: U.S. Civil Service Reform)

This enabled the administration to demote and eliminate black civil servants from positions held in Civil Service and further prevented any new appointments, thus purposefully exacerbating black exclusion from the federal Civil Service. Wilson had campaigned promising to elevate blacks in his administration by matching the patronage offered them by past Republican administrations. Many black newspapers, based on his inaugural speech, supported him, but those Southern Democrats in Congress opposed to integration actively rendered him moot, and patronage appointments fell even lower. Claiming 'friction' among blacks and whites at the post office, they proposed segregating them. This was taken up by the Postmaster General and the Secretary of the Treasury, and when the cabinet and the president did not oppose the measure, Jim Crow practices in some departments was taken up with a vengeance. By 1921, those black postal workers not demoted or fired were behind a wall at the ' Dead Letter Office' in Washington, D.C., or placed behind screens where the other workers did not have to see them. Without any basis in fact or accumulation of complaints to justify segregation, it became unofficial policy. Signs appeared restricting toilets and lunchrooms, whole offices were segregated by room and workers were paired off by race. A virtual flood of proposed discriminatory laws were proposed in Congress ranging from 'Jim Crow' streetcars to excluding blacks from military commissions to officer in the Army or Navy and anti-miscegenation bills. There were also bills to restrict black immigration. This spread to the states where more bills passed restricting black people. Federal Civil Service did not fare well under Wilson, as he held that "it was to their advantage" and "likely to remove many of the difficulties which have surrounded the appointment and advancement of colored men and women", espousing the segregation taking place under his administration.

The next chapter was the Hatch Act of 1939, which prevented state and local civil servants from taking part in political activities or running for office. It was a response to conservative forces in Congress who wanted to prevent administration appointments to certain agencies aligned with the WPA and FDR presidential confidante Harry Hopkins, whom they felt were giving jobs to the 'wrong people'. Until the Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court decision and the related cases that ushered in the Civil Rights era, institutional segregation was upheld at the federal level by the Plessy v. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case decision, which the court overturned in 1954. Following this, cities consulted with their attorneys and as a result, integration began. This was replaced in turn by institutional racism, the practice of upholding the letter of the law, but not the spirit, in an effort to prevent minority hires from gaining ground in titles where they were disproportionately underrepresented, such as police and fire departments, and in management positions.

Around the country in the 1950s, black people found common cause in challenging employment discrimination, and the colored newspapers took up the cause. Economically, jobs were becoming scarce for minorities during the post-war years as returning servicemen reclaimed the manufacturing and factory base. Civil Service looked to be a reasonable alternative to black people returning from World War II service overseas and black officers leaving the newly desegregated armed services. In Los Angeles in the 1950s, the NAACP fueled an integration campaign in the California Eagle and petitioned the fire commission to provide more jobs in the LAFD. When the Fire Chief Engineer John Alderson attempted to integrate the department, the resistance to integration created so-called 'Hate Houses' and resulted in the formation of The Stentorians as a protective force of guardians to protect minority firefighters. New York had previously experienced its own revelations when the Vulcan Society appeared before the city council and demanded the elimination of 'the black bed' in firehouses for black firemen. At that hearing in 1944, the NYC council chambers filled with FDNY brass on one side and black firefighters protesting the lack of promotional opportunities and racial harassment on the other.

With that as the backdrop, integration began and segregation was replaced by institutional racism, which took the form much the same way it did when black people first got hired before and during World War II. Black people once appointed to a Civil Service position were subjected to isolation, ostracism, outright hostility and separate quarters. After 1956, the first black hires to the LAFD after integration unfairly failed to finish academy training. The Vulcan Society in New York mentored many blacks, but progress was slow, with hiring not reflected in mirroring the population of the cities served until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, when the number of minority hirings increased. The U.S. Department of Labor in the 1970s began enforcing racial quotas during the Nixon administration that mandated black hiring, but it was the lawsuits of the 1970s that exploded the imposition of consent decrees across the country forcing the diversity of the hard to integrate titles. In 1971, the Vulcan Blazers of the Baltimore, Maryland fire department filed a groundbreaking lawsuit that resulted in the appointment of blacks to positions of officers up to assistant chief when the court ruled there had been discrimination in promotions. Other minority groups followed their lead and also took to the courts. In 2009, the City of Baltimore paid $4.6 million to settle a case filed by minority policemen alleging racial discrimination. As other recent lawsuits have proved, civil departments have held their heads responsible for cases of institutional racism, an example of which is the case in 2007 of the LAFD Chief, William Bamattre, who was retired by the mayor of Los Angeles after being perceived of kowtowing to racial pandering in responding to lawsuits affecting his department. Payouts to blacks and women had topped $7.5 million for cases alleging racism and harassment, and also the failure to diversify.

Affirmative action, while originally meant to refer to a set of policies and practices preventing discrimination based on race, creed, color, and ethnicity, now often refers to policies positively supporting members of disadvantaged or underrepresented groups that have in the past suffered discrimination in areas such as education, employment, and housing. Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve goals such as bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to education, promoting diversity, and redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances.

In the 1990s President George H. W. Bush attempted to eliminate affirmative action during his term of office. Filing a brief against quotas in college admissions, he also stood against the use of quotas, preferences, and set-asides on the basis of race, sex, religion, or national origin, and abolished their use in hiring. Congress responded with the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which only covered the terms for settling cases where discrimination had previously been confirmed. It had been near impossible to prove a case of institutional discrimination in the courts, and many other cases were terminated upon imposition of a consent decree. While President George H. W. Bush's attempt failed, it did give rise to the 1997 California Proposition 209, a ballot initiative abolishing affirmative action in California universities. This closed down the avenues affirmative action initiatives had opened for minorities, as legislation no longer required California universities to actively facilitate the development of ethnically diverse campus populations. Consequently, employment discrimination lawsuits seeking compensation for discriminatory hiring declined, as arguments for redress on account of past wrongs under the 'catchup provisions' no longer worked in favor of claimants. Proposition 209 has withstood challenges such as the 2013 Amendment No. 5, which would have reversed 209 had it not been retracted by its main Senate sponsor prior to passage. In 2014 the UCLA Board of Regents publicly renounced 209 on account of the decline in minority admissions to California universities after 209 was implemented. The regents re-affirmed this in 2020.

Similar ballot initiatives to California 209 spread around the country, primarily in red states. In the 2003 case of Gratz v. Bollinger, the Supreme Court ruled that the University of Michigan's mis-implementation of affirmative action in its point-allocation-based admittance process had resulted in a homogenized statistical advantage for minority applicants and unconstitutionally rendered the university incapable of differentiating between the distinct diversity contributions of each individual. On the same day and concerning another University of Michigan (Law School) applicant, the supreme court ruled in the case of Grutter v. Bollinger that while failing to recognize the distinct contributions of minority groups was unconstitutional, the overall initiative of affirmative action - creating an inclusive, racially diverse demographic - was not.

Efforts to abolish affirmative action were not limited to California and Michigan. In 2008 American Civil Rights Institute chairman Ward Connerly successfully campaigned for the passage of legislation banning affirmative action in Nebraska. Three of the five states that ACRI pushed anti-affirmative action ballots in rejected them and it failed to make the ballot in another. Connerly stated, "I think that in some quarters, many parts of the country, a white male is really disadvantaged... Because we have developed this notion of women and minorities being so disadvantaged and we have to help them, that we have, in many cases, twisted the thing so that it's no longer a case of equal opportunity. It's a case of putting a fist on the scale."

In 2020, a study concluded that proposition 209 had caused harm to black and Hispanic students without any tangible gains for white or Asian students replacing them in the University of California system. With repeal of the controversial measure on the California ballot in 2020, the eleven other states that passed similar anti-affirmative action laws are also reviewing its effects on their minority admissions. Conservatives are still at the supreme court challenging race based admissions, with the DOJ under the Trump administration suing Yale university over alleged discrimination.

Three cases before the SCOTUS have determined whether there is institutional racism in education. Bakke (1978) allowed minorities to gain an edge in university admissions and hiring. Justice Connors swing vote in Grutter (2003) was a rebuke of Proposition 209 and similar initiatives, giving a 25-year timeline where such interventions would no longer be necessary. Schuette (2013) allowed states to ban race-based affirmative action in public university admissions. Through the use of discriminatory ballot initiatives (1997-2008) to bypass the law, gaining public acceptance of anti-affirmative action endeavors, the process of placing undue burdens on minorities seeking advancement has, in this century, become entrenched. In her dissent to Schutte, Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote that the voters of Michigan had "changed the basic rules of the political process in that State in a manner that uniquely disadvantaged racial minorities." Citing reverse-racism after the effects have been proven deleterious to minority admissions is repeating failed policy and furthers this bias. This offends portions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, where discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin was prohibited.

The 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision was the beginning of the process of desegregation and the elimination of de jure discrimination. However, it was hard to determine the challenges that the process would present and the obstacles that would continue to exist. While the concept of "separate but equal" had been overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, it was clear that the racial divide had not yet been resolved. As the years since Brown v. Board of Education passed, both verbal and physical abuse continued. After Brown v. Board of Education, the desegregated environment proved to be strenuous and was going to require some work. The increase of racial tension and racial incidents in institutes of higher education is said to be due to the "lack of knowledge, experience, and contact with diverse peers; peer-group influence; increased competition and stress; the influence of off-campus groups and the media; alcohol use; changing values; fear of diversity; and the perception of unfair treatment". Although Brown v. Board of Education was ruled in 1954, actual integration did not completely occur until many years later; the U.S. Supreme Court held multiple hearings on the desegregation of schools, continuously they maintained that Brown v. Board of Education must be followed by schools, colleges, and universities. The manner in which Brown v. Board of Education was drawn out years after the decision helped instill racism in education by illustrating the extraordinary lengths some educational institutions would go to avoid integration.

In 2008, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that while enrollment of minorities and students of color had risen, white enrollment still held the majority on average, accounting for 63 percent of undergraduate college and university students; however, 66 percent of the population was white in 2008. While this varies based on the region, state, and elite status, in general the majority of colleges and universities in the United States are predominantly white reflecting the white population percentage. According to the U.S. Department of Education, there had been a rise in hate crimes on college campuses, with 1250 hate crimes in 2016, up 25 percent from 2015; however, in 2019, all reported racial, ethnic, religious, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, and disability hate crimes totaled 757, while racially motivated intimidation, destruction, damage, vandalism, and simple assault totaled 329.

Preparation for post-secondary education seems to be an issue. According to the U.S. Department of Education, being prepared for college is integral to whether or not a student is successful. While the government offers college preparation programs for minority and low-income students, programs such as GEAR UP and Federal TRIO Programs help prepare students for college to better ensure their success and retention, the access to these programs is relatively limited. While programs such as Federal TRIO Programs have grown since conception, there is still work that needs to be done if more minority students are expected to attend and succeed in a post-secondary institution. Due to availability of Federal TRIO Programs being subjective based on where geographically a student may be, the benefits are not completely being felt be the targeted communities. However, the positive effects of Federal TRIO Programs have been pretty bolstering - more minorities and low-income individuals are prepared when going to post-secondary institutions.

Despite efforts to improve the situation on college and university campuses, such as implementing affirmative action plans, anti-black racism and violence continue to occur. The effects of this violence extend beyond the incident itself. According to a U.S. study in Baltimore, racism has a correlation with health complications, such as high systolic blood pressure. Likewise, a study held from 1997 to 2003 found that racism led to higher rates of breast cancer. While this extends beyond education, it could illustrate why many minorities and students of color would feel uneasy putting themselves into an environment that could potentially garner more racism. While illustrations of institutional racism on college campuses can be found in newspapers and blogs, there are other places to learn more about these incidents. Aside from the media, one source that can be used to keep up to date on institutional racism in higher education is The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (JBHE). This journal aims to provide as much information as possible about anti-black institutional racism. JBHE publishes resources, statistics, and current reports of race-related actions on college and university campuses. For example, JBHE reported on the 2015 University of Oklahoma Sigma Alpha Epsilon racism incident. Other media resources where reports on racial incidents on college campuses can be found is Inside Higher Ed and the Southern Poverty Law Center

In 2016, the U.S. Department of Education released a report on crime in schools. Of the racial hate crimes reported on college campuses in 2013, 41% were vandalisms, 37% were intimidations, and 38% were simple assaults. According to the U.S. Department of Education, there were 146 reported cases of racial harassment on college and university campuses in 2015. However, this number by no means is a true portrayal of the actual amount of racial harassment that occurs. Research conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute claims that only 13% of these incidents get reported. According to the Center for College Health and Safety, one reason that so few incidents get reported is that there is a lack of awareness about what consists of a hate crime, as well as where one must report such a crime. Although data is limited to what has been reported, the FBI allows public access to numerous tables and statistics about hate crimes reported in 2015. There were 4,029 hate crimes motivated by race/ethnicity/ancestry, 52.7% of which the FBI reports were motivated by anti-black bias. Out of 3,310 racial bias hate crimes, 7.9% occurred at schools/colleges. As of May 2017, the Anti-Defamation League has reported that 107 incidents of white-supremacist posters being posted on American campuses since the beginning of the 2016 school year have been verified. 65 of these reported incidents have occurred since January 2017.

Fakehatecrimes.org provides a database with links to news sources that report hate crimes that have been falsely reported. For example, a student at Capital University claimed to have found a race-related note on his door, and his story was shared on the university newspaper. Later, in another article, the newspaper shared how the student confessed after investigation that he made the story up. Complex, a news source, published an article naming the "most hate-filled colleges in America" based on data from College Stats.

Numerous news sources, including Inside Higher Ed and Southern Poverty Law Center, and the Brookings Institution, reported that there was a spike in racial hate crimes and harassment following the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States. Although each case has not been verified, the SPLC claimed to have counted 201 racial incidents in less than a week. The largest number of incidents are labeled as "anti-black" and account for over 50 of the occurrences, nearly 40 of which took place on college campuses. Kimberly Griffin, a professor at the University of Maryland who studies and has authored numerous publications on campus racial climate, states the following in an Inside Higher Ed article:

We have a president-elect who campaigned on ideas that made what was previously socially unacceptable racism OK by everything from talking about mass deportations and building walls to accepting endorsements from white nationalist groups. The threats students are facing are often directly connected to his rallying cries and campaign promises. I don't think that Trump created these feelings and the rage we see, but his election normalized it and encouraged it

-  Kimberly Griffin (PhD, University of California, Los Angeles), "Tensions, Protests, Incidents"

Impact on faculty

Structural inequality may be ignored under the assumption that racism will disappear within its own time. Racism may be manifest in a variety of ways, including but not limited to, undervaluation of research, unwritten rules and policies regarding the tenure process, and a lack of mentorship for faculty of color. Women of color faculty are often found doubly worse off as they face discrimination based on both race and gender. According to 2020 data, faculty members at institutions of higher education were predominantly white, with faculty of color constituting roughly 26% of total faculty, with 12% Asian, 7% black, 6% Latino, less than 1% American Indian, and 1% two or more races (see chart). Failure to fully implement affirmative action has been identified as another contributing factor to low numbers of representation.

Faculty members of color often engage in research regarding issues of diversity, which many whites deemed "risky". Widespread beliefs founded on the concept of meritocracy, where success is based solely on individual effort, put into question research revealing structural issues that contribute to success. Political undertones of research within the social sciences are used to put the validity and scientific nature of the findings into question, despite the fact that research in these fields is conducted in the same manner as research in less politically contentious areas of interest. Research methodologies long accepted in other disciplines are called into question depending on the implications of findings, particularly when these findings may reveal racial inequities in the general population and/or the institution itself. "Thus, research appearing to be neutral and scholarly, has important political manifestations, including the justification for racial inequalities that are replicated within the student and alumni bodies of institutions that formally state that they value diversity even as all of their internal mechanisms reproduce exclusionary dominance for some racial groups".

Impact on students

American high school student Rufus talks about wanting to see systemic change to end institutional racism in Los Angeles in 2020.

Whites also felt more positive about their classroom experience and the way professors presented various viewpoints in the curriculum, about institutional policies as well as recruitment and retention of Student of Color. Students of African descent and other students of color felt the campus environment was not friendly and that they had been targets of racism. In another study of 5,000 first year students at 93 institutions, whites were more likely to agree with the statement that "racial discrimination is no longer a problem" than students of color. whites were also more likely to feel that the campus climate is improving in comparison to students of color. Whites felt the campus climate was non-racist, friendly, and respectful while students of color felt that it was racist, hostile, and disrespectful. Research has shown that racial diversification in colleges and universities, without intentional education about systemic racism and the history of race in the United States, can lead to creating a racial campus climate that is oppressive towards students of color. History textbooks in the United States generally gloss over the unpleasant portions of history, resulting in many students being unaware of the Trail of Tears, the workers struggles of the 20th century and the removal in the west of the indigenous. There needs to be, "intentional education interventions related to the changing racial composition of college students [which] would likely influence how the climate of an environment changes". If institutional racism is to be addressed in institutes of higher education, different types of interventions need to be created, in particular, interventions created specifically for the academy. Rankin and Reason's research concluded that for intervention to be effective, faculty would need to be used as socializing agents on campus, in particular, because intellectual and behavioral norms on most campuses are set by faculty and, these norms have a heavy impact on campus climate. An example of students trying to change racial campus climate is the Being Black at the University of Michigan#BBUM moment. The Black Student Union is organizing and collaborating with organizations to bring attention to the racial climate at the University of Michigan and how it is affecting all students. To create interventions that lead to sustainable learning about race, institutions of higher education need to equally value the histories and experiences of students of color and whites. One example of this is required coursework through the departments of African/African-American Studies, Chicano studies, Asian-American studies, Arab-American studies, and Native American studies alongside the History department. Research has shown that curricular diversity is positively associated with intergroup attitudes, decreased racial prejudice and intergroup understanding, and attitudes toward campus diversity.

After slavery was abolished, the government went through a series of changes that reflected the presence of new (black) citizens in the United States. Newly acquired freedom founded a growth in African-American participation in politics. This period of increased African-American participation, from 1867 to 1877, is known as Reconstruction. Despite the increase in African-American participation in politics, Reconstruction is not mentioned as an example of how black politics strive to be. There are very distinct viewpoints concerning this time period. Some believed that corruption had run rampant in the South with the introduction of newly freed slaves into legislatures, and a great deal of attention was given to the negativity that surrounded the introduction of black individuals into government. Reconstruction in South Carolina particularly was under scrutiny as the legislators were predominantly black. The happenings in the South Carolina legislature were described negatively and seen as pro-black and significantly focused on issues that only pertained to black people. Attention was solely focused on the misgivings occurring within the legislature, such as "unethical appropriation of state funds by members of the legislature" and other unethical or illegal acts committed by both black and white legislators in South Carolina. Another set of issues brought up was the multitude of expensive decorative items and embellishments that were purchased for the refurbishment of the State House. Whites were generally left out of the criticisms, despite their own contributions, and were referred to as victims of corruption due to the influence of black people.

Others believed that Reconstruction was not to blame for all corruption in legislation. This faction of people saw the constructive debates and conversations that flowed within the Southern legislatures. They were also more receptive to the positive aspects and characteristics of black legislators that were displayed during their time in office.

Despite the amount of eager participants, this period eventually led to a decline in black participation in politics. The backlash of those against increase of black participation in politics effectively began to cause the number of participants to stop and then decline. In the mid-20th century, despite past involvement, black participation in politics was low. Black participation was not a common occurrence in comparison to overall participation, and it was often celebrated when black candidates or politicians did particularly well in their political endeavors. This decline was attributed to a white counterattack of the Reconstruction movement. Many methods were used to dissuade black people from taking office. One of the most prominent was violence. An example of that would be the Ku Klux Klan, a secretive group whose members believed in white supremacy. The lynching, beatings, and intimidation of black people helped to hasten the decline of black participation in politics. Coercion was also another method used to dissuade black participation in politics, particularly voting. Threats of loss jobs and refusal of medical care are some of the coercion methods employed. Coercion did not play as big of a role as direct physical violence however it did serve to further hinder the growth of black participation in politics. These methods helped to forge a political system that has a scarce amount of minorities in office.

