# data[].attributes.body
Sources of carbon dioxide:- coal power stations for electricity and burning fuel for transport + industry manufacturing
How have carbon dioxide levels in atmosphere changed?
Levels have increased from 280 to 391 ppm from before industrial revolution until 2010

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Sources of methane:-fossil fuels, livestock farms, landfills and waste and biomass and biofuels.
How have methane levels in atmosphere changed? As methane rises in the air reacting with the hydroxyl radica whcih creates water vapor and carbon dioxide, decreasing the lifespan of the atmosphere.

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Sources of nitrous oxide:-

Nitrous oxide is emitted by bacteria in soils and oceans, and is thus a part of Earth's atmosphere. Agriculture is the main source of human-produced nitrous oxide: cultivating soil, the use of nitrogen fertilisers, and animal waste handling can all stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide.

How have nitrous oxide levels in atmosphere changed? They have increased rapidly

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Pollen analysis evidence of climate change- Bryce

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Pollen analysis evidence of climate change- Bryce

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Pollen grains and spores form the basis of another important aspect of palaeoclimate reconstruction, generally referred to as pollen analysis, or palynology. Where pollen and spores have accumulated over time, a record of the past vegetation of an area may be preserved. Often, changes in the vegetation of an area may be due to changes of climate. Interpreting past vegetation through pollen analysis may therefore offer a form of palaeoclimatic reconstruction.

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Glaciers evidence of climate change - Jerome

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Glaciers evidence of climate change - Jerome

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Glaciers provide Evidence of climate change be cause the glaciers are melting at a higher rate than previously in time this is proven because scientists have been studying glacier for years.

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Sea level change evidence of climate change- Bryce

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Sea level change evidence of climate change- Bryce

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The coastal rocks are slowly but consistently rising as a consequence of the growth of the Andean mountain chain. The ocean acts like a battering ram, and cliffs recede under the constant barrage of waves — bit by bit, a gently sloping beach or, in geological terms, a marine terrace is generated.

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Ice cores evidence of climate change- Hannah 

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Ice cores evidence of climate change- Hannah 

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Scientists use ice cores to determine the future climate, they use the past atmosphere, ocean and sea level and work tis into a laboratory.

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Evidence for climate change is:-
- ice cores
-glaciers
-pollen analysis
sea level changes

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Australia's climate is becoming warmer and wetter

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How orientation of the Earth influences climate MARIE

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How orientation of the Earth influences climate MARIE

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The tilt of the earth's axis and the earth's movement around the sun causes the four seasons (Summer, Autumn, Winter, Spring). If the tilt of the earth was different, the characteristics of the seasons would also be different.

As the earth rotates, the atmosphere and oceans move with it.

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Factors that influence climate are:-

Elevation or Altitude effect climate. Normally, climatic conditions become colder as altitude increases.

Prevailing global wind patterns.

Climate change over time.

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The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere insulate the planet from losing heat to space, raising its surface temperature. Surface heating can happen from an internal heat source as in the case of Jupiter, or from its host star as in the case of the Earth. In the case of Earth, the Sun emits shortwave radiation (sunlight) that passes through greenhouse gases to heat the Earth's surface. In response, the Earth's surface emits longwave radiation (heat) that is mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. That heat absorption reduces the rate at which the Earth can cool off in response to being warmed by the Sun. Adding to greenhouse gases further reduces the rate a planet emits radiation to space, raising its average surface temperature.

Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and heat the planet, but then absorb and redirect some of the longwave radiation (heat) the planet emits.

Energy flows down from the sun and up from the Earth and its atmosphere. When greenhouse gases intercept radiation emitted by Earth's surface, they prevent that radiation from escaping into space, causing surface temperatures to rise by about 33 °C (59 °F).

