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"Academic achievement is not solely determined by cognitive scores and grades. It is also strongly influenced by psychological attributes such as openness to learning, positive interpersonal skills, good self-esteem, and, for immigrant youth in particular, pride in their ethnic and racial identities."

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Teachers need to have an understanding of-
Microsystems: interpersonal relationships (adolescent relationships with friends, family, teachers)
Exosystems: social ecologies of family members (parents' own life stressors such as immigration-related issues)
Macrosystems: larger contextual forces that operate at the community/societal level (economic conditions, immigration policies, social norms)

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"Indeed, teachers who incorporated their students' cultural and linguistic perspectives into their teaching, promoted students' independence and critical thinking strategies, and used real-world applications to make material accessible to their students had the most positive impact on their ELL students' reading achievement."

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Children as young as three to four years old are able to group individuals corresponding to their skin color and other physical features related with ethnicity.

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Modifications in academic texts:
- Frequent organization markers
- Clear topic statements
- Highlighting of key terms and inclusion of synonyms and paraphrase
- Bulleted or numbered lists of main points
- Elaboration of sections which require culture-specific background knowledge
- Visual aids
- Explicit summations at regular intervals
- Questions which can be used for comprehension checks

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Vygotsky's sociocultural theory describes human learning as a social process that is dependent upon cultural contexts. He emphasizes the idea that social interactions plays a large role in cognitive development.

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance.

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Saville-Troike, M., & Barto, K. (2017). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Suárez-Orozco, C., Abo-Zena, M. M., & Marks, A. K. (2015). Transitions: The Development of Children of Immigrants. New York: New York University Press.