Institutional racism's connections to technology have been an area that has not been sufficiently addressed. In her article "Race and Racism in Internet Studies", Jessie Daniels writes "the role of race in the development of Internet infrastructure and design has largely been obscured. As Sinclair observes, 'The history of race in America has been written as if technologies scarcely existed, and the history of technology as if it were utterly innocent of racial significance.'" Sociologist Ruha Benjamin writes further in her book Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code that researchers "tend to concentrate on how the Internet perpetuates or mediates racial prejudice at the individual level rather than analyze how racism shapes infrastructure and design." Benjamin makes connections between institutional racism and racism in technology and notes the importance of future research on institutionalized racism in technology as well as the "technology of structural racism."

In June 2020, the U.S. Army instituted changes to its promotion policy to counteract institutional racism as part of its efforts to counter unconscious bias that caused black officer candidates to be passed over more often than were similarly qualified whites. For instance, photographs of candidates will no longer be part of their promotional packages, which had been found to hinder advancement opportunities for black soldiers.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Institutional racism, also known as systemic racism, is defined as policies and practices that exist throughout a whole society or organization that result in and support a continued unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment of others based on race.

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Frank in the introduction mentioned about the existence of racism in employment and then didn't write something more about it. I would add some curiosities like:

For people who have names which are typically associated with race other than white it is harder to get a job. According to the National Bureau of Economic Research, job applicants who had white sounding names need to send about 10 applications to get 1 call back, meanwhile people with African-American sounding names had to send 15 applications to get one call back. Many employers have deeply rooted stereotypes about the quality of work that people of color bring to their business. Minorities are not only hired less, but once they are hired, they tend to make lower wages even if they have the same qualifications. He also moved on the topic of the Ku Klux Klan. Personally, I would add some more information about it and its activities. For example, how it was growing or if it still exists. Links are below.

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https://www.theodysseyonline.com/racism-job-market

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Things I liked in the other presentations

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Things I liked in the other presentations

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Thomas:just the right amount of text per page
Oliwia:nice cover page
Lucas:nice layout and theme Natalia:interesting content Matthew:colorful presentation,interesting background
Hannah:the fun facts at the bottom of the page
Michalina::the plethora of information
Jacob:fun to read
Natasza:good graphic design

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https://www.careeraddict.com/5-examples-of-racism-in-the-workplace

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Black Lives Matter ( BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement that seeks to highlight racism, discrimination, and racial inequality experienced by black people and to promote anti-racism. Its primary concerns are police brutality and racially motivated violence against black people. The movement began in response to the killings of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and Rekia Boyd, among others. BLM and its related organizations typically advocate for various policy changes related to black liberation and criminal justice reform. While there are specific organizations that label themselves "Black Lives Matter", such as the Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, the overall movement is a decentralized network with no formal hierarchy. As of 2021, there are about 40 chapters in the United States and Canada. The slogan "Black Lives Matter" itself has not been trademarked by any group.

In 2013, activists and friends Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi originated the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media following the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin. Black Lives Matter became nationally recognized for street demonstrations following the 2014 deaths of two more African Americans, Michael Brown-resulting in protests and unrest in Ferguson, Missouri-and Eric Garner in New York City. Since the Ferguson protests, participants in the movement have demonstrated against the deaths of numerous other African Americans by police actions or while in police custody. In the summer of 2015, Black Lives Matter activists became involved in the 2016 United States presidential election.

The movement gained international attention during global protests in 2020 following the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin. An estimated 15 to 26 million people participated in Black Lives Matter protests in the United States, making it one of the largest protest movements in the country's history. Despite being characterized by opponents as violent, the overwhelming majority of BLM demonstrations have been peaceful.

The popularity of Black Lives Matter has shifted over time, largely due to changing perceptions among white Americans. In 2020, 67% of adults in the United States expressed support for the movement, declining to 51% of U.S. adults in 2023. Support among people of color has, however, held strong, with 81% of African Americans, 61% of Hispanics and 63% of Asian Americans expressing support for Black Lives Matter as of 2023.

Structure and organization

Decentralization

The phrase "Black Lives Matter" can refer to a Twitter hashtag, a slogan, a social movement, a political action committee, or a loose confederation of groups advocating for racial justice. As a movement, Black Lives Matter is grassroots and decentralized, and leaders have emphasized the importance of local organizing over national leadership. The structure differs from previous black movements, like the Civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Such differences have been the subject of scholarly literature. Activist DeRay McKesson has commented that the movement "encompasses all who publicly declare that black lives matter and devote their time and energy accordingly."

In 2013, Patrisse Cullors, Alicia Garza, and Opal Tometi formed the Black Lives Matter Network. Garza described the network as an online platform that existed to provide activists with a shared set of principles and goals. Local Black Lives Matter chapters are asked to commit to the organization's list of guiding principles but are autonomous, operating without a central structure or hierarchy. Garza has commented that the Network was not interested in "policing who is and who is not part of the movement." As of 2021, there are about 40 chapters in the United States and Canada.

The loose structure of Black Lives Matter has contributed to confusion in the press and among activists, as actions or statements from chapters or individuals are sometimes attributed to "Black Lives Matter" as a whole. Matt Pearce, writing for the Los Angeles Times, commented that "the words could be serving as a political rallying cry or referring to the activist organization. Or it could be the fuzzily applied label used to describe a wide range of protests and conversations focused on racial inequality."

On at least one occasion, a person represented as Managing Director of BLM Global Network has released a statement represented to be on behalf of that organization.

Broader movement

Concurrently, a broader movement involving several other organizations and activists emerged under the banner of "Black Lives Matter", as well. In 2015, Johnetta Elzie, DeRay Mckesson, Brittany Packnett, and Samuel Sinyangwe initiated Campaign Zero, aimed at promoting policy reforms to end police brutality. The campaign released a ten-point plan for reforms to policing, with recommendations including: ending broken windows theory policing, increasing community oversight of police departments, and creating stricter guidelines for the use of force. The New York Times reporter, John Eligon, wrote that some activists expressed concerns that the campaign was overly focused on legislative remedies for police violence.

Black Lives Matter also voices support for various movements and causes beyond police brutality, including LGBTQ activism, feminism, immigration reform, and economic justice.

Movement for Black Lives

The Movement for Black Lives (M4BL) is a coalition of more than 50 groups representing the interests of black communities across the United States. Members include the Black Lives Matter Network, the National Conference of Black Lawyers, and the Ella Baker Center for Human Rights. Endorsed by groups such as Color of Change, Race Forward, Brooklyn Movement Center, PolicyLink, Million Women March Cleveland, and ONE DC, the coalition receives communications and tactical support from an organization named Blackbird.

On July 24, 2015, the movement initially convened at Cleveland State University where between 1,500 and 2,000 activists gathered to participate in open discussions and demonstrations. The conference in Cleveland, Ohio initially attempted to "strategize ways for the Movement for Black Lives to hold law enforcement accountable for their actions on a national level". However, the conference resulted in the formation of a much more significant social movement. At the end of the three-day conference, on July 26, the Movement for Black Lives initiated a yearlong "process of convening local and national groups to create a United Front". This year long process ultimately resulted in the establishment of an organizational platform that articulates the goals, demands, and policies which the Movement for Black Lives supports in order to achieve the "liberation" of black communities across America.

In 2016, the Ford Foundation announced plans to fund the M4BL Movement for Black Lives in a "six-year investments" plan, further partnering up with others to found the Black-led Movement Fund. The sum donated by the Ford Foundation and the other donors to M4BL was reported as $100 million by The Washington Times in 2016 (equivalent to $127 million in 2023); another donation of $33 million (equivalent to $42 million) to M4BL was reportedly issued by the Open Society Foundations.

In 2016, M4BL called for decarceration in the United States, reparations for harms related to slavery, and more recently, specific remedies for redlining in housing, education policy, mass incarceration and food insecurity. It also called for an end to mass surveillance, investment in public education, not incarceration, and community control of the police: empowering residents in communities of color to hire and fire police officers and issue subpoenas, decide disciplinary consequences and exercise control over city funding of police.

reported in 2015 that the Democracy Alliance, a gathering of Democratic-Party donors, planned to meet with leaders of several groups who were endorsing the Black Lives Matter movement. According to Politico, Solidaire, the donor coalition focusing on "movement building" and led by Texas oil fortune heir Leah Hunt-Hendrix, a member of the Democracy Alliance, had donated more than $200,000 to the BLM movement by 2015.

According to The Economist, between May 2020 and December 2020, donations to Black Lives Matter related causes amounted to $10.6 billion (equivalent to $12 billion in 2023). The Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, one of the main organizations coordinating organizing and mobilization efforts across the reported raising $90 million in 2020 (equivalent to $106 million in 2023), including a substantial number of individual donations online, with an average donation of $30.76 (equivalent to $36.21).

Strategies and tactics

Black Lives Matter originally used various social media platforms-including hashtag activism-to reach thousands of people rapidly. Since then, Black Lives Matter has embraced a diversity of tactics. Black Lives Matter protests have been overwhelmingly peaceful; when violence does occur, it is often committed by counter-protesters. Despite this, opponents often try to portray the movement as violent.

Internet and social media

In 2014, the American Dialect Society chose #BlackLivesMatter as their word of the year. Yes! Magazine picked #BlackLivesMatter as one of the twelve hashtags that changed the world in 2014. From July 2013 through May 1, 2018, the hashtag "#BlackLivesMatter" had been tweeted over 30 million times, an average of 17,002 times per day. By June 10, 2020, it had been tweeted roughly 47.8 million times, with the period of July 7-17, 2016 having the highest usage, at nearly 500,000 tweets a day. This period also saw an increase in tweets using the hashtags "#BlueLivesMatter" and "#AllLivesMatter". On May 28, 2020, there were nearly 8.8 million tweets with the hashtag, and the average had increased to 3.7 million a day.

Direct action

BLM generally engages in direct action tactics that make people uncomfortable enough that they must address the issue. BLM has been known to build power through protest and rallies. BLM has also staged die-ins and held one during the 2015 Twin Cities Marathon.

Political slogans used during demonstrations include the eponymous "Black Lives Matter", " Hands up, don't shoot" (a later discredited reference attributed to Michael Brown), " I can't breathe" (referring to Eric Garner and later George Floyd), "White silence is violence", " No justice, no peace", and "Is my son next?", among others.

According to a 2018 study, "Black Lives Matter protests are more likely to occur in localities where more black people have previously been killed by police."

Media, music and other cultural impacts

Since the beginning of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013, with the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter, the movement has been depicted and documented in film, song, television, literature, and the visual arts. A number of media outlets are providing material related to racial injustice and the Black Lives Matter movement. Published books, novels, and TV shows have increased in popularity in 2020. Songs, such as Michael Jackson's " They Don't Care About Us" and Kendrick Lamar's " Alright", have been widely used as a rallying call at demonstrations.

The short documentary film, Bars4Justice, features brief appearances by various activists and recording artists affiliated with the Black Lives Matter movement. The film is an official selection of the 24th Annual Pan African Film Festival. Stay Woke: The Black Lives Matter Movement is a 2016 American television documentary film, starring Jesse Williams, about the Black Lives Matter movement.

The February 2015 issue of magazine and the cover was devoted to Black Lives Matter. In December 2015, BLM was a contender for the magazine Person of the Year award, coming in fourth of the eight candidates.

A number of cities have painted murals of "Black Lives Matter" in large letters on their streets. The cities include Washington, D.C., Dallas, Denver, Charlotte, Seattle, Brooklyn, Los Angeles, and Birmingham, Alabama.

Allegations of use of excessive force by police

According to The Washington Post, police officers shot and killed 1,001 people in the United States in 2019. About half of those killed were white, and one quarter were black, making the rate of deaths for black Americans (31 fatal shootings per million) more than twice as high as the rate for white Americans (13 fatal shootings per million). The Washington Post also counts 13 unarmed black Americans shot dead by police in 2019.

A 2015 study by Cody Ross, UC Davis found "significant bias in the killing of unarmed black Americans relative to unarmed white Americans" by police. The study found that unarmed African Americans had 3.49 times the probability of being shot compared to unarmed whites, although in some jurisdictions the risk could be as much as 20 times higher. The study found that 2.79 more armed blacks were shot than unarmed blacks. The study also found that the documented county-level racial bias in police shootings could not be explained by differences in local crime rates.

A 2019 study by Cesario et al. published in Social Psychological and Personality Science found that after adjusting for crime, there was "no systematic evidence of anti-black disparities in fatal shootings, fatal shootings of unarmed citizens, or fatal shootings involving misidentification of harmless objects". However, a 2020 study by Cody Ross et al. criticizes the data analysis used in the Cesario et al. study. Using the same data set for police shootings in 2015 and 2016, Ross et al. conclude that there is significant racial bias in police shooting cases involving unarmed black suspects. This bias is not seen when suspects were armed.

A 2019 study in concluded that black people were actually less likely than white people to be killed by police, based on the death rates in police encounters. The authors later retracted the paper because although "our data and statistical approach were appropriate for investigating whether officer characteristics are related to the race of civilians fatally shot by police," the paper had been "cited as providing support for the idea that there are no racial biases in fatal shootings, or policing in general" whereas in fact their analyses "are inadequate to address racial disparities in the probability of being shot."

Another study found that such conclusions were erroneous due to Simpson's paradox. According to the paper, while it was true that white people were more likely to be killed in a police encounter, overall black people were still being discriminated against because they were more likely to have interactions with the police due to structural racism. They are more likely to be stopped for more petty crimes or for no crime at all. Conversely, white people interact with police more rarely, and often for more serious crimes such as shootings, where police are more likely to use force. The same paper also backed up the findings of Ross and Fryer, and concluded that overall rate of death was a much more useful statistic than the rate of death in encounters.

Disproportionate policing of Black Lives Matter events

Black Lives Matter protesters are themselves sometimes subject to excessive policing of the kind against which they are demonstrating. In May 2020, in addition to police, 43,350 military troops were deployed against Black Lives Matter protesters nationally. Military surveillance aircraft were deployed against subsequent Black Lives Matter protests. Observers, such as U.S. President Joe Biden, have noted that violent far-right mobilizations, including the 2021 United States Capitol attack, attracted smaller and more passive police presences than peaceful Black Lives Matter protests. In November 2015, a police officer in Oregon was removed from street duty following a social media post in which he said he would have to "babysit these fools", in reference to a planned BLM event.

Timeline of notable events and demonstrations in the United States

In 2014, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Dontre Hamilton, Eric Garner, John Crawford III, Michael Brown, Ezell Ford, Laquan McDonald, Akai Gurley, Tamir Rice, Antonio Martin, and Jerame Reid, among others.

During the Labor Day weekend in August, Black Lives Matter organized a "Freedom Ride", that brought more than 500 African-Americans from across the United States into Ferguson, Missouri, to support the work being done on the ground by local organizations. The movement continued to be involved in the Ferguson protests, following the killing of Michael Brown. The protests at times came into conflict with local and state police departments, who typically responded in an armed manner. At one point the National Guard was called in and a state of emergency was declared.

In November, a New York City Police Department officer shot and killed, Akai Gurley, a 28-year-old African-American man. Gurley's death was later protested by Black Lives Matter in New York City. In Oakland, California, fourteen Black Lives Matter activists were arrested after they stopped a Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) train for more than an hour on Black Friday, one of the biggest shopping days of the year. The protest, led by Black Lives Matter co-founder Alicia Garza, was organized in response to the grand jury decision not to indict Darren Wilson for the killing of Michael Brown.

Also in November, Tamir Rice, a 12-year-old African-American boy was shot and killed by a Cleveland police officer. Rice's death has also been cited as contributing to "sparking" the Black Lives Matter movement.

In December, two to three thousand people gathered at the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, to protest the killings of unarmed black men by police. The police at the mall were equipped with riot gear and bomb-sniffing dogs; at least twenty members of the protest were arrested. Management said that they were "extremely disappointed that organizers of Black Lives Matter protest chose to ignore our stated policy and repeated reminders that political protests and demonstrations are not allowed on Mall of America property".

In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, BLM protested the police killing of Dontre Hamilton, who died in April. Black Lives Matter protested the killing of John Crawford III. The Murder of Renisha McBride was protested by Black Lives Matter.

In 2015, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Charley Leundeu Keunang, Tony Robinson, Anthony Hill, Meagan Hockaday, Eric Harris, Walter Scott, Freddie Gray, William Chapman, Jonathan Sanders, Sandra Bland, Samuel DuBose, Jeremy McDole, Corey Jones, and Jamar Clark as well Dylann Roof's murder of The Charleston Nine.

In April, Black Lives Matter across the United States protested over the death of Freddie Gray which included the 2015 Baltimore protests. The National Guard was called in. After the killing of Walter Scott in North Charleston, South Carolina, Black Lives Matter protested Scott's death and called for Civilian oversight of police.

In May, a protest by BLM in San Francisco was part of a nationwide protest, SayHerName, decrying the police killing of black women and girls, which included the deaths of Meagan Hockaday, Aiyana Jones, Rekia Boyd, and others. In Cleveland, Ohio, after an officer was acquitted at trial in the Killing of Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams, BLM protested. In Madison, Wisconsin, BLM protested after the officer was not charged in the killing of Tony Robinson.

In June, after Dylann Roof's shooting in a historically black church in Charleston, South Carolina, BLM across the country marched, protested and held vigil for several days after the shooting. BLM was part of a march for peace on the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge in South Carolina. After the Charleston shooting, a number of memorials to the Confederate States of America were graffitied with "Black Lives Matter" or otherwise vandalized. Around 800 people protested in McKinney, Texas after a video was released showing an officer pinning a girl-at a pool party in McKinney, Texas-to the ground with his knees.

In July, BLM activists across the United States began protests over the death of Sandra Bland, an African-American woman, who was allegedly found hanged in a jail cell in Waller County, Texas. In Cincinnati, Ohio, BLM rallied and protested the death of Samuel DuBose after he was shot and killed by a University of Cincinnati police officer. In Newark, New Jersey, over a thousand BLM activists marched against police brutality, racial injustice, and economic inequality. Also in July, BLM protested the death of Jonathan Sanders who died while being arrested by police in Mississippi.

One-year commemoration of the killing of Michael Brown and the Ferguson unrest at Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York, August 2015

In August, BLM organizers held a rally in Washington, D.C., calling for a stop to violence against transgender women. In Charlotte, North Carolina, after a judge declared a mistrial in the trial of a white Charlotte police officer who killed an unarmed black man, Jonathan Ferrell, BLM protested and staged die-ins. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Janelle Monáe, Jidenna, and other BLM activists marched through North Philadelphia to bring awareness to police brutality and Black Lives Matter. Around August 9, the first anniversary of Michael Brown's death, BLM rallied, held vigil and marched in St. Louis and across the country.

In September, over five hundred BLM protesters in Austin, Texas rallied against police brutality, and several briefly carried protest banners onto Interstate 35. In Baltimore, Maryland, BLM activists marched and protested as hearings began in the Freddie Gray police brutality case. In Sacramento, California, about eight hundred BLM protesters rallied to support a California State Senate bill that would increase police oversight. BLM protested the killing of Jeremy McDole.

In October, Black Lives Matter activists were arrested during a protest of a police chiefs conference in Chicago. "Rise Up October" straddled the Black Lives Matter Campaign, and brought several protests. Quentin Tarantino and Cornel West, participating in "Rise Up October", decried police violence.

In November, BLM activists protested after Jamar Clark was shot by Minneapolis Police Department. A continuous protest was organized at the Minneapolis 4th Precinct Police. During the encamped protest, protesters, and outside agitators clashed with police, vandalized the station and attempted to ram the station with an SUV. Later that month a march was organized to honor Jamar Clark, from the 4th Precinct to downtown Minneapolis. After the march, a group of men carrying firearms and body armor appeared and began calling the protesters racial slurs according to a spokesperson for Black Lives Matter. After protesters asked the armed men to leave, the men opened fire, shooting five protesters. All injuries required hospitalization, but were not life-threatening. The men fled the scene only to be found later and arrested. The three men arrested were young and white, and observers called them white supremacists. In February 2017, one of the men arrested, Allen Scarsella, was convicted of a dozen felony counts of assault and riot in connection with the shooting. Based in part on months of racist messages Scarsella had sent his friends before the shooting, the judge rejected arguments by his defense that Scarsella was "naïve" and sentenced him in April 2017 to 15 years out of a maximum 20-year sentence.

In 2016, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Bruce Kelley Jr., Alton Sterling, Philando Castile, Joseph Mann, Abdirahman Abdi, Paul O'Neal, Korryn Gaines, Sylville Smith, Terence Crutcher, Keith Lamont Scott, Alfred Olango, and Deborah Danner, among others.