The Earth's average surface temperature would be about −18 °C (−0.4 °F) without the greenhouse effect,[1][2] compared to Earth's 20th century average of about 14 °C (57 °F), or a more recent average of about 15 °C (59 °F).[3][4] In addition to naturally present greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels has increased amounts of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.[5][6] As a result, global warming of about 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) has occurred since the Industrial Revolution,[7] with the global average surface temperature increasing at a rate of 0.18 °C (0.32 °F) per decade since 1981.[8]

The wavelengths of radiation emitted by the Sun and Earth differ because their surface temperatures are different. The Sun has a surface temperature of 5,500 °C (9,900 °F), so it emits most of its energy as shortwave radiation in near-infrared and visible wavelengths (as sunlight). In contrast, Earth's surface has a much lower temperature, so it emits longwave radiation at mid- and far- infrared wavelengths (sometimes called thermal radiation or radiated heat).[6] A gas is a greenhouse gas if it absorbs longwave radiation. Earth's atmosphere absorbs only 23% of incoming shortwave radiation, but absorbs 90% of the longwave radiation emitted by the surface,[9] thus accumulating energy and warming the Earth's surface.

The existence of the greenhouse effect, while not named as such, was proposed as early as 1824 by Joseph Fourier.[10] The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838. In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide.[12] The term greenhouse was first applied to this phenomenon by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[13][14]

The existence of the greenhouse effect, while not named as such, was proposed as early as 1824 by Joseph Fourier.[10] The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838. In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide. She concluded that "An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature..."[12]

John Tyndall was the first to measure the infrared absorption and emission of various gases and vapors. From 1859 onwards, he showed that the effect was due to a very small proportion of the atmosphere, with the main gases having no effect, and was largely due to water vapor, though small percentages of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide had a significant effect.[19] The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.[20] The term greenhouse was first applied to this phenomenon by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[13][14]

Earth's rate of heating (graph) is a result of factors which include the enhanced greenhouse effect.[27]

Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through additional greenhouse gases from human activities is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect.[15]: 2232  As well as being inferred from measurements by ARGO, CERES and other instruments throughout the 21st century,[28]: 7-17  this increase in radiative forcing from human activity has been observed directly,[29][30] and is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[31]

The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO₂ abundance.

CO ₂ is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.[32] Measurements of CO ₂ from the Mauna Loa Observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm)[33] in 1960, passing the 400 ppm milestone in 2013.[34] The current observed amount of CO ₂ exceeds the geological record maxima (≈300 ppm) from ice core data.[35]

Over the past 800,000 years,[36] ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.[37] Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.[38][39]

Incoming shortwave radiation

The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of Earth's atmosphere and at sea level

Hotter matter emits shorter wavelengths of radiation. As a result, the Sun emits shortwave radiation as sunlight while the Earth and its atmosphere emit longwave radiation. Sunlight includes ultraviolet, visible light, and near-infrared radiation.[15]: 2251

Sunlight is reflected and absorbed by the Earth and its atmosphere. The atmosphere and clouds reflect about 23% and absorb 23%. The surface reflects 7% and absorbs 48%.[9] Overall, Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming sunlight,[40][41] and absorbs the rest (240 W/m ²).[22]: 934

Outgoing longwave radiation

The greenhouse effect is a reduction in the flux of outgoing longwave radiation, which affects the planet's radiative balance. The spectrum of outgoing radiation shows the effects of different greenhouse gases.

The Earth and its atmosphere emit longwave radiation, also known as thermal infrared or terrestrial radiation.[15]: 2251  Informally, longwave radiation is sometimes called thermal radiation. Outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) is the radiation from Earth and its atmosphere that passes through the atmosphere and into space.

The greenhouse effect can be directly seen in graphs of Earth's outgoing longwave radiation as a function of frequency (or wavelength). The area between the curve for longwave radiation emitted by Earth's surface and the curve for outgoing longwave radiation indicates the size of the greenhouse effect.[25]

Different substances are responsible for reducing the radiation energy reaching space at different frequencies; for some frequencies, multiple substances play a role.[24] Carbon dioxide is understood to be responsible for the dip in outgoing radiation (and associated rise in the greenhouse effect) at around 667 cm −1 (equivalent to a wavelength of 15 microns).[42]

Each layer of the atmosphere with greenhouse gases absorbs some of the longwave radiation being radiated upwards from lower layers. It also emits longwave radiation in all directions, both upwards and downwards, in equilibrium with the amount it has absorbed. This results in less radiative heat loss and more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and emission, and thereby causing more heat to be retained at the surface and in the layers below.[2]

Effective temperature

Temperature needed to emit a given amount of thermal radiation.

The power of outgoing longwave radiation emitted by a planet corresponds to the effective temperature of the planet. The effective temperature is the temperature that a planet radiating with a uniform temperature (a blackbody) would need to have in order to radiate the same amount of energy.