In January, hundreds of BLM protesters marched in San Francisco to protest the December 2, 2015, shooting death of Mario Woods, who was shot by San Francisco Police officers. The march was held during a Super Bowl event. BLM held protests, community meetings, teach-ins, and direct actions across the country with the goal of "reclaim[ing] the radical legacy of Martin Luther King Jr."

On July 5, Alton Sterling, a 37-year-old black man, was shot several times at point-blank range while pinned to the ground by two white Baton Rouge Police Department officers in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On the night of July 5, more than 100 demonstrators in Baton Rouge shouted, "no justice, no peace," set off fireworks, and blocked an intersection to protest Sterling's death. On July 6, Black Lives Matter held a candlelight vigil in Baton Rouge, with chants of "We love Baton Rouge" and calls for justice.

On July 6, Philando Castile was fatally shot by Jeronimo Yanez, a St. Anthony, Minnesota police officer, after being pulled over in Falcon Heights, a suburb of St. Paul. Castile was driving a car with his girlfriend and her 4-year-old daughter as passengers when he was pulled over by Yanez and another officer. According to his girlfriend, after being asked for his license and registration, Castile told the officer he was licensed to carry a weapon and had one in the car. She stated: "The officer said don't move. As he was putting his hands back up, the officer shot him in the arm four or five times." She live-streamed a video on Facebook in the immediate aftermath of the shooting. Following the fatal shooting of Castile, BLM protested throughout Minnesota and the United States.

On July 7, a BLM protest was held in Dallas, Texas that was organized to protest the deaths of Alton Sterling and Philando Castile. At the end of the peaceful protest, Micah Xavier Johnson opened fire in an ambush, killing five police officers and wounding seven others and two civilians. The gunman was then killed by a robot-delivered bomb. Before he died, according to police, Johnson said that "he was upset about Black Lives Matter", and that "he wanted to kill white people, especially white officers." Texas Lt. Governor Dan Patrick and other conservative lawmakers blamed the shootings on the Black Lives Matter movement. The Black Lives Matter network released a statement denouncing the shootings. On July 8, more than 100 people were arrested at Black Lives Matter protests across the United States.

In the first half of July, there were at least 112 protests in 88 American cities. On July 13, NBA stars LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, Chris Paul, and Dwyane Wade opened the 2016 ESPY Awards with a Black Lives Matter message. On July 26, Black Lives Matter held a protest in Austin, Texas, to mark the third anniversary of the shooting death of Larry Jackson Jr. On July 28, Chicago Police Department officers shot Paul O'Neal in the back and killed him following a car chase. After the shooting, hundreds marched in Chicago, Illinois.

In August, several professional athletes began participating in National Anthem protests. The protests began in the National Football League (NFL) after Colin Kaepernick of the San Francisco 49ers sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team's third preseason game of 2016. During a post-game interview he explained his position stating, "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder," a protest widely interpreted as in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement. The protests have generated mixed reactions and have since spread to other U.S. sports leagues.

In September, BLM protested the shooting deaths by police officers of Terence Crutcher in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and Keith Lamont Scott in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Charlotte Observer reported "The protesters began to gather as night fell, hours after the shooting. They held themed signs that said 'Stop Killing Us' and 'Black Lives Matter,' and they chanted 'No justice, no peace.' The scene was sometimes chaotic and tense, with water bottles and stones chucked at police lines, but many protesters called for peace and implored their fellow demonstrators not to act violently." Multiple nights of protests in September and October were held in El Cajon, California, following the killing of Alfred Olango.

In the same month Virginia Commonwealth University's (VCU) James Branch Cabell Library focused on a month-long schedule of events relating to African-American history and showed photos from the church's "Black Lives Matter" exhibition on its outdoor screen. The VCU schedule of events also included: the Real Life Film Series The Angry Heart: The Impact of Racism on Heart Disease among African-Americans; Keith Knight presented the 14th Annual VCU Libraries Black History Month lecture; Lawrence Ross, author of the book Blackballed: The Black and White Politics of Race on America's Campuses talked about how his book related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement; and Velma P. Scantlebury, M.D., the first black female transplant surgeon in the United States, discussed "Health Equity in Kidney Transplantation: Experiences from a surgeon's perspective."

Black Lives Matter protested the killing of Jocques Clemmons which occurred in Nashville, Tennessee on February 10, 2017. On May 12, 2017, a day after Glenn Funk, the district attorney of Davidson County decided not to prosecute police officer Joshua Lippert, the Nashville chapter of BLM held a demonstration near the Vanderbilt University campus all the way to the residence of Nashville mayor Megan Barry.

On September 27 at the College of William & Mary, students associated with Black Lives Matter protested an American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) event because the ACLU had fought for the right of the Unite the Right rally to be held in Charlottesville, Virginia. William & Mary's president Taylor Reveley responded with a statement defending the college's commitment to open debate.

In February and March 2018, as part of its social justice focus, First Unitarian Church of Richmond, Virginia in Richmond, Virginia presented its Second Annual Black Lives Matter Art Exhibition. Works of art in the exhibition were projected at scheduled hours on the large exterior screen (jumbotron) at Virginia Commonwealth University's Cabell Library. Artists with art in the exhibition were invited to discuss their work in the Black Lives Matter show as it was projected at an evening forum in a small amphitheater at VCU's Hibbs Hall. They were also invited to exhibit afterward at a local showing of the 1961 film adaptation of A Raisin in the Sun.

In April, CNN reported that the largest Facebook account claiming to be a part of the "Black Lives Matter" movement was a "scam" tied to a white man in Australia. The account, with 700,000 followers, linked to fundraisers that raised $100,000 or more, purportedly for U.S. Black Lives Matter causes; however, some of the money was instead transferred to Australian banks accounts, according to CNN. Facebook has suspended the offending page.

On February 23, 2020, Ahmaud Arbery, an unarmed 25-year-old African American man, was murdered while jogging in Glynn County, Georgia. Arbery had been pursued and confronted by three white residents driving two vehicles, including a father and son who were armed. All three men were indicted on nine counts, including felony murder.

On March 13, Louisville police officers knocked down the apartment door of 26-year-old African American Breonna Taylor, serving a no-knock search warrant for drug suspicions. After her boyfriend shot a police officer in the leg, Police fired several shots which led to her death. Her boyfriend called 911 and said, "someone kicked in the door and shot my girlfriend". Protests were held in Louisville with calls for police reform.

George Floyd protests

At the end of May, spurred on by a rash of racially charged events including those above, over 450 major protests were held in cities and towns across the United States and three continents. The breaking point was due primarily to the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin, eventually charged with second-degree murder after a video circulated showing Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck for nearly nine minutes while Floyd pleaded for his life, repeating: " I can't breathe." Following protesters' demands for additional prosecutions, three other officers were charged with aiding and abetting second-degree murder.

Black Lives Matter organized rallies in the United States and worldwide from May 30 onwards, with protesters enacting Floyd's final moments, many lying down in streets and on bridges, yelling "I can't breathe," while others marched by the thousands, some carrying signs that read, "Tell your brother in blue, don't shoot"-"Who do you call when the murderer wears a badge?" and "Justice for George Floyd." While global in nature and supported by several unassociated organizations, the Black Lives Matter movement has been inextricably linked to these monumental protests. Black Lives Matter called to " defund the police", a slogan with varying interpretations from police abolition to divestment from police and prisons to reinvestment in social services in communities of color. In 2020, NPR reported that the Washington D.C. Black Lives Matter chapter's demands were defunding the police, halting the construction of new jails, decriminalizing sex work, removing police from schools, exonerating protesters and abolishing cash bail in Maryland.

From May 26 to August 22, there were more than 7,750 BLM-linked demonstrations in over 2,240 locations throughout the United States.

A vigil was held for the death of Keenan Anderson who was killed by a police officer of the Los Angeles Police Department. Anderson was the cousin of Black Lives Matter co-founder Patrisse Cullors. The releasing of camera footage regarding the death of Tyre Nichols in January 2023 led to protests in Memphis. Al Sharpton of the National Action Network spoke on the matter upon the release of bodycam footage.

A ruling made by the Supreme Court of Alabama continues to prevent most police body camera footage, including that related to Joseph Pettaway who bled to death in 2018 after being bitten by a police dog, from being released to the public. In December 2022 Judge Jerusha Adams again blocked the release of video footage related to Pettaways' death.

International movement

In 2015, after the death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland, black activists around the world modeled efforts for reform on Black Lives Matter and the Arab Spring. This international movement has been referred to as the "Black Spring". Connections have also been forged with parallel international efforts such as the Dalit rights movement.

Following the death of Ms Dhu in police custody in August 2014, protests often made reference to the BLM movement. In July 2016, a BLM rally was organized in Melbourne, Australia, which 3,500 people attended. The protest also emphasized the issues of mistreatment of Aboriginal Australians by the Australian police and government.

In early June 2020, soon after the George Floyd protests in the US, protests took place in Australia, with many of them focusing on the local issue of Aboriginal deaths in custody, racism in Australia and other injustices faced by Indigenous Australians. Cricketer Michael Holding criticized Australia, as well as England, for refusing to take a knee in support of Black Lives Matter during cricket matches.

Blacks in Brazil suffer from economic marginalization, state violence, discrimination, and lower life-expectancy. In June 2020, two Black children, 5-year-old Miguel Otávio Santana da Silva and 14-year-old João Pedro Matos Pinto, died in Brazil. Miguel Otávio Santana da Silva was under the watch of the white boss of his mother when he fell off the balcony of a building. João Pedro Matos Pinto was shot in the back by police in Rio de Janeiro during a raid where the police discharged seventy shots. He was killed the same week as George Floyd. Their deaths prompted protests in cities across the country. The slogan "Black Lives Matter" was translated to "Vidas Negras Importam" in Portuguese. Protests continued throughout 2020 and were renewed at the end of the year after supermarket security guards beat 40-year-old welder João Alberto Silveira Freitas to death in Porto Alegre.

In July 2015, BLM protesters shut down Allen Road in Toronto, Ontario, protesting the shooting deaths of two black men in the metropolitan area-Andrew Loku and Jermaine Carby-at the hands of police. In September, BLM activists shut down streets in Toronto, citing police brutality and solidarity with "marginalized black lives" as reason for the shutdown. Black Lives Matter was a featured part of the Take Back the Night event in Toronto.

In June 2016, Black Lives Matter was selected by Pride Toronto as the honored group in that year's Pride parade, during which they staged a sit-in to block the parade from moving forward for approximately half an hour. They issued several demands for Pride to adjust its relationship with LGBTQ people of color, including stable funding and a suitable venue for the established Blockorama event, improved diversity in the organization's staff and volunteer base, and that Toronto Police officers be banned from marching in the parade in uniform. Pride executive director Mathieu Chantelois signed BLM's statement of demand, but later asserted that he had signed it only to end the sit-in and get the parade moving, and had not agreed to honor the demands. In late August 2016, the Toronto chapter protested outside the Special Investigations Unit in Mississauga in response to the death of Abdirahman Abdi, who died during an arrest in Ottawa.

As of December 2020, there are five Canadian BLM chapters in Toronto, Vancouver, Waterloo Region, Edmonton, and New Brunswick.

In Denmark, an organization named Black Lives Matter Denmark was founded in 2016 by Bwalya Sørensen, a woman from Zambia who came to Denmark when she was 19 years old. The organization is centered around Sørensen and mainly focuses on rejected asylum seekers and criminal foreigners, sentenced to expulsion from Denmark. The connection to the U.S. organization is unclear, but Sørensen has said she was encouraged by someone in the U.S. to start a Danish chapter, and that she, in 2017, was visited by the U.S. co-founder, Opal Tometi.

In June 2020, following the murder of George Floyd, Black Lives Matter Denmark held a demonstration in Copenhagen that attracted 15,000 participants. Following the demonstration, the organization and Sørensen, in particular, received much criticism because rules separated people by ethnicity: at the demonstration, only black people could be in front, and white people were disallowed to participate in some chants. Other controversies included Sørensen refusing to co-host a demonstration with Amnesty International because their employees were white, and illegally raising money, while calling the missing fundraising permit peaceful " civil disobedience". Sørensen herself has been criticized for splitting the movement with her confrontational style.

A new organization, named Afro Danish Collective, was announced in June 2020, with Roger Matthisen, former member of the Folketing for The Alternative, as spokesperson. The organization has similar goals as Black Lives Matter Denmark, but will take a more moderate approach, including not distinguishing between people at demonstrations based on their skin color. Matthisen said Afro Danish Collective was in part established because the leadership of Black Lives Matter Denmark had not been professional enough.

On July 18, 2020, thousands of protesters marched near Paris to commemorate the fourth anniversary of the death of Adama Traoré. Traoré, a black man, was arrested in July 2016 and fainted after being pinned to the ground by police officers. He later died at a police station; the circumstances of his death are unclear. Racial tensions continued with unrest in 2023 after the killing of teenager Nahel Merzouk.

On June 6, 2020, tens of thousands of people gathered across Germany to support the Black Lives Matter movement. On July 18, 2020, more than 1,500 protesters participated in an anti-racism march in Berlin to condemn police brutality.

In the wake of the murder of George Floyd, several demonstrations took place in Japan, including a 1,000-person demonstration in Osaka on June 7, 2020, and a 3,500-person march through the streets of Shibuya and Harajuku areas of Tokyo on June 14, 2020. The movement has been met with some backlash in the country, notably on the internet, where some users criticized tennis player Naomi Osaka after she encouraged people to join a Black Lives Matter march in the city of Osaka.

New Zealand

On June 1, 2020, several BLM solidarity protests in response to the murder of George Floyd were held in several New Zealand cities including Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Tauranga, Palmerston North and Hamilton. The Auckland event, which attracted between 2,000 and 4,000 participants, was organized by several members of New Zealand's African community. Auckland organizer Mahlete Tekeste, African American expatriate Kainee Simone, and sportsperson Israel Adesanya compared racism, mass incarceration, and police violence against African Americans to the over-representation of Māori and Pacific Islanders in New Zealand prisons, the controversial armed police response squad trials, and existing racism against minorities in New Zealand including the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings. Hip hop artist and music producer Mazbou Q also called on Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern to condemn violence against black Americans.

The left-wing Green Party, a member of the Labour-led coalition government, has also expressed support for the Black Lives Matter movement, linking the plight of African Americans to the racism, inequality, and higher incarceration rate experienced by the Māori and Pasifika communities. The BLM protests in New Zealand attracted criticism from Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters for violating the country's COVID-19 pandemic social distancing regulations banning mass gatherings of over 100 people.

United Kingdom

Black Lives Matter emerged as a movement in the UK in the summer of 2016. Thousands attended protests against police racism in Manchester on July 11, and a group called Black Lives Matter UK (UKBLM) was set up in the wake of the June 23 Brexit referendum at a meeting addressed by US BLM activist Patrisse Cullors. On August 4, 2016, BLM protesters blocked London City Airport in London, England. Several demonstrators chained themselves together on the airport's runway. Nine people were arrested in connection with the incident. There were also BLM-themed protests in other English cities including Birmingham and Nottingham. The UK-held protests marked the fifth anniversary of the shooting death of Mark Duggan.

In 2016, tabloid newspapers ran several stories seeking to expose and discredit BLM activists, leading the movement to adopt anonymity. On June 25, 2017, BLM supporters protested in Stratford, London over the death of Edson Da Costa, who died in police custody. There were no arrests made at the protest. According to Patrick Vernon, BLM's start in the UK in 2016 was not met with respect. From 2018 onwards, after events like the Grenfell Tower fire and the Windrush scandal, the movement was viewed more favorably by black Britons, in particular senior black Britions. In December 2019, Black Lives Matter UK worked with the coalition Wretched of the Earth to represent the voices of global indigenous peoples and people of color in the climate justice movement.

In 2020, protests were held in support of the Black Lives Matter protests in the US. Following the murder of George Floyd, London protests took place in Trafalgar Square on May 31, Hyde Park on June 3, Parliament Square on June 6, and outside the US Embassy on June 7. Similar protests took place in Manchester, Bristol, and Cardiff. The UK protests not only showed solidarity with U.S. protesters, but also commemorated black people who have died in the UK, with protesters chanting, carrying signs, and sharing social media posts with names of victims including Julian Cole, Belly Mujinga, Nuno Cardoso, and Sarah Reed.

The empty pedestal of the statue of Edward Colston in Bristol. Subject to increasing controversy since the 1990s, when his prior reputation as a philanthropist came under scrutiny due to a growing awareness of his slave trading, in June 2020 the statue was toppled, defaced and pushed into Bristol Harbour.

On June 7, protests continued in many towns and cities. During a Black Lives Matter protest in Bristol, the city center statue of Edward Colston, a late 17th early 18th-century philanthropist, politician and slave trader, was pulled down by protesters, rolled along the road and pushed into Bristol Harbour. The act was later condemned by Home Secretary Priti Patel who said "This hooliganism is utterly indefensible." In London, after it was defaced a few days earlier, protesters defaced the statue of Winston Churchill, Parliament Square, Westminster with graffiti for a second time. Black spray paint was sprayed over his name and the words " was a racist" were sprayed underneath. A protester also attempted to burn the Union Jack flag flying at the Cenotaph, a memorial to Britain's war dead. Later in the evening violence broke out between protesters and police. A total of 49 police officers were injured after demonstrators threw bottles and fireworks at them. Over the weekend, a total of 135 arrests were made by police. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the events, saying "those who attack public property or the police - who injure the police officers who are trying to keep us all safe - those people will face the full force of the law; not just because of the hurt and damage they are causing, but because of the damage they are doing to the cause they claim to represent."

Peaceful protests took place in Leeds' Millennium Square on June 14, 2020 organized by a coalition of organizations: Black Voices Matter', which included Black Lives Matter Leeds. A second protest was held on Woodhouse Moor on June 21, organized by Black Lives Matter Leeds.

On June 28, Black Lives Matter UK faced criticism for making a series of tweets from their verified Twitter account regarding Israel, including one that claims "mainstream British politics is gagged of the right to critique Zionism". The Premier League, who were carrying the Black Lives Matter logo on their football shirts for the rest of the 2019-20 season, subsequently said that attempts by groups to hijack the cause to suit their own political ends are entirely unwelcome. After receiving considerable donations in summer 2020, Black Lives Matter UK formalised its organisation. In September 2020, the group changed its official name to Black Liberation Movement UK and became legally registered as a community benefit society. However, the group still uses the Black Lives Matter name in its global cooperative efforts. In January 2021, the Black Liberation Movement began to distribute its funds to grassroots black-led and anti-racist organisations across the UK. Activists from a different BLM group, Charles Gordon and Sasha Johnson, founded the Taking The Initiative Party (TTIP) in the summer of 2020 had applied to register as a political party through the Electoral Commission; however, BLM UK said "BLM UK has no intention to set up a political party. This person or group is not affiliated with us."

In September 2021, British businessman and philanthropist Ken Olisa revealed to Channel 4 that Elizabeth II and the British royal family are supporters of Black Lives Matter. In response, a spokesperson for Black Lives Matter UK said "We were surprised to learn the Queen is a BLM supporter. But we welcome anyone that agrees with our goal of dismantling white supremacy. Of course, actions speak louder than words. The Queen sits on a throne made from colonial plunder. Until she gives back all the stolen gold and diamonds from the Commonwealth and pays reparations, these are nothing more than warm words."

In October 2021, The Guardian and The Times reported that a covert police unit in South Wales attempted to recruit a Black Lives Matter protester to be an informant and supply further information about far-right activists who had marched in support of Black Lives Matter. In February 2022, the Swansea chapter of BLM announced it would be closing due to "attempted recruitment by the police and threats to its members' physical and mental safety from far-right activists".

2016 United States presidential election

At the Netroots Nation Conference in July 2015, dozens of Black Lives Matter activists took over the stage at an event featuring Martin O'Malley and Bernie Sanders. Activists, including Black Lives Matter co-founder Patrisse Cullors, asked both candidates for specific policy proposals to address deaths in police custody. The protesters chanted several slogans, including "if I die in police custody, burn everything down" and "Shut this crap down". The expression "Shut it down" would go on to become a popular phrase in Black Lives Matter protests and on social media.

After conference organizers pleaded with the protesters for several minutes, O'Malley responded by pledging to release a wide-ranging plan for criminal justice reform. Protesters later booed O'Malley when he stated "Black lives matter. White lives matter. All lives matter." O'Malley later apologized for his remarks, saying that he did not mean to disrespect the black community.

On August 8, 2015, a speech by Democratic presidential candidate and civil rights activist Bernie Sanders was disrupted by a group who would go on to found the Seattle Chapter of Black Lives Matter including chapter co-founder Marissa Johnson who walked onstage, seized the microphone from him and called his supporters racists and white supremacists. Sanders issued a platform in response. Nikki Stephens, the operator of a Facebook page called "Black Lives Matter: Seattle" issued an apology to Sanders' supporters, claiming these actions did not represent her understanding of BLM. She was then sent messages by members of the Seattle Chapter which she described as threatening and was forced to change the name of her group to "Black in Seattle". The founders of Black Lives Matter stated that they had not issued an apology. In August 2015, the Democratic National Committee passed a resolution supporting Black Lives Matter.

In the first Democratic primary debate, the presidential candidates were asked whether black lives matter or all lives matter. In reply, Bernie Sanders stated, "Black lives matter." Martin O'Malley said, "Black lives matter," and that the "movement is making is a very, very legitimate and serious point, and that is that as a nation we have undervalued the lives of black lives, people of color." In response, Hillary Clinton pushed for criminal justice reform, and said, "We need a new New Deal for communities of color." Jim Webb, on the other hand, replied: "As the president of the United States, every life in this country matters." Hillary Clinton was not directly asked the same question, but was instead asked: "What would you do for African Americans in this country that President Obama couldn't?" Clinton had already met with Black Lives Matter representatives, and emphasized what she described as a more pragmatic approach to enacting change, stating "Look, I don't believe you change hearts. I believe you change laws". Without policy change, she felt "we'll be back here in 10 years having the same conversation." In June 2015, Clinton used the phrase "all lives matter" in a speech about the opportunities of young people of color, prompting backlash that she may misunderstand the message of "Black Lives Matter."

A week after the first Democratic primary debate was held in Las Vegas, BLM launched a petition targeted at the DNC and its chairwoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz demanding more debates, and "specifically for a #BlackLivesMatter themed Presidential debate." The petition received over 10,000 signatures within 24 hours of being launched, and had over 33,000 signatures as of October 27, 2015. The DNC said that it would permit presidential candidates to attend a presidential town hall organized by activists, but that it would not add another debate to its official schedule. In response, the organization released a press statement on its Facebook page stating that "[i]n consultation with our chapters, our communities, allies, and supporters, we remain unequivocal that a Presidential Town Hall with support from the DNC does not sufficiently respond to the concerns raised by our members", continuing to demand a full additional debate.

Republicans

Republican candidates have been mostly critical of BLM. In August 2015, Ben Carson, the only African American vying for the Republican nomination for the presidency, called the movement "silly". Carson also said that BLM should care for all black lives, not just a few. In the first Republican presidential debate, which took place in Cleveland, one question referenced Black Lives Matter. In response to the question, Scott Walker advocated for the proper training of law enforcement and blamed the movement for rising anti-police sentiment, while Marco Rubio was the first candidate to publicly sympathize with the movement's point of view.

Several conservative pundits have labeled the movement a "hate group". Candidate Chris Christie, the New Jersey Governor, criticized President Obama for supporting BLM, stating that the movement calls for the murder of police officers. Christie's statement was condemned by New Jersey chapters of the NAACP and ACLU.

Anti-Trump protest in New York City, March 19, 2016

In March 2016, Black Lives Matter helped organize the 2016 Donald Trump Chicago rally protest that forced Trump to cancel the event. Four individuals were arrested and charged in the incident; two were "charged with felony aggravated battery to a police officer and resisting arrest", one was "charged with two misdemeanor counts of resisting and obstructing a peace officer", and the fourth "was charged with one misdemeanor count of resisting and obstructing a peace officer". A CBS reporter was one of those arrested outside the rally. He was charged with resisting arrest.

General election

A group called Mothers of the Movement, which includes the mothers of Michael Brown, Sandra Bland, Eric Garner, and other mothers whose "unarmed African American children have been killed by law enforcement or due to gun violence," addressed the 2016 Democratic National Convention on July 26.

In a Washington Post op-ed, DeRay Mckesson endorsed Hillary Clinton, because her "platform on racial justice is strong". He articulated that voting alone is not the only way to bring about "transformational change". He said that "I voted my entire life, and I was still tear-gassed in the streets of St. Louis and Baltimore. I voted my entire life, and those votes did not convict the killers of Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray or Michael Brown".

Reactions and legacy

The United States population's perception of Black Lives Matter has varied consistently and considerably by race and political affiliation. A majority of Americans disapproved of the movement through 2018, after which it started gaining wider support. Black Lives Matter's popularity surged and reached its highest levels yet in the summer of 2020, when a Pew Research Center poll found that 60% of white, 77% of Hispanic, 75% of Asian and 86% of African-Americans either strongly supported or somewhat supported BLM. However, its popularity had declined considerably in September of the same year, when another Pew Research Center poll showed that its overall approval ratings among all American adults had gone down by 12 percentage points to 55%, and that 45% of whites, 66% of Hispanics and 69% of Asians now approved of it. Support remained widespread among black-American adults at 87%.

A Politico- Morning Consult poll done in September 2020 as well as a Civiqs poll conducted in November 2021 had also found declining support for the movement. A 2022 YouGov poll found declining support for BLM among African-Americans. An April 2023 Pew Research Center poll found that only 51% of Americans supported the BLM movement, while 46% opposed the movement. In the same poll, 81% of African Americans said they still supported the movement.

The phrase " All Lives Matter" sprang up as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement, but has been criticized for dismissing or misunderstanding the message of "Black Lives Matter". Following the shooting of two police officers in Ferguson, the hashtag Blue Lives Matter was created by supporters of the police. A few civil rights leaders have disagreed with tactics used by Black Lives Matter activists. Public and academic debate at large has arisen over the structure and tactics used.

"All Lives Matter"

The phrase " All Lives Matter" sprang up as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement, shortly after the movement gained national attention. Several notable individuals have supported All Lives Matter. Its proponents include Senator Tim Scott. NFL cornerback Richard Sherman supports the All Lives Matter message, saying "I stand by what I said that All Lives Matter and that we are human beings." According to an August 2015 telephone poll, 78% of likely American voters said that the statement "all lives matter" was closest to their own personal views when compared to "black lives matter" or neither. Only 11% said that the statement "black lives matter" was closest. Nine percent said that neither statement reflected their own personal point of view.

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"All Houses Matter", Chainsawsuit, Kris Straub, July 7, 2016. Cartoonist uses a house fire to illustrate why critics see "All Lives Matter" as problematic.[398]

"Blue Lives Matter"

Blue Lives Matter is a countermovement in the United States supporting law enforcement officers and advocating that those who are prosecuted and convicted of killing law enforcement officers should be sentenced under hate crime statutes. It was started in response to Black Lives Matter after the homicides of NYPD officers Rafael Ramos and Wenjian Liu in Brooklyn, New York on December 20, 2014. Following the shooting of two police officers in Ferguson and in response to BLM, the hashtag#BlueLivesMatter was created by supporters of the police. Following this, Blue Lives Matter became a pro-police officer movement in the United States, expanding after the killings of five police officers by a sniper in Dallas, Texas, who cited police shootings of Black people as his motive.

Criticized by the ACLU and others, the movement inspired a state law in Louisiana that made it a hate crime to target police officers, firefighters, and emergency medical service personnel.

The movement has been strongly criticized after the 2021 United States Capitol attack after pro-Trump rioters were seen showing support for the movement, with some bringing Blue Lives Matter flags to the protest. Many have called the movement hypocritical, as people in the mob assaulted Capitol police officers. One African American Capitol police officer, Harry Dunn, described being beaten with a Blue Lives Matter flag while rioters shouted racial slurs at him. This has led some to argue that Blue Lives Matter is more about suppressing minorities than supporting law enforcement.

"White Lives Matter"

White Lives Matter is an activist group created in response to Black Lives Matter. In August 2016, the Southern Poverty Law Center added "White Lives Matter" to its list of hate groups. The group has also been active in the United Kingdom. The "White Lives Matter" slogan was chanted by torch-wielding alt-right protesters during the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. On October 28, 2017, numerous "White Lives Matter" rallies broke out in Tennessee. Dominated in Shelbyville particularly, protesters justified their movement in response to the increasing number of immigrants and refugees to Middle Tennessee. "White Lives Matter" movements have also been present in European football, with instances of corresponding banners being raised at stadiums in the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Hungary, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. White Lives Matter has also been promoted by white nationalists.

Disinformation

The Anti-Defamation League reports numerous attempts to spread disinformation about BLM, citing as examples mid-June 2020 posts "featuring a sticker instructing people to 'kill a white on sight' spread on Facebook and Twitter. The sticker included the hashtags #BlackLivesMatter and #Antifa." On Telegram, a "white supremacist channel encouraged members to distribute the propaganda." Another disinformation campaign, originating in June 2020 on 4chan, had the "goal of getting the hashtags #AllWhitesAreNazis (#AWAN) trending on Twitter. Organizers hoped to commandeer hashtags like #BlackLivesMatter and #BLM with a high volume of tweets-purportedly from Black activist accounts-containing the #AWAN hashtag." According to the ADL, the campaign's supporters hoped to sow tension and promote white supremacist accelerationism.

Conservative pundits such as Ryan Fournier and Candace Owens have falsely claimed that ActBlue funnels donations intended for Black Lives Matter to Democratic candidates, with some going so far as to allege the organization is a money laundering scam.

Fake manifesto

Statistics

The United States population's perception of Black Lives Matter varies considerably by race. According to a September 2015 poll on race relations, nearly two-thirds of African Americans mostly agree with Black Lives Matter, while 30% of black Americans and 37% of white Americans do not have an opinion about Black Lives Matter. Of white people surveyed, 41% thought that Black Lives Matter advocated violence, and 59% of whites thought that Black Lives Matter distracted attention from the real issues of racial discrimination. By comparison, 82% of black people polled thought that Black Lives Matter was a nonviolent movement, and 26% of blacks thought that Black Lives Matter distracted attention from the real issues of racial discrimination. On the question of whether "Black Lives Matter" was mostly a movement or mostly a slogan, 46% of whites and 67% of blacks thought that it is mostly a movement. A nationally representative internet survey conducted by the Center for the Study of Diversity and Democracy at Northwestern University found that 82 percent of African Americans believe that the movement is at least moderately effective at achieving its stated goals, although 64 percent of the respondents believed that the movement would be more effective if it had a more centralized leadership structure.

A poll in June 2016 found that 65% of black American adults supported Black Lives Matter and 40% of white American adults support it. Fifty-nine percent of black Americans thought that Black Lives Matter would "be effective, in the long run, in helping blacks achieve equality" and 34% of white Americans thought so. A 2017 Harvard-Harris survey found that 35% of whites and 83% of blacks have a favorable view of the movement.

According to an analysis by The Guardian of statistics collected by the US Crisis Monitor, during most of 2020 "US law enforcement agencies have used teargas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and beatings at a much higher percentage at Black Lives Matter demonstrations than at pro-Trump or other rightwing protests", regardless of whether the protest was violent or peaceful. The analysis also notes that "the vast majority of the thousands of protests across the United States in the past year have been peaceful, and [...] most protests by both the left and the right were not met with any violent response by law enforcement."

With the resurgence of Black Lives Matter in national headlines amid global protests, the movement saw an increase in support in 2020. Although they began from different perspectives, as per the New York Times' The Upshot, "all kinds of voters moved sharply in the direction of supporting the movement" just within the two weeks between late May and early June "as much as [they] had in the preceding two years." The Pew Research Center reported that "[m]ost Americans express[ed] support for the Black Lives Matter movement" during this period.

According to Terrance Woodbury, a researcher of attitudes among young adults, "[the] movement has evolved from Black people vs. the police to young people vs. racism." An online survey of people aged from 18 to 34 by the Global Strategy Group found broad support from the participants, except by those who identified as pro- Trump Republicans.

However, the movement's momentum and popularity began to decline, with a Pew Research Center poll showing that support for Black Lives Matter had fallen by 12 percentage points to 55% of all American adults by September, and had returned to a net negative approval rating among white Americans as well as significantly declining in popularity among Hispanic Americans. Support remained widespread among black American adults (up 1% from June to 87%).

Nobel Peace Prize nomination

Criticisms

Some conservatives, such as Mike Gonzalez of The Heritage Foundation, have accused Black Lives Matter of being a Marxist movement based on a comment by one of its co-founders saying that she and another co-founder "are trained Marxists." However, PolitiFact noted that "Black Lives Matter has grown into a national anti-racism movement broadly supported by Americans, few of whom would identify themselves as Marxist."

Some black civil rights leaders such as Cecil "Chip" Murray, Najee Ali, and Earl Ofari Hutchinson have criticized BLM as disrespectful and ineffective, with Ali claiming "all they can do is disrupt and make noise." Economist Glenn Loury, while supportive of the fundamentals of the movement, has criticized backlash against "White politicians who state All Lives Matter" and the apparent polarizing effects of the movement.

In his 2018 book The Once and Future Liberal, Mark Lilla criticizes Black Lives Matter as part of his broader left-wing critique of identity politics. Though he agreed with their aims, he called their rhetoric "a textbook example in how to not build solidarity", arguing that the campaign alienates people with their negative attitude toward American society and law enforcement and with their overbearing tactics. He also compared them unfavorably to the civil rights movement leaders, who were "consciously appealing to what we share" instead of emphasizing differences of race and other identities. Lilla has in turn been criticized for "trolling disguised as erudition" and of "making white supremacy respectable, again".

Academic freedom

Some academics, including John McWhorter, John Ellis, Marybeth Gasman, and Glenn Loury have criticized some Black Lives Matter activists as silencing speech and repressing academic freedom. They claim that the result is self-censorship, reduced academic inquiry, and research bias. Critics claim academics have been hesitant to speak out against repression for fear of retribution.

In particular, high-profile academics have spoken out against the use of "diversity statements" in admission, hiring, and tenure decisions, including Jeffrey Flier, Dean of the Harvard Medical School, and Abigail Thompson, Vice President of the American Mathematical Society. Thompson drew comparisons to McCarthy-era loyalty oaths. When schools receive state funding, scholars have criticized Black Lives Matter pledges as unconstitutional.

Views on law enforcement

Some critics accuse Black Lives Matter of being anti-police and endorsing violence against the police. Sgt. Demetrick Pennie of the Dallas Police Department filed an unsuccessful lawsuit against Black Lives Matter in September 2016, which accused the group of inciting a " race war." Marchers using a BLM banner were recorded in a video chanting, "Pigs in a blanket, fry 'em like bacon" at the Minnesota State Fair. Law enforcement groups claim the chant promotes death to police. The protest organizer disputed that interpretation, saying: "What we are promoting is that if black people who kill police officers are going to fry, then we want police officers to face the same treatment that we face as civilians for killing officers."

Disconnect from underprivileged communities

Some black community leaders have come out against the movement as disconnected from the people it claims to represent. In opposing August 2020 budget cuts, New York City Councilman I. Daneek Miller, co-chairman of the council's Black, Latino and Asian Caucus opposed reducing police funding and stated, "Black folks want to be safe like everyone else...we can't allow folks from outside our community to lecture us about Black lives." Vanessa Gibson of the Bronx's 16th Council District stated that, "My working-class people, my homeowners, my tenants, my neighbors-they are not out there screaming and yelling, because they have to work." Mayor Ras Baraka of Newark, New Jersey, called "defund the police" a "bourgeois liberal" solution to racism.

Insufficient focus on women

Mismanagement of funds

Lack of focus on unsolved murders and missing persons cases

According to FBI statistics, 40% of missing persons across the US are people of color. Kyle Pope, an editor and researcher of the Columbia Journalism Review, noticed a lack of media attention when it comes to these crimes. In 2008, Derrica and Natalie Wilson launched the Black and Missing Foundation, a non-profit to find unsolved Black murder victims across the country. In a 2021 interview, they found that unsolved murders of Black people have been disproportionately overlooked by both law enforcement and national media outlets.

References

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Black Lives Matter ( BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement that seeks to highlight racism, discrimination, and racial inequality experienced by black people and to promote anti-racism. Its primary concerns are police brutality and racially motivated violence against black people.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Hania, Catalog: British cuisine, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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In 1536, England's King Henry VIII accused his second wife Anne Boleyn, who had been crowned queen in 1533, of charges including adultery, incest and conspiracy against the king. At her trial, she was found guilty, and on May 19, 1536 she was taken to Tower Green in London, where she was beheaded by a French swordsman, rather than the standard axe-wielding executioner.

Historians believe the charges against her were false, issued by Henry VIII to remove Boleyn as his wife and enable him to marry his third wife, Jane Seymour, in hopes of producing a male heir.
Who was Anne Boleyn before she became Queen?
Boleyn was a member of Henry VIII's court, serving as a maid of honor to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, to whom he was married from 1509 to 1533. The king became smitten with Boleyn and pursued her, but she refused to become his mistress.

Anne Boleyn, who came from an aristocratic family, had served in the courts of other European royals. She was educated and skilled at the diversions expected of a charming member of court, such as dancing, singing and the game-like art of flirting. But she also had political functions at court. Like her father, a diplomat, Anne played a role in greeting foreign dignitaries and had some influence on matters of international affairs. In that capacity, she engaged with political leaders, including Thomas Cromwell, a politician who rose to become Henry VIII's chief minister in 1532.

Anne Boleyn played an important part in English history and the creation of the Church of England.
In order for Henry VIII to marry Anne Boleyn, his marriage to Catherine of Aragon needed to end. The king had found a new favorite in Anne, who he hoped would provide a son. (Catherine had not.) But Anne refused to be his mistress and held out for marriage.

Though divorce was not allowed under the Catholic church, Henry VIII persisted in seeking one. First, he argued to Pope Clement VII that his marriage to Catherine could be annulled because she had been married to his brother Arthur, who died shortly after their marriage. Henry based this argument on a Biblical passage in Leviticus that condemns marriage between a man and his brother's wife. Therefore, Henry claimed, the Pope who granted the marriage had been wrong do so in the first place.

When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry VIII took a step that would change the course of world history and religion. With the help and maneuvering of Thomas Cromwell, Henry VIII broke ties with the Catholic church in Rome, affirming the king's view that the church should not have power over England's sovereignty.

The king and Anne Boleyn were secretly married in January 1533, causing Henry and the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time, Thomas Cranmer, to be excommunicated from the Catholic church. This in turn led to the establishment of the Church of England, a major step in the Reformation that added England to the list of Protestant nations.

Did Thomas Cromwell lead a conspiracy against Anne Boleyn?
Anne Boleyn fell from Henry VIII's favor when she failed to give birth to a male heir. In 1533, she bore a female child, who would grow up to be Queen Elizabeth I. But Anne suffered miscarriages and her only male child was stillborn in January 1536.

At that point, Henry decided to make a change. He had been having adulterous relationships with two of the Queen's maids-of-honor, Madge Shelton and Jane Seymour. The latter was fast gaining the king's esteem.

Meanwhile, Boleyn and Cromwell were clashing on matters of foreign policy and the king's finances. Historians are divided on the extent of Cromwell's motives behind facilitating Boleyn's demise, but in setting up the charges against her, he was certainly carrying out the king's wishes.

Cromwell was part of a secret commission, one that included Boleyn's father, to investigate her wrongdoing. Historians speculate that her father probably tried to warn her of the situation. But there was little she could do. Boleyn was accused of sexual affairs with male members of her court, who in some cases were tortured into making confessions. In addition, she was accused of incest with her own brother and of using sorcery to bewitch the king.

Boleyn was sent to confinement in the Tower of London and her trial took place on May 15, 1536. She was found guilty by a jury that included her own uncle and a former fiancé. By sending Anne to her death, Henry VIII cleared the way to marry Seymour, which he did on May 30, just a few days after Boleyn's beheading.

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In 1536, England's King Henry VIII accused his second wife Anne Boleyn, who had been crowned queen in 1533, of charges including adultery, incest and conspiracy against the king. At her trial, she was found guilty, and on May 19, 1536 she was taken to Tower Green in London, where she was beheaded by a French swordsman, rather than the standard axe-wielding executioner.