This concept may be used to compare the amount of longwave radiation emitted to space and the amount of longwave radiation emitted by the surface:

Emissions to space: Based on its emissions of longwave radiation to space, Earth's overall effective temperature is −18 °C (0 °F).[43][2]

Emissions from surface: Based on thermal emissions from the surface, Earth's effective surface temperature is about 16 °C (61 °F),[22]: 934  which is 34 °C (61 °F) warmer than Earth's overall effective temperature.

Energy flux

Energy flux is the rate of energy flow per unit area. Energy flux is expressed in units of W/m ², which is the number of joules of energy that pass through a square meter each second. Most fluxes quoted in high-level discussions of climate are global values, which means they are the total flow of energy over the entire globe, divided by the surface area of the Earth, 5.1×10 ¹⁴ m ² (5.1×10 ⁸ km ²; 2.0×10 ⁸ sq mi).[45]

The fluxes of radiation arriving at and leaving the Earth are important because radiative transfer is the only process capable of exchanging energy between Earth and the rest of the universe.[46]: 145

Radiative balance

The temperature of a planet depends on the balance between incoming radiation and outgoing radiation. If incoming radiation exceeds outgoing radiation, a planet will warm. If outgoing radiation exceeds incoming radiation, a planet will cool. A planet will tend towards a state of radiative equilibrium, in which the power of outgoing radiation equals the power of absorbed incoming radiation.[47]

Earth's energy imbalance is the amount by which the power of incoming sunlight absorbed by Earth's surface or atmosphere exceeds the power of outgoing longwave radiation emitted to space. Energy imbalance is the fundamental measurement that drives surface temperature.[48] A UN presentation says "The EEI is the most critical number defining the prospects for continued global warming and climate change."[49] One study argues, "The absolute value of EEI represents the most fundamental metric defining the status of global climate change."[50]

Earth's energy imbalance (EEI) was about 0.7 W/m ² as of around 2015, indicating that Earth as a whole is accumulating thermal energy and is in a process of becoming warmer.[22]: 934

Over 90% of the retained energy goes into warming the oceans, with much smaller amounts going into heating the land, atmosphere, and ice.[51]

Comparison of Earth's upward flow of longwave radiation in reality and in a hypothetical scenario in which greenhouse gases and clouds are removed or lose their ability to absorb longwave radiation-without changing Earth's albedo (i.e., reflection/absorption of sunlight). Top shows the balance between Earth's heating and cooling as measured at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). Panel (a) shows the real situation with an active greenhouse effect.[52] Panel (b) shows the situation immediately after absorption stops; all longwave radiation emitted by the surface would reach space; there would be more cooling (via longwave radiation emitted to space) than warming (from sunlight). This imbalance would lead to a rapid temperature drop. Panel (c) shows the final stable steady state, after the surface cools sufficiently to emit only enough longwave radiation to match the energy flow from absorbed sunlight.[52]

Day and night cycle

A simple picture assumes a steady state, but in the real world, the day/night ( diurnal) cycle, as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances, complicate matters. Solar heating applies only during daytime. At night the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly because the thermal inertia of the climate system resists changes both day and night, as well as for longer periods.[53] Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

Lapse rate

In the lower portion of the atmosphere, the troposphere, the air temperature decreases (or "lapses") with increasing altitude. The rate at which temperature changes with altitude is called the lapse rate.[54]

On Earth, the air temperature decreases by about 6.5 °C/km (3.6 °F per 1000 ft), on average, although this varies.[54]

The temperature lapse is caused by convection. Air warmed by the surface rises. As it rises, air expands and cools. Simultaneously, other air descends, compresses, and warms. This process creates a vertical temperature gradient within the atmosphere.[54]

This vertical temperature gradient is essential to the greenhouse effect. If the lapse rate was zero (so that the atmospheric temperature did not vary with altitude and was the same as the surface temperature) then there would be no greenhouse effect (i.e., its value would be zero).[55]

Emission temperature and altitude

The temperature at which thermal radiation was emitted can be determined by comparing the intensity at a particular wavenumber to the intensity of a black-body emission curve. In the chart, emission temperatures range between Tmin and Ts. "Wavenumber" is frequency divided by the speed of light).