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History vs. Henry VIII - Mark Robinson and Alex Gendler

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On this day in history, 24th October 1537, Queen Jane Seymour died after long and exhausting childbirth. She was the third wife of king Henry VIII, but they were married only for 1 year, 4 months and 24 days. But Jane was Henry's most beloved wife, because she gave him what he desired since 1509 - a son, a male heir to succeed him in the future - Prince Edward Tudor.

Jane was never described as a great beauty. Chapuys wrote that she was 'of middle height, and nobody thinks that she has much beauty. Her complexion is so whitish that she may be called rather pale.' Additionally imperial ambassador noticed that she was 'not very intelligent, and is said to be rather haughty'.[1] Jane was about 27-28 years old when Henry VIII took an interest in her, so by the standards of her age, she was considered to be an old maid. Chapuys expressed his doubts about Jane's virginity, but here is no proof to confirm or deny that she lived an unchaste life before she became king's new love. For some reasons, Henry VIII fell in love with Jane Seymour, neglecting his wife Anne Boleyn. Anne and Jane were so different - Anne was pretty and intelligent, with olive skin and dramatic black eyes while Jane was meek, 'not very intelligent' as Chapuys described her and she was pale blonde with not much beauty.

But Jane Seymour managed to maintain king's interest in her and only 11 days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Jane stepped into her shoes and became Henry's third wife and queen.
Pregnancy and delivery
The whole court rejoiced when rumors about queen Jane's pregnancy, although no official announcement was made. Elizabeth Norton writes how;

'By late May it was noted that she would soon be appearing in an open-laced gown, signifying her status as a pregnant woman' [2]

We can only imagine how Jane Seymour felt about her pregnancy. She knew exactly that two of her predecessors had failed to give Henry a male heir. Catherine of Aragon had 6 pregnancies and born only one healthy girl, and Anne Boleyn was pregnant 4 times and also gave birth to only one girl. Jane knew that her position is in danger until she would give Henry a long awaited son.

Jane's pregnancy was not a private matter - she was now a public person, queen of England and wife of Henry VIII. The whole court anxiously awaited news about a prince, and Jane was certainly under high pressure. Henry VIII became king in 1509. He had two wives, and both of them failed to give him a son. His bastard son by Bessie Blout died in July 1536, leaving Henry without male heir, without heir at all since his two daughters were disinherited. So Jane's pregnancy was very important and her success or failure was dependant on the sex of the baby she was caring in her womb.
'As her pregnancy advanced, Jane found that Henry was unusually solicitous of her. It was probably in the summer of 1537 that Henry made Jane the gift of a great rich bed with a gilt bedstead. Henry also relaxed his insistence that Jane stay away from politics and when, in June, a new Imperial ambassador arrived to treat for a marriage between Mary and the brother of the king of Portugal, Jane was allowed to meet with the ambassador and discuss the negotiation for the match'[3]
Henry probably had a high trust in his wife, because she had a great relationship with Mary and she desired her to marry. Perhaps Mary told Jane that she wanted to get married and had children, and that is why the queen was allowed to negotiate the terms of marriage. Jane certainly felt confident about her role as a queen and peacemaker.

During her pregnancy, Jane Seymour had a craving for quails - a great delicacy - and Henry VIII made a diplomatic matter from it. He shipped quails from Calais to please his pregnant wife and also Lady Mary sent her some in June. Jane was certainly well taken care of.
Childbirth
On the 9 th October Jane Seymour went into labor. For three days and three night she suffered, but on 12 October she finally gave birth to a healthy baby boy. People of England rejoiced at the news of a Prince - the next morning Te Deums were sang in London, there was music and cannons where shot from the Tower. Elizabeth Norton describes how ;
'That night there were bonfires lit in the streets, with music and impromptu feasts. Hogsheads of wine were distributed and further guns were shot in celebration of the news with the noise going on past 10 p.m. that night.' [4]
Jane Seymour accomplished what her predecessors had failed - she gave birth to a son, a little prince named Edward who would later become a king of England, although his reign would be very brief. Because of her painful and exhausting delivery, the rumors spread though England that her belly was open and the boy was cut out, or that her limbs were stretched to ease the delivery. In later years there would be gossips that Jane underwent a Caesarian cut, but there is no evidence to prove this theory. Jane was able to play a public role in her son's christening, and if she would have had the Caesarian cut she would not be able to do so.

Although Henry and Jane did not participate in their son's christening, they awaited him in special chamber. Jane was 'wrapped by her attendants in velvet and furs to guard against the cold and carried to the christening on a special sofa'[5] Little prince was named Edward because he was born on St Edward's Eve and also to commemorate his great-grandfather, king Edward IV. Lady Mary stood as a godmother and even 3-year-old Elizabeth was present during the christening.

The Seymour family triumphed - Jane was safe and her brothers were being elevated by the king - Edward Seymour was knighted and proclaimed Earl of Hertford, and Thomas Seymour was knighted and become a member of king's privy chamber. But the most important was Prince Edward, who was now an official male heir and his father's greatest pride.

Unfortunately, two days after christening, Jane became ill. Her health deteriorated. On 23 rd of October the queen was very ill, and those around her knew that it was probably her last day. Duke of Norfolk wrote to Cromwell praying him 'to be early here tomorrow to comfort our good master, for as for our mistress there is no likehood of her life, the more pity, and I fear she shall not be on lyve at the time ye shall read this'[6]

Elizabeth Norton writes how ;
'On the morning her confessor came to her and spent the whole morning with her, providing some comfort , if Jane was aware of anything at all'[7] Funeral
Jane Seymour was dying and there was nothing anyone could do about it. It was very often when women died after childbirth, although Cromwell blamed Jane's attendants that they neglected their mistress's health by providing her with the wrong food and letting her catch a cold. But it was probably a childbed fever, which caused Jane's death. For three days and three nights she struggled and she probably lost a lot of blood and was exhausted. She was left with wounds that might have caused an infection. Because of the long delivery, her placenta might not have been entirely expelled, causing an infection.

Duke of Norfolk was responsible for funeral arrangements. Although Henry VIII was married twice before, none of his wives ever received a proper funeral. Catherine of Aragon was buried as a Dowager Princess of Wales and Anne Boleyn was buried in arrow chest. But Jane Seymour was about to have a funeral fit for the Queen and mother of the future king of England.
'Soon after her death, Jane was embalmed, and carried to the presence chamber where she lay in state, dressed in a gold and jeweled robe. Once in the presence chamber, Jane's ladies took off their rich clothes and, instead, wore 'mourning habit and white kerchers hanging over their heads and shoulders'. Mass was heard and a vigil was kept around Jane both day and night, with tapers burning around her. On All Saints Day, Jane was carried through the galleries of Hampton Court, all hung with black cloth. She was taken to the chapel and laid on a hearse decorated with banner rolls showing Jane's descent and that of her husband and son. The chapel itself was also hung with black cloth and images appropriate to Jane. '[8]
Elizabeth Norton provides details about Jane's funeral ;

Lady Mary was a chief mourner but she did not attend on religious services at 1 st November. Perhaps she was too grief stricken after Jane's death, remembering her mother's death in January 1536. Mary again lost her mother and found herself in mourning. Jane did everything to promote Mary's interest, and Mary certainly remembered and appreciated her kindness. She paid for masses to be sung for late Queen's soul and took charge of her household.

On 12 th of November Jane's funeral went ahead. It was a great ceremony, 'designed to match the grand funeral procession of Elizabeth of York over thirty years before.'[9]
The most beloved wife?
Jane Seymour was buried at Windsor. Henry VIII did not participate in her funeral, as was customary, but he was very much depressed after her death. Jane was his beloved wife who gave him a son, he waited for 27 years. But however grief stricken the king was, he still had in mind that his sons is only a boy in a cradle, and in life anything can happen. So Henry knew he will probably remarry. And he did. Three times.

Had Jane lived, she might have been the most influential and celebrated wives of Henry VIII. The king would never cast aside woman who gave him a son, and perhaps he would glorify her even more. We can only assume that Henry would try to beget more heirs by Jane. Some people claim that Jane Seymour died too soon and Henry VIII did not have time to get bored with her. Perhaps there is a little bit of truth in this statement, but is it really true? Henry loved Jane Seymour because she was a good and obedient wife. With her, he enjoyed a peaceful and happy family life. Her motto was 'Bound to obey and serve' and she lived in accordance to this motto. Although we do not know if it was Jane's clever tactic to play the role of obedient and meek wife, she proved to be a good wife to Henry, and a good stepmother to his two daughters, although she was more attached to Lady Mary than to little Elizabeth. But it is not a strange thing - after all Jane served as Catherine of Aragon's lady-in-waiting and she shared her mistresses' religious (catholic) beliefs.

Although I would like to think that Henry's one true love was Anne Boleyn, I think it was Jane Seymour whom Henry loved the most. This marriage brought him happiness, stabilization and peace.
"During the last decade of his life, Henry frequently looked back on his marriage to Jane with longing and, whilst he had not always treated her kindly when she was alive, after her death she became his one true love. It is Jane who appears as Henry's wife in the great dynastic portrait painted in 1545, showing the king with his three children, and Jane also appears in other representations of the Tudor dynasty. It was with Jane that Henry asked to be buried as he lay on his deathbed and it was with her that he wished to spend eternity. Jane died giving Henry exactly what he wanted and she passed away in all her glory"
Although Henry remarried three times after Jane's death, none of his marriages proved to be as successful as his marriage to Jane. Elizabeth Norton writes how;
What do you think about Jane? Do you think Henry truly loved her more than any of his wives?
I think that Jane Seymour died a horrible death and she suffered before she finally passed away. In this article I wanted to commemorate Henry's most beloved wife. When he died, Henry was buried beside her.

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24 October 1537 - Death of Queen Jane Seymour

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On this day in history, 24th October 1537, Queen Jane Seymour died after long and exhausting childbirth. She was the third wife of king Henry VIII, but they were married only for 1 year, 4 months and 24 days.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Oliwia, Catalog: CLOTHES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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On the westerly fringes of the UK is Pembrokeshire, Wales.

With the sea lapping at our shores on three sides, Pembrokeshire is a haven for exhilarating water sports, spectacular coastal walks and the freshest seafood all set in a wild and incredibly beautiful landscape.

Our landscape is protected by the unique Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, where along its shores you'll find the Pembrokeshire Coast Path. The 186 miles of meandering trail visits coves and harbours, over 50 beaches, through vibrant towns and villages, oh yes and the smallest city in Britain: St Davids.

Away from the coast, Pembrokeshire is fantastic for family holidays - there's no end of choice; adventure parks, castles, boat trips and family festivals, they are just some of the attractions and events that will create lasting memories.
Once you've discovered Pembrokeshire, you'll be wondering why it took you so long to visit.

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Holidays in Pembrokeshire - Hotels, Accommodation & Things To Do

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With the sea lapping at our shores on three sides, Pembrokeshire is a haven for exhilarating water sports, spectacular coastal walks and the freshest seafood all set in a wild and incredibly beautiful landscape. Our landscape is protected by the unique Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, where along its shores you'll find the Pembrokeshire Coast Path.

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14 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Wales

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14 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Wales

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Written by Bryan Dearsley
Dec 23, 2019

The smallest of mainland Britain's component countries, Wales offers many wonderful reasons to visit. The south includes cosmopolitan Cardiff, famous for its magnificent castle and a good base from which to begin exploring the rest of the country. With its splendid shopping arcades and many well-reserved historic buildings, it's a city with plenty of places to visit and things to do.

When you're ready to venture further afield, you'll find an abundance of attractions and sightseeing opportunities, including more than 400 castles and fortifications, countless gardens, breathtaking scenery, and a network of heritage railways that connects much of the country. However you decide to spend your time in Wales, rest assured you're in good hands; the Welsh are some of the most interesting, easygoing people you'll find anywhere. To learn more about the top things to do in this lovely country, be sure to review our list of the top tourist attractions in Wales.

1. Snowdonia National Park

Think of Wales, and you'll likely think of Snowdonia (Eryri), the beautiful range of mountains and hills located in the county of Gwynedd. Consisting of 14 majestic peaks over 3,000 feet high-the most famous being the 3,546-foot Snowdon, the summit of which is accessible by train-Snowdonia can be seen as far away as Porthmadog on the west coast. The region remains one of the most popular vacation destinations in the UK, attracting some four million visitors a year.

When you're here, it's easy to see why the area has featured so heavily in local legends, including those based around King Arthur, who locals will insist was Welsh.

Snowdonia National Park (Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri) is also one of the most popular hiking destinations in Britain, boasting more than 1,479 miles of market trails. Climbing is also popular here, as are mountain biking and horse riding.

However you get here, the views from the summit are incredible, and extend from the coast all the way to Bala Lake.

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Snowdonia

2. Brecon Beacons National Park

Brecon Beacons National Park (Parc Cenedlaethol Bannau Brycheiniog) encompasses one of the most beautiful parts of Wales. This hiker's paradise is bordered by two quite different sets of Black Mountains. The first, to the west, is the source of the River Usk, while to the east is the range that's famous for its wild ponies.

Most of the mountains in this 520-square-mile park are higher than 1,000 feet-with many in excess of 2,000 feet-and are named after the red sandstone that causes them to resemble the beacons of light once used to warn of invaders.

Be sure to explore the park's many caves and waterfalls, especially Henrhyd Falls at Coelbren. Just outside the park, near Abergavenny, you can tour a coal mine at Big Pit National Coal Museum.

Other popular activities and things to do in the Brecon Beacons include mountain biking, horse riding, canoeing, sailing, fishing, climbing, and camping.

Official site: www.breconbeacons.org

Accommodation: Where to Stay near Brecon Beacons National Park

3. Cardiff Castle & National Museum Cardiff

Perhaps the most photographic of Wales' many castles, Cardiff Castle is a must-visit. Boasting still-intact sections constructed more than 1,000 years ago this splendidly preserved castle can take a few hours to explore. Be sure to allow plenty of time to do so in your Cardiff sightseeing itinerary.

Highlights include the State Apartments, notable for its informative displays relating to life in the castle over the ages, as well as the attractive old chapel. Other notable features include the well-preserved Banqueting Hall with its medieval murals and elaborate fireplace. A variety of guided tour options are available, along with an informative audio guide that can be picked up from the visitor center.

If there's still time after your castle adventure, try to squeeze in a visit to the National Museum Cardiff. Undoubtedly topping the list of the best things to do for free in Cardiff, this major attraction houses impressive collections focusing on archeology, zoology, and botany, as well as the arts.

The National Museum of Art is housed in the same building, and features a number of works by some of the world's most important artists, including Old Masters and Welsh painters.

Address: Castle Street, Cardiff, Wales

Official site: www.cardiffcastle.com

4. Devil's Bridge and the Hafod Estate

Located 12 miles from the seaside town of Aberystwyth, Devil's Bridge is actually three bridges spectacularly stacked atop each other, with the oldest dating from the 11th century and the newest built in 1901. They span the Rheidol Gorge, where the River Mynach plunges 300 feet into the valley far below.

Be sure to follow the Falls Nature Trail to the bottom. It's a bit of a climb back up-especially those steep, slippery steps of Jacob's Ladder, the segment leading to the oldest bridge-but the views are incredible.

Afterward, visit Hafod Estate, 200 acres of lovingly restored woodlands and 18th-century gardens once considered the finest in Britain. While the manor house is long gone, visitors can enjoy pleasant hikes along well-marked trails past waterfalls, ancient trees, and the estate's old, walled formal gardens. And if you're looking for an idyllic cottage vacation, the wonderful old Hawthorn Cottage allows guests an unforgettable experience.

Address: Hafod Estate Pont-rhyd-y-groes, Cwmystwyth, Ystrad Meurig

Official site: www.hafod.org

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Aberystwyth

5. Wales by Rail

Wales was once famous for its mining operations, in particular the mining of slate used for the roofing still so common here. While the majority of these mines and quarries have closed, many of the narrow-gauge railways used to shift goods (and later, Victorian-era tourists) around the country have been restored and now provide scenic excursions.

Today, more than 10 heritage railway lines reach some of the country's most popular landmarks, including mountains, seaside towns, and castles. Many of the bigger lines, such as the 14 mile-long Ffestiniog Railway running through Snowdonia National Park, offer unique train driving courses and volunteer opportunities to add to the experience.

Official site: www.greatlittletrainsofwales.co.uk

6. Caernarfon Castle

Built by King Edward I in the 13th century as a seat for the first Prince of Wales, Caernarfon Castle (Castell Caernarfon) is one of the largest such fortifications in the country. With its 13 towers and two gates, this massive castle is recognized as one of the most impressive-and the best-preserved-medieval fortresses in Europe. Occupying the site of an even older Norman castle, Caernarfon Castle dominates the waters of the River Seiont and the Menai Strait on one side, and is protected by a moat on the other.

The castle's royal heritage continues to this day, and in 1969 it was the scene of Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.

Also of interest is the Royal Welsh Fusiliers Museum (admission included), notable for the 14 Victoria Crosses on display.

Address: Castle Ditch, Caernarfon

Official site: https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/caernarfon-castle

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Caernarfon

7. Conwy & Conwy Castle

Located on the north coast of Wales, just a short distance from Manchester, the small town of Conwy offers something for everyone: a stunning castle, medieval architecture, and plenty of great shopping.

The best views of Conwy Castle (Castell Conwy) and River Conwy, with its suspension bridge designed by Thomas Telford, are from the 13th-century town walls built by King Edward I to keep the Welsh at bay. If visiting in June (and with kids in tow), check ahead for news of the castle's annual Pirate Weekend.

The National Trust's Aberconwy House is Conwy's only surviving 14th-century merchant's house and one of the first buildings constructed inside the town walls. Other interesting homes are the Elizabethan Plas Mawr, and the Smallest House in Great Britain.

Address: Rose Hill Street, Conwy

Official site: https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/conwy-castle

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Conwy

8. Pembrokeshire Coast National Park

Surrounded by water on three sides, Wales has more than its fair share of dramatic coastline. Some of the most imposing are found along the coast of the Pembrokeshire Peninsula, which juts out into the Irish Sea, much of it falling within the boundaries of Pembrokeshire Coast National Park (Parc Cenedlaethol Arfordir Penfro).

You can best explore this magnificent scenery on foot along the dramatic Pembrokeshire Coast National Trail, finding villages like the picturesque little resort of Tenby, still partially enclosed by its medieval walls.

Other Pembrokeshire coast highlights are Pembroke Castle, St. David's Cathedral (in the town of the same name), and idyllic fishing harbors such as Laugharne, where Welsh poet Dylan Thomas lived for much of his life. His boathouse home above the bay is now a museum.

As elsewhere in Wales, adventurous travelers can find unique places to stay, including classic old farm cottages, gypsy caravans, or vintage railcars.

Accommodation: Where to Stay along the Pembrokeshire Coast

9. Portmeirion

Portmeirion is a beautiful hotel resort and visitor attraction on the coast of Snowdonia National Park in Gwynedd, North Wales. Built by Sir Clough Williams-Ellis between 1925 and 1975, Portmeirion was designed to resemble a quaint Italian fishing village. Visitors staying overnight get the whole place to themselves once the gates are closed, when they can explore its beautiful gardens, fountains, church, and the coastal paths of the lower village.

This stunning attraction has been the location for numerous films and TV programs, including the 1960s cult show, The Prisoner, and should definitely be included on your Wales sightseeing itinerary. Guided tours are available, and the resort's restaurants come highly recommended. A variety of shops are also located here, some selling the famous Portmeirion pottery.

Address: Minffordd, Penrhyndeudraeth, Gwynedd

Official site: www.portmeirion-village.com

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Portmeirion

10. National Slate Museum & the Big Pit

Wales is a nation built in mining and, as such, has done a remarkable job of preserving its mining past. Of the many things to do related to this rich history, none can quite match the experience of visiting one of these mines in person.

Located in Caernarfon, the fascinating National Slate Museum offers an in-depth look at the workings of a 19th-century slate quarry, along with accompanying machinery and workshops, including a huge still-working waterwheel. A great deal of attention is also placed on the conditions for workers and their families, along with live demonstrations of the mining process.

Situated within Breacon Becons, the Big Pit National Coal Museum offers a glimpse into the nation's other most-mined material, and the lives of those who worked here. Highlights of a visit include exploring the well-preserved old buildings and homes on the site.