Greenhouse gases make the atmosphere near Earth's surface mostly opaque to longwave radiation. The atmosphere only becomes transparent to longwave radiation at higher altitudes, where the air is less dense, there is less water vapor, and reduced pressure broadening of absorption lines limits the wavelengths that gas molecules can absorb.[56][46]

For any given wavelength, the longwave radiation that reaches space is emitted by a particular radiating layer of the atmosphere. The intensity of the emitted radiation is determined by the weighted average air temperature within that layer. So, for any given wavelength of radiation emitted to space, there is an associated effective emission temperature (or brightness temperature).[57][46]

A given wavelength of radiation may also be said to have an effective emission altitude, which is a weighted average of the altitudes within the radiating layer.

The effective emission temperature and altitude vary by wavelength (or frequency). This phenomenon may be seen by examining plots of radiation emitted to space.[57]

Greenhouse gases and the lapse rate

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in dense air near the surface intercept most of the longwave radiation emitted by the warm surface. GHGs in sparse air at higher altitudes-cooler because of the environmental lapse rate-emit longwave radiation to space at a lower rate than surface emissions.

The atmosphere near the Earth's surface is largely opaque to longwave radiation and most heat loss from the surface is by evaporation and convection. However radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas.

Rather than thinking of longwave radiation headed to space as coming from the surface itself, it is more realistic to think of this outgoing radiation as being emitted by a layer in the mid- troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The difference in temperature between these two locations explains the difference between surface emissions and emissions to space, i.e., it explains the greenhouse effect.[59][60]

Greenhouse gases

A greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas which contributes to the trapping of heat by impeding the flow of longwave radiation out of a planet's atmosphere. Greenhouse gases contribute most of the greenhouse effect in Earth's energy budget.[15]

Infrared active gases

Gases which can absorb and emit longwave radiation are said to be infrared active[61] and act as greenhouse gases.

Most gases whose molecules have two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO), and all gases with three or more atoms (including H ₂O and CO ₂), are infrared active and act as greenhouse gases. (Technically, this is because when these molecules vibrate, those vibrations modify the molecular dipole moment, or asymmetry in the distribution of electrical charge. See Infrared spectroscopy.)[15]

Gases with only one atom (such as argon, Ar) or with two identical atoms (such as nitrogen, NO

₂ ) are not infrared active. They are transparent to longwave radiation, and, for practical purposes, do not absorb or emit longwave radiation. (This is because their molecules are symmetrical and so do not have a dipole moment.) Such gases make up more than 99% of the dry atmosphere. ₂ , and oxygen, [15]

Absorption and emission

Longwave absorption coefficients of water vapor and carbon dioxide. For wavelengths near 15 microns (15 μm in top scale), where Earth's surface emits strongly, CO₂ is a much stronger absorber than water vapor.

Greenhouse gases absorb and emit longwave radiation within specific ranges of wavelengths (organized as spectral lines or bands).[15]

When greenhouse gases absorb radiation, they distribute the acquired energy to the surrounding air as thermal energy (i.e., kinetic energy of gas molecules). Energy is transferred from greenhouse gas molecules to other molecules via molecular collisions.[62]

Contrary to what is sometimes said, greenhouse gases do not "re-emit" photons after they are absorbed. Because each molecule experiences billions of collisions per second, any energy a greenhouse gas molecule receives by absorbing a photon will be redistributed to other molecules before there is a chance for a new photon to be emitted.[62]

In a separate process, greenhouse gases emit longwave radiation, at a rate determined by the air temperature. This thermal energy is either absorbed by other greenhouse gas molecules or leaves the atmosphere, cooling it.[62]

Radiative effects

Effect on air: Air is warmed by latent heat ( buoyant water vapor condensing into water droplets and releasing heat), thermals (warm air rising from below), and by sunlight being absorbed in the atmosphere.[6] Air is cooled radiatively, by greenhouse gases and clouds emitting longwave thermal radiation. Within the troposphere, greenhouse gases typically have a net cooling effect on air, emitting more thermal radiation than they absorb. Warming and cooling of air are well balanced, on average, so that the atmosphere maintains a roughly stable average temperature.[46]: 139  [63]

Effect on surface cooling: Longwave radiation flows both upward and downward due to absorption and emission in the atmosphere. These canceling energy flows reduce radiative surface cooling (net upward radiative energy flow). Latent heat transport and thermals provide non-radiative surface cooling which partially compensates for this reduction, but there is still a net reduction in surface cooling, for a given surface temperature.[46]: 139  [63]