Blaenavon is also home to an old ironworks that's worth exploring, home to the "Big Pit" blast furnaces and foundries. Also worth a visit, Rhondda Heritage Park actually allows visitors to descend to "pit bottom" in an old miners' elevator. These Black Gold Experience Underground Tours are even led by former coalminers, adding to the authenticity of the experience. There's also a replica village to explore, portraying everyday life for mining families.

Official site: https://museum.wales/slate/

11. Bodnant Garden

A National Trust property, Bodnant Garden is one of the most beautiful gardens in Britain, created over many years by generations of the McLaren family and brought to its present heights by the 2nd Lord Aberconway.

Highlights of the spectacular gardens are the grand formal terraces, spectacular views across the River Conwy to Snowdonia, and the famous Laburnum Arch. This curved walk of about 50 yards is covered with laburnum, whose abundant, long blossoms cover it in cascades of yellow in late May and early June.

Spring is also when the Dell, a deep valley where trees tower above streams, is abloom with rhododendrons. But the wide variety of flowering plants assures that the gardens are filled with color throughout the whole season. Among the trees are 40 UK Champion Trees, judged the best examples of their kind in Britain. The elegant Georgian Pin Mill was moved here from Gloucestershire. A tearoom is located on-site, and comes highly recommended.

Address: Bodnant Road, Tal-y-cafn, Colwyn Bay

Official site: www.nationaltrust.org.uk/bodnant-garden

12. Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Llangollen Canal

It took 10 years to design and build the aqueduct that carries the Llangollen Canal across the wide valley of the River Dee in north east Wales. Even today it's considered a significant feat of civil engineering and is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The 18-arched bridge is built of stone and cast iron, its arches soaring 100 feet above the river, and is more than 1,000 feet in length. In 1801, when the aqueduct was built, canals were an important means of transport for manufactured goods and raw materials, and aqueducts were a more efficient means of carrying them across deep valleys than staircases of canal locks.

This one is the longest navigable aqueduct in Great Britain and the highest in the world. A narrow walkway with a railing allows pedestrians to cross the bridge, but it's far more fun to cross it on a canal boat. It's not for those with a fear of heights, however, as your boat sits high on the shallow canal, and it's a long way down to the river.

For a less vertigo-inducing ride, horse-drawn canal boats take tourists on a tree-shaded stretch of the canal from nearby Llangollen Wharf. A fun alternative is to take a guided kayak tour across the aqueduct.

Location: Llangollen Wharf

Official site: www.pontcysyllte-aqueduct.co.uk

13. Anglesey

Separated from mainland Wales by the mile-wide Menai Strait-spanned by the Menai Suspension Bridge (1818)-the Isle of Anglesey is home to a number of quaint, small fishing villages sprinkled along its more than 100 miles of attractive coastline. Along with its sandy beaches and landmarks such as South Stack Lighthouse, the island's mild climate makes it popular for day trippers and campers alike.

The smaller Holy Island, linked to Anglesey by bridge, is a popular holiday resort with two promenades (one of them 1.5 miles-long). Tiny Salt Island offers great views and a chance for some bird watching. Finally, one of the world's most famous photo ops is on the railway platforms of the town with the world's longest place name: Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllandysiliogogogoch.

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Anglesey

14. Llandudno

Dubbed the "Queen of the Welsh Resorts," Llandudno is the largest seaside resort town in Wales. Located on the north coast with views across the Irish Sea, this picture-perfect tourist destination lies between the Welsh mainland and the Great Orme, a peninsula inhabited since the Stone Age.

The town's unique promenade is free of the usual seaside shops and cafés, which were wisely placed behind the seafront to ensure Victorian visitors a more peaceful experience.

The best views of the town and its surrounds are from the Great Orme, easily accessible by a heritage tramway. Well connected by rail and road, Llandudno is a good base for touring Wales' spectacular North Coast.

Accommodation: Where to Stay in Llandudno

More on Wales

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14 Top-Rated Tourist Attractions in Wales | PlanetWare

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Written by Bryan Dearsley Dec 23, 2019 The smallest of mainland Britain's component countries, Wales offers many wonderful reasons to visit. The south includes cosmopolitan Cardiff, famous for its magnificent castle and a good base from which to begin exploring the rest of the country.

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Every August, Edinburgh, Scotland welcomes Festival Fringe, the world's largest arts festival. 2015's festival spanned 25 days and featured 50,459 performances of 3,314 shows in 313 venues!

Our American High School Theatre Festival and International Collegiate Theatre Festival programs are gearing up to join the performers in Scotland. When we aren't performing or attending other performances, we'll be exploring beautiful Edinburgh.

Ahead of our ICTF and AHSTF programs' journeys to Scotland, here are 12 facts about Edinburgh:

Edinburgh Castle is built on an extinct volcano.

The Royal Mile is actually one mile and 107 yards long.

Edinburgh was the first city in the entire world to have its own fire service.

Edinburgh has 112 parks and more trees per head of population than any other city in the U.K.

J.K. Rowling wrote some of Harry Potter in an Edinburgh café (The Elephant) and took inspiration from the landscape for her characters and locations.

The Encyclopedia Britannica was first produced in Edinburgh

St. Margaret's Chapel, located within the walls of Edinburgh Castle, is the oldest building in Edinburgh. It was built in memory of Queen Margaret, who is said to have died from a broken heart after the death of her husband.

"You'll have had your tea?" was once a common Edinburgh greeting and is still used today as a way to avoid putting on a kettle; its believed the phrase originated in the 18th century with a nobleman named Mackintosh of Borlum who didn't like the sound of tea-slurping at social gatherings.

The "Stone of Destiny" is the traditional coronation stone of Scottish and English royalty and is kept at Edinburgh Castle with the crown jewels of Scotland; according to legend, the real stone was secretly swapped for a fake one at some point in its history.

Edinburgh Castle's Great Hall has a small window high above the fireplace known as "laird's lug" which translates into "the Lord's ear." The window allowed castle residents to eavesdrop on conversations taking place in the Great Hall.

The National Monument on Calton Hill is known as "Edinburgh's Folly" or "Edinburgh's Shame." It was modeled after the Parthenon in Athens, but funding for the build ran out and it was never completed.

Edinburgh has more listed buildings than anywhere in the world.

We're looking forward to spending time in Edinburgh for Festival Fringe. Learn more about our ICTF and AHSTF theatre programs, or check out some of our other programs that visit E dinburgh!

We'll be live blogging from Festival Fringe starting next week - keep an eye out for all the action from Festival Fringe!

Article written by Sarah Wyland

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Every August, Edinburgh, Scotland welcomes Festival Fringe, the world's largest arts festival. 2015's festival spanned 25 days and featured 50,459 performances of 3,314 shows in 313 venues! Our American High School Theatre Festival and International Collegiate Theatre Festival programs are gearing up to join the performers in Scotland.

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Edinburgh is the capital and second largest city Scotland.

Situated in Scotland's Central Belt, Edinburgh lies on the Firth of Forth's southern shore. The city center is 4 kilometers (2 1⁄2 miles) southwest of the shoreline of Leith and 42 kilometers (26 miles) inland as the dove flies, from the east coast of Scotland and the North Sea at Dunbar.

As of June 2018, the population of Edinburgh is about 464,990 people.

The city of Edinburgh covers a total area of 264 square kilometers (102 square miles).

The area around modern-day Edinburgh has been inhabited for thousands of years.

Its origins as a settlement can be traced to the early Middle Ages when a hillfort was established in the area, most likely on the Castle Rock.

From the seventh to the tenth centuries it was part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria, becoming thereafter a royal residence of the Scottish kings.

The town that developed next to the stronghold was established by royal charter in the early 12th century, and by the middle of the 14th century was being described as the capital of Scotland.

Edinburgh's Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999.

Edinburgh is a center of culture and the arts and is especially known for its festivals, from the Edinburgh International Book Festival, which welcomes more than 1,000 authors, to the sparkling Christmas Markets and the Edinburgh Fringe, the world's largest festival of the arts.

Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress which dominates the skyline of the city of Edinburgh from its position on the Castle Rock. The Castle Rock is estimated to have formed some 350 million years ago. It is the most important castle in Scotland and has been at the center of numerous wars, having been attacked and besieged many times.

The Old Town is the oldest part of Scotland's capital city of Edinburgh. The street layout, typical of the old quarters of many northern European cities, is made especially picturesque in Edinburgh, where the castle perches on top of a rocky crag, the remnants of an extinct volcano, and the main street runs down the crest of a ridge from it.

The New Town was built in stages between 1767 and around 1850, and retains much of the original neo-classical and Georgian period architecture. Its most famous street is Princes Street, facing Edinburgh Castle and the Old Town across the geographical depression of the former Nor Loch.

The Palace of Holyroodhouse commonly referred to as Holyrood Palace, is the official residence of the British monarch in Scotland, Queen Elizabeth II. Located at the bottom of the Royal Mile in Edinburgh, at the opposite end to Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace has served as the principal residence of the Kings and Queens of Scots since the 16th century, and is a setting for state occasions and official entertaining.

Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh, Scotland which form most of Holyrood Park, described by Robert Louis Stevenson as "a hill for magnitude, a mountain in virtue of its bold design". It is situated just to the east of the city centre, about 1.6 kilometer (1 mile) to the east of Edinburgh Castle. The hill rises above the city to a height of 250.5 meters (822 feet), provides excellent panoramic views of the city and beyond, is relatively easy to climb, and is popular for hillwalking.

St Giles' Cathedral, also known as the High Kirk of Edinburgh, is the principal place of worship of the Church of Scotland in Edinbrough. Its distinctive crown steeple is a prominent feature of the city skyline, at about a third of the way down the Royal Mile which runs from the Castle to Holyrood Palace. The church has been one of Edinburgh's religious focal points for approximately 900 years. The present church dates from the late 14th century, though it was extensively restored in the 19th century, and is protected as a category A listed building.

The National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland, was formed in 2006 with the merger of the new Museum of Scotland, with collections relating to Scottish antiquities, culture and history, and the adjacent Royal Museum (so renamed in 1995), with collections covering science and technology, natural history, and world cultures.

"Edin", the root of the city's name, is most likely of Brittonic Celtic origin, from the Cumbric language or a variation of it that would have been spoken by the earliest known people of the area, an Iron Age tribe known to the Romans as the Votadini, and latterly in sub-Roman history as the Gododdin. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin.

There are four universities in Edinburgh with students making up around one-fifth of the population.

Like most of Scotland, Edinburgh has a temperate, maritime climate which is relatively mild despite its northerly latitude.

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Edinburgh is the capital and second largest city Scotland. Situated in Scotland's Central Belt, Edinburgh lies on the Firth of Forth's southern shore. The city center is 4 kilometers (2 1⁄2 miles) southwest of the shoreline of Leith and 42 kilometers (26 miles) inland as the dove flies, from the east coast of Scotland and the North Sea at Dunbar.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Natasza, Catalog: New flipbook, Published: Apr 15, 2020

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Landscapes and nature

Mother Nature is a talented architect and filled Scotland with a huge variety of magnificent natural attractions. Rough Guides' readers even officially named Scotland the most beautiful country in the world.

With hundreds of awe-inspiring natural landmarks, you won't have to travel far to find scenic places in Scotland. To help you on your way, we've put together a list of Scotland's top natural wonders, based on their uniqueness and world-class natural beauty.

This is our version of the seven natural wonders of Scotland. How many of these have you been to? Are some of your favourite not on this list? Join the conversation on our iKnow Scotland community page and share your recommendations.

01 The Three Sisters of Glencoe

The Three Sisters mountains, also known as Bidean nam Bian in Gaelic, reside in arguably Scotland's most famous and scenic glen, Glen Coe, in the Highlands.

The Sisters, three steeply-sided ridges - Beinn Fhada (Long Hill) on the east, Gearr Aonach (Short Ridge) in the middle and Aonach Dubh (Black Ridge) on the west - were shaped million of years ago from some of the oldest sedimentary and volcanic strata in the world. To this day, they attract and stun visitors from all over the world. Visit for yourself to see the sheer scale and grandeur of the surrounding landscapes and learn about the area's turbulent past.

Dominating the valley's skyline, the Three Sisters - with many ridges and subsidiary peaks - are a true mecca for keen walkers. Together with the famous pyramid of Buachaille Etive Mor that guards the entrance to the glen and the nearby beautiful Loch Leven, this complex mountain range forms a magical land that looks straight out of a storybook. It's no wonder Glen Coe is often cited as one of the top views in the UK.

02 Fingal's Cave

Fingal's Cave on the uninhabited Isle of Staffa in Argyll is perhaps the best known of all the caves in Scotland, and one of the best examples of volcanic basalt columns in the world.

Looming 227 ft (69 m) tall over the ocean, this visually astounding geometric sea cave has been formed completely from hexagonal columns of basalt, shaped in neat six-sided pillars, that make up its interior walls. It was created some 60 million years ago by the very same ancient lava flow that created the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, which is directly across the sea.

As both are made of the same basalt columns, legend holds that they were the end pieces of a huge road built by the Irish giant Fionn mac Cumhaill, so he could make it to Scotland where he was to duel with Fingal, his gigantic rival.

Follow in the footsteps of Queen Victoria and Sir Walter Scott, amongst others, and take a cruise boat to Staffa and the breathtaking Fingal's Cave, where you can enjoy puffin spotting in summer, and listen to the astonishing acoustics of the cave, which inspired Mendelssohn to compose his Hebrides Overture.

03 Luskentyre Sands

Famous for its miles of white sands and the gorgeous green-blue waters, Luskentyre Sands is a little slice of heaven on earth. Submerged at high tide, it becomes part of the Sound of Taransay that looks out to the Isle of Taransay.

Situated on the Isle of Harris in the north west of Scotland, this perfectly-curved crescent of fine shell sand is reminiscent of an exotic beach. Lapped gently by azure water and backed by sand dunes with grass that ripples in the wind, Luskentyre certainly knows how to mesmerise its visitors. The slopes of Ben Luskentyre dropping down into the water and the backdrop of the North Harris hills across the sound only add to its remarkableness.

Should you need more convincing, Luskentyre was named one of Britain's best beaches and Harris and Lewis islands scooped first place in the Best Island in Europe category in TripAdvisor's 2014 Travellers' Choice awards. Coastal scenery really doesn't come any better than this.

04 Scottish Dark Sky Park

Its darkness has a legendary reputation amongst stargazers. The forest park has a Sky Quality Meter scale reading of 21 to 23.6 on a scale of 25, giving it a score of near to total darkness.

Travel to the park in the south west of Scotland, where you can get a glimpse of more than 7,000 stars and planets with the naked eye, and see meteors when they occur. The visibility is often clear enough for the bright band of the Milky Way to be seen arching across the sky. There's a new show every night because, as we travel round the sun, we're getting a constantly changing view of the stars.

The three park visitor centres offer great viewing areas and information points that will help you to identify constellations and planets, and the Scottish Dark Sky Observatory in Dalmellington near Ayr, on the edge of the park, has two large telescopes through which you can observe the night sky.

05 An Lochan Uaine (The Green Loch)

As legend has it, the enchanting An Lochan Uaine (The Green Lochan) in Glenmore Forest Park got its unique emerald hue when Dòmhnall Mòr, the king of the pixies (the local fairies), washed his clothes in its waters. Another explanation for the loch's green tint could be from algae generated by decomposing wood lying along the loch floor, but we think the fairy story is much more fun!

Either way, the colour of the water is uncanny and makes this a mysterious, magical spot.

Located in the Ryvoan Pass near Aviemore and surrounded by lush forest and steep scree slopes, the lochan makes an accessible and enjoyable walk from Glenmore, and has long been a popular stopping point for walkers in the Cairngorms National Park.

The word uaine (pronounced oo-in-ya) is a Gaelic word used to refer to a bright, vivid green colour.

06 Rannoch Moor

Often referred to as one of the last remaining wildernesses in Europe, Rannoch Moor is a largely uninhabited and uninhabitable boggy moorland that contains the most extensive complex of soligenous mire in Britain.

Occupying roughly 150 square miles in Perthshire, this challenging stretch of land is composed of blanket peat bog, lochans, rivers, heather hillocks and rocky outcrops, all of it more than 1,000 ft (305 m) above sea level. Despite its harsh conditions, the land still supports varieties of flora and fauna, with a wealth of plants, insect, bird and animal life thriving here, ranging from curlews and grouse to roe and red deer.

But perhaps the most striking thing about the moor is its remoteness. The best way to get a feel for this unique area is to take a train journey on the famous West Highland Railway line which crosses the moorland for 23 miles and rises to over 1,300 ft.

Similar places: The Southern Uplands in the south of Scotland, Knoydart Peninsula in North Highlands, Dava Heather Moorland in Moray

07 The Old Man of Hoy

The Old Man of Hoy isn't actually a man at all, or a human being for that matter. Rising out of the Atlantic Ocean to a remarkable height of 449 ft (137 m), the Old Man of Hoy is the UK's tallest sea stack.

Situated on the island of Hoy, part of the Orkney archipelago in the north of Scotland, this red sandstone monolith has been separated from land by the erosive powers of sea and wind. The formation process usually begins when the sea creates cracks in the headland, causing them to later collapse and form free-standing stacks. The Old Man was originally an arch with two 'legs', hence its name.

Climbers from around the world come to scale this famous rock formation. If you would rather admire this spectacular site from a distance, you can walk to it from Moaness by taking the Rackwick Glen walk, and you can also see it from the daily Scrabster to Stromness ferry route.

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Mother Nature is a talented architect and filled Scotland with a huge variety of magnificent natural attractions. Rough Guides' readers even officially named Scotland the most beautiful country in the world. With hundreds of awe-inspiring natural landmarks, you won't have to travel far to find scenic places in Scotland.

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https://www.biography.com/explorer/christopher-columbus

First known trip to America was made by Christopher Columbus. In late August of 1492, Columbus left Spain from the port of Palos de la Frontera. Columbus wanted to sail west across the Atlantic to reach Asia, believing it would be quicker and safer route. He showed his idea to influential monarchies in europe but no one agreed. At last Spanish queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon gived christopher three ships. After 36 days of sailing westward across the Atlantic his crewmen and Columbus arrived at an island in the present-day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain. They met there timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors, exchanging glass beads, cotton balls, parrots and spears. Europeans noticed also bits of gold  which were worn by the locals. Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba (which he thought was China) and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which Columbus thought might be Japan). He didn’t saw any other natives of this lands again.

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Tomek’s magazine is really clear. I was so interested in reading. Magazine has a lot of photos and not too long texts. Thanks to the numbered pages because I could clearly find the wanted topic. Colorful pages encouraging to reading. Natasza

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Natasza, Catalog: New flipbook, Published: Apr 15, 2020

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Misia Piecuch, Catalog: American food, Published: Apr 14, 2020

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Natasza's magazine is different than others because of its unique appearance. It's very clear and esthetic. Sometimes text is a bit small but it's not a big problem. For me her magazine is interesting and charming.

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I like Natasza’s  magazine  because it touches on the stories of the greatest people of current fashion. Personally speaking I'm not really interested in fashion. Although it’s nice to get to know some facts about lives of people whose influence on this field was the biggest. The only thing I would change is the size of font.

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Oliwia’s magazine is really interesting. There is a lot of information but they are short and interesting. From this magazine you can learn important things in easy way. Magazine has a lot of photos and clear texts.

Natasza

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In my opinion the magazine is very well written and contains all necessary information. It is pleasant to read and has many interesting threads. Although it contains a lot of information, it is clearly presented which encourages the reader.
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I'm not really keen on history but for these who are, Kuba's magazine is perfect. There are a lot of interesting facts about king Henry VIII. In my view in this presentation photos are missing but as a whole is nice
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In my opinion the text information and facts are really interesting and there are a lot of them. It's not only about past but also about present times. I wrote the "text" earlier because the only minus in this magazine is lack of pictures. However, the text backgrounds are pleasant to look at.

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The magazine is very well prepared. Lot of facts and events that happened to the British empire are presented very well. We can also know after reading this, how does it affect us today. The whole magazine is very clear and photos are well connected with the text.

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Kuba's magazine was very interesting to read. There are a lot of information about Henry VIII. The author has focused more on his private life because he thinks it's more interesting and i agree with that. The minus of this article is the lack of pictures.

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I think that Oliwia’s magazine about clothes in the UK is very well prepared. The visual side is quite simple, but thanks to that it is very clear and attractive. There is a good balance between the amount of text and photos. The topic is realised interestingly. British fashion is shown chronologically, from middle ages to modern times, and each outfit is in the picture. The language is very good and everything is understandable. I really enjoyed reading this magazine. Tomek

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The magazine contains a lot of interesting facts that can teach us a lot about the British empire.  The magazin is very vell prepared and nicely presented. I really enjoyed reading it.

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Personally this magazine is one of my favourites. Its really vell prepared and contains a lot of useful and interesting information about British cuisine. The whole magazine is really clear and i really enjoyed reading it.

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Cinema of the United Kingdom - Wikipedia

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British cinema has significantly influenced the global film industry since the 19th century. The oldest known surviving film in the world, Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), was shot in England by French inventor Louis Le Prince. Early colour films were also pioneered in the UK. Film production reached an all-time high in 1936,[6] but the “golden age” of British cinema is usually thought to have occurred in the 1940s, which saw the release of the most critically acclaimed works by filmmakers such as David Lean, Michael Powell, and Carol Reed.[7][8][9]

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Since its development in the last decade of the 19 th century, the cinema has become one of the most powerful forms of mass communication yet devised. Short primitive actuality films of the 1890s soon gave way to longer narrative films which, by 1914, were increasingly complex, technically sophisticated and hugely popular, particularly with the working classes. For those unsophisticated audiences what was on the screen was often believed to be "real." Thus films were not just entertainment but an important source of information for audiences, a vital factor in shaping their worldview. Film interpreted great events, made sense of the world and was a particularly effective medium through which to bring the past to life. When war came in 1914, and despite the ever increasing popularity of the cinema, the British government saw little place for filmmakers in the war effort. The cinema was simply an indulgence for the pleasure of the lower classes. In the early months of the war, political and military elites had little idea of just how much they would come to need the collaboration of the whole population to achieve victory nor how powerful film could be as a weapon of mass persuasion. Initially, filmmakers found their offers of assistance in the war effort rejected again and again. In September 1914 Kine Weekly, the foremost trade paper, was arguing that film was uniquely placed to "arouse patriotism." A little later its rival journal, The Bioscope, suggested that citizens had the right to be informed about the conduct of the war and cinema, with its "ability to record the actual likeness of events," was well placed to play this role.

Yet in those early months, footage of the war did appear on the screen. The newsreels were full of scenes of volunteers queuing outside recruiting stations, soldiers, laughing as they accepted cigarettes and flowers from the crowds of onlookers who cheered them on their way as they left their camps for France. Film cameramen even found their way to France with the British Expeditionary Force and recorded even more smiling, laughing columns as they trudged the country roads looking for the enemy. But as soon as the armies came into contact and the retreat from Mons began, military headquarters sent the cameras home, fearful they would inadvertently record information "of value to the enemy." Determined to demonstrate their patriotism, filmmakers set about recreating the war in their studios to encourage the public to greater effort in their war work and to exploit their appetite for war news of kind. The Hepworth Studio's narrative film Unfit or The Strength of the Weak, released in October 1914 was typical. Two brothers try to enlist but only one is accepted. However, the second brother becomes a war correspondent and bravely sacrifices himself for his country in France. But recreating the Western Front in leafy Surrey with a handful of over-age actors provided audiences with a very limited and sanitized impression what it might be like in France.

Gradually, the authorities realized that this was a " total war" and politicians began to understand that they needed the full cooperation of all citizens. Thus they needed to inform the general public about the manner in which the war was being fought; about its insatiable demands for ever-more men and material and what better way to inform the public than through film, a medium that reached millions and which was widely regarded as "the very picture of reality"? Positive images of war, then, would serve to encourage the war effort and raise public morale, dented by the fact that the war had not yet been won and by the growing casualty lists. Film could help undermine the image of the enemy and persuade the neutral nations that the Allied cause was just. Charles Masterman (1873-1927), the Liberal politician in charge of Britain's propaganda effort from Wellington House, was well aware that the cinema could be a vital weapon in the war of ideas but it was difficult to persuade the War Office and Admiralty to allow the camera to oversee their preparations and operations. Nevertheless, negotiations were started in early 1915.

An immediate compromise was the film Britain Prepared which highlighted the work of both the army and navy but which employed no sensitive footage. The film was finally premiered in December 1915. The first part showed the raising and training of Horatio Herbert Kitchener's (1850-1916) new armies and the second, focused on life aboard the Queen Elizabeth, one of the navy's battleships. The film, running at over three hours, actually showed nothing that the Services would find troubling yet still managed to provide a convincing demonstration for the neutral nations of British strength and commitment. Finally, in mid-1915, the British government with the agreement of the War Office and Admiralty, and under considerable pressure from press and public, appointed the first official war artists and allowed photographers to go to the front. With them went two army cinematographers, Lieutenants Geoffrey Malins (1886-1940) and John Benjamin McDowell (1877-1954). The footage they shot was released to the newsreels and thus, for the first time, cinema audiences were allowed to see what the war in France was really like, or rather what the movie camera could record of it. But when these "pictures from the Front" appeared on the screen they were certainly not what the public expected.

Filmmakers, as non-combatants, were positioned relatively safely behind the front line. With heavy, unwieldy cameras, rapid movement was impossible. Without the advantages of telephoto lenses or fast film, it was impossible to record the detail of war. Even in July 1918, for example, a filmed report like the Topical Budget's Battle South of Arras shows only a distant view of tiny figures moving towards a ridge before they are obscured in smoke. Film, then, was often disappointing to an audience weaned on graphic, detailed images of war created by the artist and popular illustrator. In April 1916, the Guardian complained that the footage that had so far been released "offered such little access to life at the front" it might as well have been taken in this country.

This attitude changed, however, in August 1916 with the release of the War Office film The Battle of the Somme. A straightforward account of the preparations and opening phase of the Somme Offensive in July, one of the war's bloodiest and most controversial battles. The film had tremendous effect on spectators and added a new dimension to the visual imagery of the war. While many of the scenes would have been familiar, columns of smiling troops moving up to the front, preparations behind the lines and so on, it included a short sequence of British troops going "over the top," taking casualties, but advancing on the German front line. This twenty-one second sequence had considerable impact on audiences for here was the "real war" at last. The footage of British soldiers climbing a parapet and then falling, apparently dead or dying, was shocking, but it is now known that the attack sequence was faked, filmed in Britain. The real footage of British troops going into action was filmed from such a distance as to be almost meaningless. The film equally distorts truth in other ways. Scenes of German prisoners of war trudging back under guard or of the German dead appear to suggest that the opening phase had been successful, indeed captions about "objectives taken" reinforce this suggestion. In reality of course, 1 July 1916 was the most disastrous day in the history of the British Army. Yet while the film evades the truth in some ways, the camera cannot disguise all the truths of battle. The Battle of the Somme also includes unprecedented footage of the pain and trauma on the faces of the troops after the attack and a longer sequence that shows graphic images of the dead - a slow pan across a heap of bodies at the bottom of a crater and later the unceremonious mass burials of the enemy dead. As The Cinema put it, "This is war, rich with death."

The Somme broke all box office records: David Lloyd George (1863-1945) wrote a dedication that was read aloud in many cinemas and audiences across the country were shocked and horrified at the conditions at the front which were far more horrible than they could ever have imagined. Nothing could disguise the suffering of the men. It also introduced audiences to a new factor - that modern industrialized warfare destroyed not only men but the environment as well. It is impossible to view The Somme without becoming aware of what the war had done to the gentle landscape of northern France - a theme that would be developed by many of the war artists, most notably Paul Nash (1889-1946) especially in his aptly titled canvas "We Are Making a New World."

Cooperation between the government and the film industry was now possible and the War Office Cinematograph Committee was formed in 1916. Chaired by the press baron Max Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook (1879-1964), the Committee became responsible for all film propaganda. The films produced varied from animations by Lancelot Speed (1860-1931) like The U-Tube (1917) which made fun of German ambitions, to documentaries of work on the home front such as A Day in the Life of a Munitions Worker (1917) which focused on the contribution of the women who worked at Woolwich Arsenal. The Somme was followed by other major films in the same style: The King Visits his Armies in the Great Advance released later in 1916 and The Battle of Ancre in early 1917. These images of the real war had a depressing effect; perhaps they were just too real after such a long diet of sanitized images? Nor could audiences identify with the documentary format in the same way as narrative film - they preferred to be drawn into the story, to become part of the drama in a way that was impossible with actuality footage.

It was Beaverbrook who in 1917, perceiving that weariness and low public morale was having a serious affect on the war effort, took the unprecedented step of inviting the celebrated American filmmaker David Llewelyn Wark Griffith (1875-1948), to make a narrative film about the war to increase anti-German sentiment and provide the incentive to "carry on" to victory. The Cinematograph Committee even partly financed the film. Hearts of the World - the Story of a Village is set in a village in eastern France. It begins before the war; the villagers are happy and content and they even put up with an unpleasant German tourist, Von Strohm, who displays a curious interest in the strategic position of the village. In August 1914, with the men away at war, the village is occupied by the enemy. Von Strohm now reappears in his true colors as a Prussian officer. The villagers suffer under the occupation, brutality and rape become commonplace. However, the villagers are eventually saved by an advance guard of French and American troops who drive out the Germans - a typically simple Griffiths' scenario but one which had enormous appeal for audiences. To establish the authenticity of the film, it opens with scenes of Griffiths in France looking for locations and later meeting Lloyd George. Curiously, it predicts the end of the war for its final scenes are of the soldiers returning home. Griffiths did film in France and were given unprecedented access to the frontline. But while some of the footage was used, it was supplemented with material created on a Hollywood sound stage while the battle sequences were recreated on Salisbury Plain using British and Canadian troops. It was those scenes which provided the necessary "realism" to convince audiences that finally they were looking at the real war. Karl Brown (1896-1990), Griffiths' cameraman, has recorded just how complex an operation it was to put together scenes, or parts of scenes, filmed in these different locations.

The film was continually switching from Hollywood to France to England and back to Hollywood, all within seconds of running time. A gun was fired in France and its shell shattered a wall on a [Hollywood] lot... three feet here, a foot there, ten frames somewhere else, and it's done...

Trickery, sleight of hand, indeed, yet what appeared on the screen conformed exactly to how audiences thought the war should look. Griffiths put into Hearts of the World the narrative drama that audiences felt the official films lacked - the "up close and personal" element that cameramen at the front were incapable of capturing and which spectators conditioned by fictional representations of war had come to expect. Released just before the Armistice, Hearts of the World stunned audiences in America and Britain into silence. But its propagandist function was never tested - would it have encouraged a flagging, war weary audience? We shall never know.

It has often been suggested that with the Armistice, the war disappeared from the screen. While it is true that fewer films were made, the impact of the war on British society was so great it became a constant presence in all the arts and not least in cinema. Between 1919 and 1939 more than thirty major feature films were made by British studios about the war. Hollywood produced three times that number. If we add European and American productions to the list, it becomes clear that the war was a major theme in cinemas throughout the interwar period. There were also films that referenced the war in tangential ways - films about war widows, disillusioned or damaged veterans and so on.

It has equally become commonplace to argue that after the mid-1920s, British society turned against the war recognizing it as a futile struggle that achieved nothing but the death of a generation. The problem with this explanation, however, is that it is based upon limited sources, particularly the literature produced by a small elite of disillusioned and bitter survivors who felt betrayed because the war had neither restored that imaginary Edwardian golden summer nor the brave new world of the politicians' promises. Yet these views have been taken as representative of the nation as a whole. However, a viewing of the films made at that time reveals a different picture. Throughout the period war films reflected a positive, almost heroic interpretation of the war. They did not deny the appalling conditions, the suffering and the casualties but the British Empire had been victorious. Prussian militarism had been defeated, the freedom of Europe secured. Typical of this interpretation were British Instructional Film's reconstructions of famous battles. Beginning with The Battle of Jutland in 1921, these included Armageddon (1923), Ypres (1925) and Mons (1926). Armageddon, made with the cooperation of the British Army, told the story of the Palestine Campaign which defeated the Turks and provided the first real British success of the war. Made with the assistance of the government, these films were, as Samuel Hynes has suggested, concerned with telling the story of the war in "heroic, value-affirming terms...a testament to courage, patriotism and the nobility of sacrifice." Here the war was a justified crusade against tyranny in which those who fell found immortality in the memory of the nation. While producer Harry Bruce Woolfe (c.1888-1965) was concerned that all the military units which took part in the action should be acknowledged, his main objective was to show the war as another heroic episode in the history of Britain. As the Commemorative Programme for the film Mons explained,

Mons is the film-story of that Immortal Retreat, more splendid than any victory. Few alas, survive of those who actually fought through it, but they were our brothers and our sons, and their deeds must hold us still.

Extremely popular with British audiences, these films acted as a form of commemoration - a tribute to a justified sacrifice that complimented the official view of the war expressed through memorials and remembrance ceremonies. It is easy to understand why the public wanted to remember the war in such terms. After all, it was a far more comforting idea for the hundreds of thousands of bereaved families than accepting that their loved ones died for no good reason. One simply had to believe the war had been justified in order to give their deaths meaning.

British feature films, from Maurice Elvey's (1887-1967) Comradeship in 1919 to Walter Forde's (1896-1984) Forever England (1935), while not minimizing the soldiers' suffering, presented that image of a justified war in which stoic British "Tommies" did their duty. By the later 1930s, even adventure was back in fashion with films like I was a Spy (1933). As the anti-war movement gained momentum in the later 1920s, however, some filmmakers attempted to play both sides. Adrian Brunel (1892-1958), director of the highly successful Blighty (1927), candidly explained his position,

It fulfilled the requirements of a popular patriotic film, in that it showed a decent English family behaving decently... . They refused to join in the singing of either 'Land of Hope and Glory' or 'The Hymn of Hate'... . It also fulfilled the requirements of a 'war' picture, although we never showed the war....And it was quietly, an anti-war picture rather than a pro-war picture.

After 1930, British war films were beginning to fall out of step with their European and American counterparts which were unambiguously condemnatory of the war at this point. The key film in this context was perhaps Lewis Milestone's (1895-1980) All Quiet on the Western Front, released in 1930, and is still one of the most powerful anti-war films ever made. This American produced version of a novel by the German veteran Erich Maria Remarque (1898-1970) had an international appeal which spoke to many who had lived through the war. Its powerful narrative which tells of the fate of its young protagonists, brilliant direction and exceptional cinematography made it the benchmark for other productions. All Quiet and its European made counterparts like Westfront 1918 (Germany 1930) or Wooden Crosses (France 1931) established an uncompromisingly negative interpretation of the war.

The two British films which are often assumed to be anti-war are Journey's End 1930, directed by James Whale (1889-1957), based on Robert Cedric Sherriff's (1896-1975) acclaimed stage play, and the 1931 screen version of Ernest Raymond's (1888-1974) best-selling novel Tell England directed by Anthony Asquith (1902-1968). Both Sherriff and Raymond had served in the war, the former as an infantry officer and the latter as a chaplain at Gallipoli. Both films are actually studies in duty, sacrifice and heroism; specifically that extraordinary sense of duty and understated everyday heroism found among those ex-public school junior officers that formed the backbone of the newly raised Kitchener battalions. In both of these films the war is brutal, cruel, deeply unpleasant, but the young protagonists must carry on, must do their duty for a justified cause even if it requires the ultimate sacrifice.

The only film that came close to an anti-war position was Norman Lee's (1898-1964) documentary Forgotten Men (1934) which highlighted the plight of disabled veterans, the "forgotten men" of the title. By focusing on the way these men had been treated it forces the viewer to consider whether the war was worthwhile. Nevertheless, it seems curious that as anti-war sentiment increased through the interwar years, the film industry, which relied on popular consensus for its success, did not reflect such views more strongly. Historian Jeffrey Richards has suggested that censorship may have had something to do with it: "The subject of pacifism and anti-war feeling came within the realm of the British Board of Censors ban on controversial politics' and so no film on the subject was permitted." Richards has identified a number of projects from the industry which were turned down as too controversial. Yet censorship in France was equally sensitive to the national interest but did not prevent films like The Doomed Battalion or Wooden Crosses from being produced. It seems most likely, then, that the majority of the British people wanted to remember the war as a cruelly fought but justified conflict for which the sacrifice had been worthwhile. This view, however, was to change with the Second World War.

The Great War was rarely mentioned between 1939 and 1945 although there were passing references to it in a few wartime films like The Dawn Guard (1940) and The Gentle Sex (1943). These were always in reference to its futility or the betrayal of those who survived by post-war governments. The war against Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) was often regarded as a moral crusade and, after 1945, as more was revealed of the Nazi plan for Europe this belief was further strengthened. Against this, the Great War appeared even more futile and the few films that have been made since 1945 have all reflected this negative view. It was only as the nation approached the war's fiftieth anniversary in 1964 that interest was renewed. The period saw a number of controversial studies published and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) produced its monumental series the Great War (1964). One might have expected that filmmakers would be tempted to exploit this renewed interest in the war but only four films were made between 1960 and 1976: David Lean's (1908-1991) epic Lawrence of Arabia (1962), King and Country directed by Joseph Losey (1909-1984) in 1964, while in 1969 Richard Attenborough (1923-2014) released his version of the stage show Oh! What a Lovely War. In the mid 1970s came Aces High (1976), yet another version of Journey's End but this time set in a Royal Flying Corps squadron in France.

In their own way, each of these films interpreted the war as a bloody and brutal experience which dehumanized its victims. Even Lawrence, which could so easily have been a paean to heroism, demonstrated that war can not only bring out the best in its participants, it can also bring out the worst. The single exception was the 1971 adventure story Zeppelin, a sort of Boys' Own romp which included double agents, beautiful spies and fanatical German officers. At the end of the 20 th century, several other films were made including the critically-acclaimed Regeneration (1997), a fictionalized version of the meeting between Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967) and Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) at Craiglockart Hospital in 1917; and the peculiar Deathwatch (2002), a horror film in which a group of infantrymen are destroyed by an "evil presence" in the trenches.

Despite renewed public interest in the Great War at the end of twentieth century, surprisingly few films about the war were produced. This would seem to be due mainly to the heavy costs of such productions and a diminishing cinema audience. However, it may also be due to the fact that since the 1970s television has become a significant provider of documentary and drama films about the war. Beginning with the documentary The Great War (BBC 1964) and prestigious adaptations like Testament of Youth (BBC 1979), television's contribution has included popular dramas like All the King's Men (BBC 1999) and Birdsong (BBC 2012). What is perhaps most evident in all these productions, whether made for cinema or television, is that on the screen the war is always a futile struggle in which a generation of patriotic young men commanded by dull-witted and unsympathetic senior officers endure a harsh and bloody experience. It would seem that as we now approach the centenary of the outbreak of the war, this interpretation, which has its origins in the bitter memoirs and poetry of the young survivors of the trenches, has become the accepted wisdom in popular culture.

Michael Paris, University of Central Lancashire

A Day in the Life of a Munitions Worker (Great Britain, 1917)

Aces High (Great Britain, 1976, Jack Gold)

All Quiet on the Western Front (USA, 1930, Lewis Milestone)

Armageddon (Great Britain, 1923, Harry Bruce Woolfe)

Battle of Ancre (Great Britain, 1917, Geoffrey Malins)

Battle of the Somme (Great Britain, 1916, Geoffrey Malins)

Blighty (Great Britain, 1927, Adrian Brunel)

Britain Prepared (Great Britain, 1915)

Comradeship (Great Britain, 1919, Maurice Elvey)

Dawn Guard (Great Britain, 1940, Roy and John Boulting)

Deathwatch (Great Britain, 2002, Michael Bassett)

Forever England (Great Britain, 1935, Walter Forde)

Forgotten Men (Great Britain, 1934, Norman Lee)

Gentle Sex (Great Britain, 1943, Leslie Howard)

Hearts of the World (Great Britain/USA, 1918, David Wark Griffiths)

Journey's End (Great Britain/USA, 1930, James Whale)

Jutland (Great Britain, 1921, Harry Bruce Woolfe)

King and Country (Great Britain, 1964, Joseph Losey)

Lawrence of Arabia (Great Britain, 1962, David Lean)

Mons (Great Britain, 1926, Harry Bruce Woolfe)

Oh! What a Lovely War (Great Britain, 1969, Richard Attenborough)

Regeneration (Great Britain, 1997, Gilles Mackinnon)

Tell England (Great Britain, 1931, Anthony Asquith)

The Doomed Battalion (France, 1931, Cyril Gardner and Karl Hartl)

The King Visits His Armies in the Great Advance (Great Britain, 1916, Geoffrey Malins)

The U Tube (Great Britain, 1917, Lancelot Speed)

Unfit (Great Britain, 1914, Cecil Hepworth)

Westfront 1918 ["Western Front 1918"] (Germany, 1930, Georg Wilhelm Pabst)

Wooden Crosses (France, 1931, Raymond Bernard)

Ypres (Great Britain, 1925, Harry Bruce Woolfe)

Zeppelin (Great Britain, 1971, Etienne Perrier)

Television Films or Series ↑

All the King's Men (Great Britain, 1999, Julian Jarrold)

Birdsong (Great Britain, 2012, Susanna White)

Testament of Youth (Great Britain, 1979, Moira Armstrong)

The Great War (Great Britain, 1964)

Section Editor: Adrian Gregory

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This article explores how British cinematographers filmed the war and how the film industry, and later television, subsequently reflected and reinforced dominant public perceptions of the Great War. It is also suggested here that with the rising cost of film production, television has now become the main provider of visual interpretations of the war.