Effect on TOA energy balance: Greenhouse gases impact the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy budget by reducing the flux of longwave radiation emitted to space, for a given surface temperature. Thus, greenhouse gases alter the energy balance at TOA. This means that the surface temperature needs to be higher (than the planet's effective temperature, i.e., the temperature associated with emissions to space), in order for the outgoing energy emitted to space to balance the incoming energy from sunlight.[46]: 139  [63] It is important to focus on the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy budget (rather than the surface energy budget) when reasoning about the warming effect of greenhouse gases.[64]: 414

Flow of heat in Earth's atmosphere, showing (a) upward radiation heat flow and up/down radiation fluxes, (b) upward non-radiative heat flow (latent heat and thermals), (c) the balance between atmospheric heating and cooling at each altitude, and (d) the atmosphere's temperature profile.

Clouds and aerosols

Clouds and aerosols have both cooling effects, associated with reflecting sunlight back to space, and warming effects, associated with trapping thermal radiation.

While the radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases may be determined to a reasonably high degree of accuracy... the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modeling studies that are difficult to verify at the present time.

Effective temperature

A given flux of thermal radiation has an associated effective radiating temperature or effective temperature. Effective temperature is the temperature that a black body (a perfect absorber/emitter) would need to be to emit that much thermal radiation.[71] Thus, the overall effective temperature of a planet is given by

where OLR is the average flux (power per unit area) of outgoing longwave radiation emitted to space and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Similarly, the effective temperature of the surface is given by

where SLR is the average flux of longwave radiation emitted by the surface. (OLR is a conventional abbreviation. SLR is used here to denote the flux of surface-emitted longwave radiation, although there is no standard abbreviation for this.)[72]

Metrics for the greenhouse effect

Increase in the Earth's greenhouse effect (2000-2022) based on NASA CERES satellite data.

The IPCC reports the greenhouse effect, G, as being 159 W m⁻², where G is the flux of longwave thermal radiation that leaves the surface minus the flux of outgoing longwave radiation that reaches space:[22]: 968  [23][25][24]

Alternatively, the greenhouse effect can be described using the normalized greenhouse effect, g̃, defined as

The normalized greenhouse effect is the fraction of the amount of thermal radiation emitted by the surface that does not reach space. Based on the IPCC numbers, g̃ = 0.40. In other words, 40 percent less thermal radiation reaches space than what leaves the surface.[22]: 968  [23][26]

Sometimes the greenhouse effect is quantified as a temperature difference. This temperature difference is closely related to the quantities above.

When the greenhouse effect is expressed as a temperature difference, , this refers to the effective temperature associated with thermal radiation emissions from the surface minus the effective temperature associated with emissions to space:

Informal discussions of the greenhouse effect often compare the actual surface temperature to the temperature that the planet would have if there were no greenhouse gases. However, in formal technical discussions, when the size of the greenhouse effect is quantified as a temperature, this is generally done using the above formula. The formula refers to the effective surface temperature rather than the actual surface temperature, and compares the surface with the top of the atmosphere, rather than comparing reality to a hypothetical situation.[72]

The temperature difference, , indicates how much warmer a planet's surface is than the planet's overall effective temperature.

Radiative balance

The greenhouse effect can be understood as a decrease in the efficiency of planetary cooling. The greenhouse effect is quantified as the portion of the radiation flux emitted by the surface minus that doesn't reach space, i.e., 40% or 159 W/m². Some emitted radiation is effectively cancelled out by downwelling radiation and so does not transfer heat. Evaporation and convection partially compensate for this reduction in surface cooling. Low temperatures at high altitudes limit the rate of thermal emissions to space.

Earth's top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy imbalance (EEI) is the amount by which the power of incoming radiation exceeds the power of outgoing radiation:[49]

where ASR is the mean flux of absorbed solar radiation. ASR may be expanded as

where is the albedo (reflectivity) of the planet and MSI is the mean solar irradiance incoming at the top of the atmosphere.

The radiative equilibrium temperature of a planet can be expressed as

A planet's temperature will tend to shift towards a state of radiative equilibrium, in which the TOA energy imbalance is zero, i.e., . When the planet is in radiative equilibrium, the overall effective temperature of the planet is given by

If, in addition to knowing the effective temperature, , we know the value of the greenhouse effect, then we know the mean (average) surface temperature of the planet.

This is why the quantity known as the greenhouse effect is important: it is one of the few quantities that go into determining the planet's mean surface temperature.

Greenhouse effect and temperature

Typically, a planet will be close to radiative equilibrium, with the rates of incoming and outgoing energy being well-balanced. Under such conditions, the planet's equilibrium temperature is determined by the mean solar irradiance and the planetary albedo (how much sunlight is reflected back to space instead of being absorbed).

The greenhouse effect measures how much warmer the surface is than the overall effective temperature of the planet. So, the effective surface temperature, , is, using the definition of ,

One could also express the relationship between and using G or g̃.

So, the principle that a larger greenhouse effect corresponds to a higher surface temperature, if everything else (i.e., the factors that determine ) is held fixed, is true as a matter of definition.

Note that the greenhouse effect influences the temperature of the planet as a whole, in tandem with the planet's tendency to move toward radiative equilibrium.[74]

Earth's overall heat flow. Heat (net energy) always flows from warmer to cooler, honoring the Second Law of Thermodynamics.[75] (This heat flow diagram is equivalent to NASA's earth energy budget diagram. Data is from 2009.)

There are sometimes misunderstandings about how the greenhouse effect functions and raises temperatures.

The surface budget fallacy is a common error in thinking.[64]: 413  It involves thinking that an increased CO ₂ concentration could only cause warming by increasing the downward thermal radiation to the surface, as a result of making the atmosphere a better emitter. If the atmosphere near the surface is already nearly opaque to thermal radiation, this would mean that increasing CO ₂ could not lead to higher temperatures. However, it is a mistake to focus on the surface energy budget rather than the top-of-atmosphere energy budget. Regardless of what happens at the surface, increasing the concentration of CO ₂ tends to reduce the thermal radiation reaching space (OLR), leading to a TOA energy imbalance that leads to warming. Earlier researchers like Callendar (1938) and Plass (1959) focused on the surface budget, but the work of Manabe in the 1960s clarified the importance of the top-of-atmosphere energy budget.[64]: 414

Among those who do not believe in the greenhouse effect, there is a fallacy that the greenhouse effect involves greenhouse gases sending heat from the cool atmosphere to the planet's warm surface, in violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.[75][76] However, this idea reflects a misunderstanding. Radiation heat flow is the net energy flow after the flows of radiation in both directions have been taken into account.[74] Radiation heat flow occurs in the direction from the surface to the atmosphere and space,[6] as is to be expected given that the surface is warmer than the atmosphere and space. While greenhouse gases emit thermal radiation downward to the surface, this is part of the normal process of radiation heat transfer.[77] The downward thermal radiation simply reduces the upward thermal radiation net energy flow (radiation heat flow), i.e., it reduces cooling.[62]

Energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface, with greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorbing and emitting radiant heat, affecting Earth's energy balance. Data as of 2007.

Simplified models are sometimes used to support understanding of how the greenhouse effect comes about and how this affects surface temperature.

Atmospheric layer models

The greenhouse effect can be seen to occur in a simplified model in which the air is treated as if it is single uniform layer exchanging radiation with the ground and space.[78] Slightly more complex models add additional layers, or introduce convection.[79]

Equivalent emission altitude

One simplification is to treat all outgoing longwave radiation as being emitted from an altitude where the air temperature equals the overall effective temperature for planetary emissions, .[80] Some authors have referred to this altitude as the effective radiating level (ERL), and suggest that as the CO ₂ concentration increases, the ERL must rise to maintain the same mass of CO ₂ above that level.[81]

This approach is less accurate than accounting for variation in radiation wavelength by emission altitude. However, it can be useful in supporting a simplified understanding of the greenhouse effect.[80] For instance, it can be used to explain how the greenhouse effect increases as the concentration of greenhouse gases increase.[82][81][60]

Earth's overall equivalent emission altitude has been increasing with a trend of 23 m (75 ft)/decade, which is said to be consistent with a global mean surface warming of 0.12 °C (0.22 °F)/decade over the period 1979-2011.[80]