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In my opinion Tomek did a great job. Numbered pages make it easy to find wanted information. A lot of beautiful images help us to understand the whole topic better and make the presentation more aesthetic. Interesting facts on each page make us want to read it entire. It’s hard to find something badly done.

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Overview

Film has been part of life in London since 1896, when the first 'cinematograph' shows in the country were given to the public. London at that time was the biggest city in the UK by far, with a population of around 5.5 million, five times as large as either Liverpool or Manchester. In the following decades, the cinema emerged as an important new source of entertainment for millions of Londoners, many of whom had few other opportunities for commercial leisure. By 1914, there were around 500 cinemas in London. And, while the number of venues dropped to around 400 in the 1920s, the average size of London's cinemas increased, with some seating as many as 2,000 or 3,000 patrons.

For many people, cinemas and the films they showed were windows onto a new world. Silent films were international products, and, by the end of World War I, the vast majority of the films shown on British screens came from Hollywood. But, at the same time, cinemas were also part of very local patterns of life. 'To you or me,' said Graham Sutton, writing about Londoners' cinema-going habits in 1926, 'there are but half a dozen picture-houses: two or three away in the West End, where we go occasionally to see some special "attraction"; and two or three more at our very doors.' By the end of the 1920s, when silent films were giving way to 'talkies', cinemas had become a ubiquitous presence in London and its expanding suburbs, with some dedicated film fans in the city going to the cinema as many as three or four times a week.

How did cinemas in London become so central to so many people's lives? And what evidence do we have to tell us about the experience of cinema-going in London during the silent era? Read on to find out more about the history of London's cinemas.

Early cinema

The first public film shows in the UK to a paying audience took place in London in 1896. On 21 February that year, the Polytechnic Institute on Regent Street hosted a display of the Lumière brothers' new moving-picture device, the Cinématographe. Later the same day, the inventor Robert Paul demonstrated his own device, the Theatrograph (later re-named the Animatographe), at the Finsbury Technical College. By the end of the year, the Animatographe was on the bill at the Egyptian Hall on Piccadilly and at the Alhambra Theatre of Varieties in Leicester Square. Meanwhile, the Cinématographe had migrated across to the nearby Empire Theatre, while another rival invention, the American Biograph, was soon to become a regular feature at the Palace Theatre on Cambridge Circus. Before long, moving pictures quickly became a special attraction at music halls and variety theatres around the city.

There was no official cinema licensing or censorship system in place in the UK in the early years. But the local authorities in London were keen to guard public safety, as well as to protect their own standards of morality, and so they kept a close eye on venues showing films. A fatal fire at a film screening in Paris in 1897 made local officials especially wary. The following year, the London County Council (LCC), the local government body for inner London, introduced their first set of regulations concerning film shows. The LCC's records over the next decades suggest the variety of places in which moving pictures were exhibited. For instance, when the LCC conducted a survey in 1908, they found that films were not only being shown regularly in variety theatres, but also in a number of churches, chapels, mission halls, Salvation Army hostels, workhouses, public halls, schools, shops and fairgrounds.

The people who exhibited early films in London were equally varied. There were individual showmen, like the magician David Devant, who toured from venue to venue, as well as companies who hired out projectionists and film lecturers for special screenings. Travelling 'bioscope' shows, which toured the national fair circuit, were also frequent visitors to London, and continued to visit until the early years of World War I.

'Electric theatres'

Throughout the early period, there were attempts to open full-time moving-picture shows in London. But the idea of a permanent venue for showing films only gathered steam around 1906, when several cinemas, or 'electric theatres', opened. One of the first was the Daily Bioscope at 27-28 Bishopsgate in the City of London. This initially opened in a converted ground-floor residence as a relatively upmarket venue catering to local office workers, and specialising in films of current events. But it was soon sold to new managers, who switched to more populist fare. Other early permanent cinemas included Gale's Bioscope Show in Stratford, which opened in a converted sweet factory, and the Carlton Theatre in Greenwich, a former variety venue, later re-named the Cinema de Luxe.

Like the 'nickelodeons' that appeared in America around the same time, some of London's early cinemas, including the Daily Bioscope, were extremely cheap, charging prices of one or two pence, and catering to the city's poorest pleasure-seekers. Because of this, and also because cinemas were becoming especially popular with children, the LCC and the Metropolitan Police continued to monitor cinemas in London closely. Local police reports provide fascinating glimpses of what early cinemas in London were like, even if the police's views tended to be those of non-cinema-goers, who were often deeply suspicious of this new form of entertainment. For instance, when the Superintendent at the Southwark Station police branch visited the Bio-Picture Land Theatre on Trinity Street, Borough, in March 1909, he thought that the crowded conditions, where boys and girls sat together, were 'very demoralising', and that 'the place lends itself to indecent practices'. In contrast, children growing up in London during this time tended to remember the crowded nature of many cinemas as adding to the excitement and fun of the moving-picture show.

Many early cinemas in London were converted from existing buildings, such as shops or skating rinks (roller-skating having been a popular pastime in the 1900s). But other venues were built specially for the purpose of showing films. From 1909, the Cinematograph Act, which regulated film exhibition at a national level, contributed to a 'boom' in cinema-building in London. Evidence from the LCC's licensing reports and early film trade directories suggest that the total number of cinemas in and around London increased from 133 in 1909 to 349 in 1911. By the end of 1914, there were as many as 522 cinemas in London and its suburbs. These included several local cinema circuits, including Electric Theatres (1908) Ltd, which controlled 16 cinemas in the London area by 1910.

While some of these early cinemas seated fewer than 100 people, London also boasted some of the biggest and most lavish 'picture palaces' in Europe, if not the world. An American tourist on holiday in London during the summer of 1914, who visited a cinema in the Strand, noted in her diary that London's West End cinemas were 'as pretentious as our best theatres'.

World War I

After Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914, London became increasingly caught up in the war effort. This was reflected in the content of the films shown in London, as well as the atmosphere inside its cinemas. For instance, in November 1914, the 'thrilling war drama' Warfare in the Sky was on the top of the bill at the Clapton Cinematograph Theatre in Hackney. Meanwhile, audiences at the nearby Clapton Rink Cinema could study the battle lines on a customised political map of Europe, which also displayed the cinema's opening times and prices of admission. Typically, cinemas in London had to apply for a special music licence if they wanted to provide anything more than a basic musical accompaniment to their films. But, during the war, a number of unlicensed venues were granted permission from the LCC to host patriotic sing-alongs between films in order to help raise public morale.

Not everyone appreciated the atmosphere inside London's cinemas, though. During World War I, earlier fears about the conduct of the city's audiences grew worse. Moral and religious reformers, like Frederick Charrington, who had been vocal in the campaign to 'clean up' London's music halls in the 1890s, produced evidence of indecency inside London's cinemas. This included accusations of male and female prostitution and child prostitution. Subsequent investigations organised by the Metropolitan Police were less damning. But they did suggest that cinema staff were habitually turning a blind eye to sexual behaviour between adults (including between women and soldiers) going on in the darkness of the auditorium. Such fears may have been a product of the larger climate of moral panic that gripped London at various points during the war years. But the LCC and neighbouring councils took the complaints seriously enough to tighten up their regulations, and, in the case of one cinema in Finsbury Park, to prosecute the proprietor for disorderly conduct. Elsewhere, the death of four children in a stampede at the Electric Theatre Picture Palace in Deptford added to ongoing calls for proper supervision of children inside London's cinemas.

Anyone trying to keep track of cinema audiences in London certainly had their hands full. Across Britain, weekly levels of cinema attendance soared during the war, reaching an estimated 18 million at the start of 1916 and 21 million in 1917. This rise can be attributed partly to the increased marketing of film stars, such as Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin, and to the success of film serials and longer feature films. But it was also partly a result of the popular appeal of newsreels and official war films like The Battle of the Somme, released in 1916. The Battle of the Ancre, otherwise known as the 'Tank' film, was also hugely popular when it was released the following year. One film trade journalist reported that it was being shown at 112 cinemas in London in a single week, and that 'long queues, "house full" boards and advance bookings were the order of the day'.

Despite the overall rise in cinema-going in Britain, the war had a negative impact on a great many of London's cinemas. National conscription into the armed forces, introduced in January 1916, and soon extended to all men aged 18-50, took away a large proportion of cinema staff. Women were able to take over the management in some cinemas, and, in a few cases, like the Pleasureland cinema in Brixton, women took over projection duties, too. However, some cinemas were forced to close. In addition, the Entertainments Tax, which came into force in May 1916, imposed an extra charge on cinema tickets that may have hit smaller venues particularly hard. The ban on luxury buildings also meant that only a handful of new cinemas opened during the war. In all, the number of cinemas in the London area dropped from around 522 in 1914 to 409 by the time the Armistice was signed in 1918.

The 1920s

After the war, the film industry in Britain anticipated a high demand for more cinemas. From 1919, as wartime building restrictions were lifted, construction work began on large 'super cinemas' around the country. In London, this trend was visible in new venues like the Palmadium cinema in Palmer's Green, which opened in 1920, or the Premier Super Cinema in East Ham, completed in 1921, each of which had more than 2,000 seats. It's worth noting that the demand for more and bigger cinemas wasn't felt everywhere in London to the same extent. In 1919, a cinema construction project in Brick Lane sparked a small riot, when local residents objected to being thrown out of their houses to make way for yet another 'picture palace'. But, in general, the average size of cinemas in London increased during the 1920s. According to the New Survey of London Life and Labour, the total number of cinema seats in inner London reached 268,000 in 1929, equivalent to one cinema seat for every 20 people. This was more than twice the number of theatre and music hall seats combined.

Inside London's cinemas, the experience of watching films and the styles of showmanship remained very varied. Some cinemas established a reputation for using live performers, music and scenery to create elaborate 'prologues' for new feature film releases. At the Shepherd's Bush Pavilion, where Leonard Castleton Knight was in charge of gala 'presentations', audiences in 1925 were treated to a theatrical encounter between an Egyptian slave master and his slaves, illuminated with special lighting effects, to introduce screenings of the Hollywood fantasy film The Thief of Bagdad. Other London cinemas specialised in combining live acts and films in a format known as 'cine-variety'. For instance, the Plaza on Lower Regent Street, which opened in 1926, employed its own Tiller Girls dance troupe to perform as part of the programme. But, while such exhibition practices were popular, the majority of cinemas in London were not able to accommodate large stage shows. In fact, many of the first generation of pre-World War I cinemas remained open throughout the 1920s, including cinemas that had been built as early as 1909. Surviving programmes and newspaper listings from the period suggest that a trip to 'the pictures' for most Londoners usually consisted of a main feature, a newsreel and a selection of short films, all with musical accompaniment.

By the end of the 1920s, the British film industry, including film exhibition, had become big business. A growing number of London's cinemas were controlled by national circuits, like Associated British Pictures (ABC) or the Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. A few cinemas in the West End were controlled by Hollywood companies, including the Empire in Leicester Square (re-built from the former variety theatre), which was opened in 1928 by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer as a 'shop window' for the company's new releases. At the same time, some exhibitors and film enthusiasts in London attempted to promote the notion of film as a modern art form by creating more refined film-viewing environments. The Film Society, a membership club for showing uncensored and un-commercial films, was established in London in 1925. And, in 1928, the Avenue Pavilion on Shaftesbury Avenue became one of the city's first dedicated 'art' cinemas, a policy that lasted until the end of the decade.

The coming of sound

There had been experiments in synchronising recorded sound to moving images since the end of the nineteenth century. But sound films only became widespread internationally in the late 1920s. The first feature-length film with synchronised singing and dialogue, the Warner Brothers musical The Jazz Singer, premiered in London at the Piccadilly Theatre on 27 September 1928, a year after its American debut. More feature-length 'talkies' were released over the following months, building up an audience for the new novelty. George Thomas, who lived in a tenement flat overlooking Berwick Market in Soho, experienced his first sound film in May 1929, when he went to see (and hear) the film musical Broadway Melody, probably at the Empire Theatre, Leicester Square. 'From now on,' he wrote in his diary, 'I am an ardent "talkie-fan", in the sense that I will never refuse a chance of going again.'

Silent films and sound films co-existed for several more years. In fact, some cinemas in Britain were still showing silent films in 1933. In London, as elsewhere in the country, the conversion of cinemas to sound technology was a gradual process. By 1930, according to the information given in the annual Kinematograph Year Book, only around 150 of London's 400 or so cinemas had been 'wired' for sound.

Conclusion

Writing in 1922, E.V. Lucas thought that cinemas, like motor cars, tube trains and other modern inventions, had done their best to change the character of London. But, he said, 'they are not strong enough. London merely adds them to her system and remains London still.' As this brief guide to London's early cinema history suggests, cinemas clearly did have a big impact on the life of the city. They provided entertainment for millions of Londoners, and altered the face of hundreds of streets. But cinemas also operated within London's existing 'system'. They responded to local tastes and changed as the city changed. The more we find out about local exhibition across London and its suburbs, the more we can understand exactly how much, and in what ways, cinema has contributed to the city's history.

Further reading

You can find suggestions for further reading about London's early cinema history on the Bibliography page.

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Film has been part of life in London since 1896, when the first 'cinematograph' shows in the country were given to the public. London at that time was the biggest city in the UK by far, with a population of around 5.5 million, five times as large as either Liverpool or Manchester.

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Features

The trouble of working out homegrown success on a Hollywood scale

What makes a British film British? British financing? A British cast and crew? Danny Dyer?

The official BAFTA definition defines it as any film with "significant British involvement" that is also certified as British by the BFI. Getting more complicated, the BFI grants a film "British status" (for the purposes of tax relief) if it scores at least 16 points out of a possible 31 in a cultural test to assess its Britishness. Things get stickier still when you actually read the list of questions and poke into some of the loopholes.

Gravity, for example, was given BAFTA in 2014 for Outstanding British Film - qualifying because it was filmed in an English studio, and because Mexican director Alfonso Cuaron happened to have a house in London at the time. The same year, Mandela: Long Walk To Freedom was nixed because it was a non-British story, based on a non-British book and co-financed by a country (South Africa) that wasn't on a qualifying shortlist - despite having a mostly British cast, crew, director and production.

In short, it's almost impossible to work out exactly what constitutes a British film - which makes it tricky to work out which British films have taken the most at the box office. Sticking to the industry guidelines, the following films make up the top 10 (only about three of which actually seem like British films):

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Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015)
Worldwide gross: $2,068,223,624
Avengers: Infinity War (2018)
Worldwide gross: $2,046,452,723
Harry Potter And The Deathly Hallows Part 2 (2011)

Worldwide gross: $1,341,511,219

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Beauty And The Beast (2017)
Worldwide gross: $1,263,521,126
Skyfall (2012)
Worldwide gross: $1,108,561,013

The Dark Knight Rises (2012)

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Worldwide gross: $1,084,939,099
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016)
Worldwide gross: $1,056,057,273
The Dark Knight (2008)
Worldwide gross: $1,004,558,444

Harry Potter And The Philosopher's Stone (2001)

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Worldwide gross: $974,755,371
Harry Potter And The Deathly Hallows Part 1 (2010)
Worldwide gross: $960,283,305

Star Wars: The Force Awakens tops the list, letting Britain claim ownership of the third highest grossing film of all time - beaten only by Avatar and Titanic. Disney and Lucasfilm (and JJ Abrams) might seem as American as they come, but the film qualified for a British passport by being mostly filmed at Pinewood Studios, using ILM's London office for the bulk of the digital effects, and by having a largely Brit cast and crew.

London's superior studio facilities at Pinewood, Elstree, Shepperton and Leavesden (not to mention Twickenham's recent $50 million investment in Liverpool) gives the British film industry a massive boast - with UK technical crews and production talent now working on more than half of the highest grossing Hollywood productions made in the 20 years.

Still, the list can be a bit deceiving. For most of us, when we think about "British film", we don't immediately think about Star Wars. Britain has a long history of making great independent films that aren't beholden to Hollywood - with most exhibiting the kind of left-field, understated, quirky charm that leans into whatever weirdness defines the national character.

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Avengers Infinity War might technically be a British film, but it feels every inch like an American movie because it's based on American comics, starring American actors, from an American studio.

A more suitable list might be the following - counting down the highest grossing independent British films that were financed in the UK:
The King's Speech (2011)
Worldwide gross: $414,211,549

Slumdog Millionaire (2009)

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Worldwide gross: $377,910,544
Four Weddings And A Funeral (1994)
Worldwide gross: $245,700,832
Paddington (2014)
Worldwide gross: $268,047,808

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Worldwide gross: $257,938,649
Paddington 2 (2017)
Worldwide gross: $226,882,399
The Woman in Black (2012)
Worldwide gross: $127,730,736
The Inbetweeners Movie (2011)
Worldwide gross: $88,025,781
The Inbetweeners 2 (2014)
Worldwide gross: $63,852,235
A Fish Called Wanda (1988)
Worldwide gross: $62,493,712

The King's Speech made the leap across the Atlantic so successfully in part because it won so many Oscars (ditto for Slumdog Millionaire) and others like Paddington and The Woman In Black worked because they had such a big crossover appeal. How the comedy of The Inbetweeners worked on foreign audiences is less clear - although the bulk of the box office for both movies came from the UK and Australia.

Finally, there's the inflation problem. Avatar might officially be the highest grossing film of all time, but that's mostly just because it cost more to see it in 2009 than it would have done in 1939. Adjusting the all-time gross list for inflation, James Cameron's film only ranks at number 15 - with Gone With The Wind taking the top spot.

Taking all of international film-going history into account, Star Wars: The Force Awakens still comes out as the highest grossing (official) British film, none of the independents make the top 300 and Thunderball beats Skyfall by almost 200 places.

Deciding what constitutes a British film is hard enough, but working out which one made the most money is almost impossible. The good news is that the British film industry is doing better now than it's ever done before - generating more that $3 billion for the UK and recently outperforming the pharmaceutical sector in employment and revenue.

A lot of key professionals are worried about the effect Brexit might have on the industry's continued success - since the business relies heavily on people from other countries being able to work in the UK for long stretches - but with more Bond, more Marvel, more Star Wars and many more independents already in the works at British studios, there's likely to be plenty of boom still to come before we have to start worrying about the bust.

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The highest-grossing British films of all time | Den of Geek

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Features The trouble of working out homegrown success on a Hollywood scale What makes a British film British? British financing? A British cast and crew? Danny Dyer? The official BAFTA definition defines it as any film with "significant British involvement" that is also certified as British by the BFI.

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There are three main meals a day in Great Britain:
Breakfast -between 7:00 and 9:00
Lunch-between 12:00 and 13:30
Dinner (sometimes called Supper)-The main meal. Eaten anytime between 18:30 and 20:00
Traditionally, and for some people stil, the meals are called:
Breakfast-between 7:00 and 9:00
Dinner(the main meal)-between 12:00-13:00
Tea-anywhere from 17:30 to 18:30
Some people have their biggest meal in the middle of the day and some have it in the evening, but most people today have a small mid-day meal- usually sandwiches, crisps and fruits.
On Sundays the main meal of the day is often eaten at midday instead of the evening.

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Flipsnack is a digital catalog maker that makes it easy to create, publish and share html5 flipbooks. Upload a PDF or design from scratch flyers, magazines, books and more. Author: Hania, Catalog: British cuisine, Published: Apr 14, 2020