Venus

Earth

Mars

Titan

Surface temperature,

735 K (462 °C; 863 °F)

288 K (15 °C; 59 °F)

215 K (−58 °C; −73 °F)

94 K (−179 °C; −290 °F)

Greenhouse effect,

503 K (905 °F)

33 K (59 °F)

6 K (11 °F)

21 K (38 °F) GHE;
12 K (22 °F) GHE+ AGHE

Pressure

92 atm

1 atm

0.0063 atm

1.5 atm

Primary gases

CO ₂ (0.965)
N ₂ (0.035)

N ₂ (0.78)
O ₂ (0.21)
Ar (0.009)

CO ₂ (0.95)
N ₂ (0.03)
Ar (0.02)

NCH ₂ (0.95)
₄ (≈0.05)

Trace gases

SO ₂, Ar

H ₂O, CO ₂

O ₂, CO

H ₂

Planetary effective temperature,

232 K (−41 °C; −42 °F)

255 K (−18 °C; −1 °F)

209 K (−64 °C; −83 °F)

73 K tropopause;
82 K stratopause

Greenhouse effect,

16000 W/m ²

150 W/m ²

13 W/m ²

2.8 W/m ² GHE;
1.9 W/m ² GHE+AGHE

Normalized greenhouse effect,

0.99

0.39

0.11

0.63 GHE;
0.42 GHE+AGHE

In the solar system, apart from the Earth, at least two other planets and a moon also have a greenhouse effect.

Venus

The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large, and it brings the surface temperature to as high as 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F). This is due to its very dense atmosphere which consists of about 97% carbon dioxide.[86]

Although Venus is about 30% closer to the Sun, it absorbs (and is warmed by) less sunlight than Earth, because Venus reflects 77% of incident sunlight while Earth reflects around 30%. In the absence of a greenhouse effect, the surface of Venus would be expected to have a temperature of 232 K (−41 °C; −42 °F). Thus, contrary to what one might think, being nearer to the Sun is not a reason why Venus is warmer than Earth.[88][89][90]

Due to its high pressure, the CO ₂ in the atmosphere of Venus exhibits continuum absorption (absorption over a broad range of wavelengths) and is not limited to absorption within the bands relevant to its absorption on Earth.[57]

A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has for many years been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus;[91] this idea is still largely accepted.[92] The planet Venus experienced a runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, and a surface atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth. Venus may have had water oceans, but they would have boiled off as the mean surface temperature rose to the current 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F).[93][94][95]

Mars

Mars has about 70 times as much carbon dioxide as Earth,[96] but experiences only a small greenhouse effect, about 6 K (11 °F).[85] The greenhouse effect is small due to the lack of water vapor and the overall thinness of the atmosphere.[97]

The same radiative transfer calculations that predict warming on Earth accurately explain the temperature on Mars, given its atmospheric composition.[98][99][72]

Titan

Saturn's moon Titan has both a greenhouse effect and an anti-greenhouse effect. The presence of nitrogen ( N₂), methane ( CH₄), and hydrogen ( H₂) in the atmosphere contribute to a greenhouse effect, increasing the surface temperature by 21 K (38 °F) over the expected temperature of the body without these gases.[86][100]

While the gases N ₂ and H ₂ ordinarily do not absorb infrared radiation, these gases absorb thermal radiation on Titan due to pressure-induced collisions, the large mass and thickness of the atmosphere, and the long wavelengths of the thermal radiation from the cold surface.[57][86][100]

Effect of pressure

One cannot predict the relative sizes of the greenhouse effects on different bodies simply by comparing the amount of greenhouse gases in their atmospheres. This is because factors other than the quantity of these gases also play a role in determining the size of the greenhouse effect.

Overall atmospheric pressure affects how much thermal radiation each molecule of a greenhouse gas can absorb. High pressure leads to more absorption and low pressure leads to less.[57]

This is due to "pressure broadening" of spectral lines. When the total atmospheric pressure is higher, collisions between molecules occur at a higher rate. Collisions broaden the width of absorption lines, allowing a greenhouse gas to absorb thermal radiation over a broader range of wavelengths.[64]: 226

Each molecule in the air near Earth's surface experiences about 7 billion collisions per second. This rate is lower at higher altitudes, where the pressure and temperature are both lower.[101] This means that greenhouse gases are able to absorb more wavelengths in the lower atmosphere than they can in the upper atmosphere.[56][46]

On other planets, pressure broadening means that each molecule of a greenhouse gas is more effective at trapping thermal radiation if the total atmospheric pressure is high (as on Venus), and less effective at trapping thermal radiation if the atmospheric pressure is low (as on Mars).[57]

Anti-greenhouse effect

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The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere insulate the planet from losing heat to space, raising its surface temperature. Surface heating can happen from an internal heat source as in the case of Jupiter, or from its host star as in the case of the Earth.

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Description:
The water cycle is the endless cycle of water evaporating from Earth's surface, condensing to form clouds, falling as rain, and the run-off returning it to oceans where it originally came from.

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Climate definition: the weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period

Weather definition:
the state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time as regards heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.

Comparison (similarities and differences)

Weather is at one particular time while climate is over a period of time

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Description:

Is essential for life on earth

Found in all living things, and in their dead bodies and wastes. Also found in the atmosphere as CO₂.

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Definition/causes:-  It is caused by a combination of strong winds driving water onshore and the lower atmospheric pressure in a tropical cyclone. In the southern hemisphere the onshore winds occur to the left of the tropical cyclone's path
Effects on environment/people:- The destruction from a tropical cyclone depends mainly on its intensity, its size, and its location. ... Nearly two million people have died globally due to tropical cyclones.
Example:-  Cyclone Yasi

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Definition/causes:-  a mountain or hill, having a crater or vent through which lava and rock fragments as well as hot vapour and gas are or have been erupted from the earth's crust.
Effects on environment/people:- Volcanic eruptions can send large clouds of ash into the atmosphere which then can produce rain and lightening. This reduces the amount of sun that reaches the earth which has a cooling effect making for a colder atmosphere which can lead to crop and livestock failure.
Example:- Krakatau in Indonesia had an eruption in 1883 which lead to a global decrease in temperature of 1.2 Degrees Celsius. The sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere from the eruption later reacted with the water in the atmosphere

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Definition: A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
Causes:- An earthquake occurs when the rocks break and move as a result of stresses caused by plate movements.
Effects on environment/people:- Can cause large cracks to appear or land to increase in height, may also cause mud/landslides,
Example:- Christchurch

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How gases in the atmosphere influence climate- Bryce

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How gases in the atmosphere influence climate- Bryce

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The molecules in Earth's atmosphere are always moving in and out of the air and changing through reactions. Even through the individual molecules are changing, the amounts of different elements within the atmosphere stays amazingly steady.

Even though the amount of most gases in the atmosphere is quite steady, scientists have found that the amount of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere has increased over the last 150 years. The rise in amount of greenhouse gases is directly related to human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and curing of concrete. These activities are affecting Earth’s cycles such as the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, influencing the planet as a whole.

Greenhouse gases trap heat through the greenhouse effect. There were greenhouse gases in the atmosphere long before humans affected the system. Having some greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere is beneficial because they keep temperatures mild and suitable for life. However, as the amount of greenhouse gases has risen, so has Earth’s global temperature. This is causing changes to environments and ecologies around the world.

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Major natural changes include:-
- Earthquakes
- Volcanoes
- Tropical Cyclones

These Natural events influence the Atmosphere, Lithosphere and hydrosphere.
They also cause the different spheres to interact in different ways.

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How surface of the Earth influences climate

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How surface of the Earth influences climate

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Human influence climate- Hannah and Lucy 

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Human influence climate- Hannah and Lucy 

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How are humans are influencing climate?-  Human activites causes greenhouse gases to increase in the atmosphere. Earths tempertature is cause by the radioactive balanced and when that is effected the climate is changed. The radioactive balance is changed by things such as, pollution and electricity.

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- Living things interact with the land, water and air. 

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Biosphere (Heather)

The biosphere includes parts of the Earth's surface and atmosphere where living things exist.
The biosphere is where other spheres of the planet interact:
- The land (lithosphere) interacts with the water (hydrosphere).
- The land interacts with the air (atmosphere).
- Living things interact with the land, water and air.

Lithosphere (Mrs Baker)

layer of land, e.g. hills, planes

Hydrosphere (Mrs Baker)

layer of water, e.g creeks, oceans

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Recycling in nature is important because it enables natural ecosystems to be sustainable. The natural recycling of water and other elements (e.g. carbon and nitrogen) is a very important interaction between the earth's spheres.

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Natural events and humans interactions.