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“After supper she got out her book and learned me about Moses and the Bulrushers”

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Schools today are still segregated by economic status #thatsnotfair

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Where Schools Are Separate and Still Unequal

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In 90 of the largest 95 U.S. cities, more students of color than whites attend school with mostly poor or low-income peers.

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“He dressed Jim up in King Leer’s outfit—it was a long curtain-calico goen, and a white horse-hair wig and whiskers; and then he took his theater-paint and painted Jim’s face and hands and ears and neck all over a dead dull solid blue” (Ch. 24 pg. 158

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“‘These old letters is from Harvey Wilks; and here’s these two handwritings, and anybody can see they didn’t write them’ ... ‘and here’s this old gentleman’s handwriting, and anybody can tell, easy enough, he didn’t write them—fact is, the scratches he makes ain’t properly writing, at all’” (Ch. 29, pg. 201)

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Because of the Second Great Awakening, Protestants established new colleges in the West. #bringbackreligion #religion=education

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“He is the thinnest kind of impostor—has come here with a lot of empty names and facts which he has picked up somewheres, and you take them for proofs, and are helped to fool yourselves by these foolish friends here, who ought to know better” (Ch. 25, pg.171)

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“‘Hold on! Just a word, gentlemen.’ They stopped to listen. ‘We are sold-mighty bad sold. But we don’t want to be the laughing-stock of this whole town, I reckon, and never hear last of this thing as long as we live. No. What we want is to go out of here quiet, and talk this show up, and sell the rest of the town!’” Ch. 23 p. 153

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Modern-Day Segregation in Public Schools

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Modern-Day Segregation in Public Schools

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Students are still segregated by economic status and race #racismstillsucks

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Modern-Day Segregation in Public Schools

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The Department of Education has branded "tracking"—designating students for separate educational paths based on their academic performance—as a modern day form of segregation.

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It was more common to have Catholic sponsored schooling instead of public education in the early 1800s #protestantreformation #thegreatschism #thebabyloniancaptivity #GOD

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Parochial schools in the Philadelphia region share a common Catholic mission and similar patterns of growth and development. For more than three centuries they have responded to the changing characteristics of the region's Catholic population. Several of these developments, such as schools for specific ethnic groups, occurred in Philadelphia, Camden, N.J., and Wilmington, Del., within years of each other. However, the Roman Catholic Church served a larger, more diverse, and faster growing population in Philadelphia than in Camden or Wilmington, and consequently Philadelphia's parochial schools became more organized.

The Philadelphia parochial school system began in 1852 under the leadership of John Nepomucene Neumann (1811-60), the fourth bishop of Philadelphia. The roots of Catholic education, however, extend back to the colonial period and throughout the Mid-Atlantic region. The earliest recorded Catholic school in the region, and arguably the oldest Catholic school in the English-speaking colonies, was St. Mary's, founded by the Jesuits about 1640 in Newtown, now in the state of Maryland. By 1743 a Jesuit also opened one of the first Catholic schools in Pennsylvania, St. Aloysius Academy, in Berks County. This one-room school focused on reading, writing, and spelling, and was open to both Catholic and non-Catholic children.

Perhaps the first Catholic school in Philadelphia appeared in 1692. The first Catholic "school mistress" may have been Ann Bryald, who opened a school sometime before 1771 for Acadian children who came in 1756. It is certain, however, that St. Mary's parish school, for which a new building was constructed in 1782, was among the first, if not the first, full-fledged Catholic school in Philadelphia. It had a paid faculty, a specified curriculum, and methods of pupil assessment. Funding came from charity sermons, bequests from parishioners, and, for a time, investment income from shares in the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. By 1805, the school offered evening classes for older children and adults. Philadelphia also gained an ethnic Catholic school in 1787, when the German Catholic Society opened a school (near Sixth and Spruce Streets) run jointly with the German parish of the Holy Trinity.

From the late eighteenth through the nineteenth century, the governance of the Catholic Church reshaped the region for parochial education. The Diocese of Baltimore, the first in the nation (1789), was divided in 1808 to create the Diocese of Philadelphia that served the needs of Catholics in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and western and southern New Jersey. A further realignment in 1853 made Camden part of the newly-formed Diocese of Newark, New Jersey.

The Early Schools

By the first decades of the nineteenth century, Catholic schools operated in each of the region's major cities. In the 1840s, Philadelphia children attended Catholic schools at St. Mary's (104 S. Fifth Street), St. Patrick's in the "Village" (the area around Rittenhouse Square), St. Joseph's (near 321 Willings Alley), St. Augustine's (Fourth and New Streets), possibly at St. John's (Thirteenth Street below Market Street), and at St. Joseph's Orphan Asylum (near Seventh and Spruce Streets), which previously taught children orphaned by the 1793 yellow fever epidemic. Sunday Schools, which taught religion as well as secular subjects, appeared in many parishes. Open to all age groups and taught largely by lay volunteers, many of these schools met just for two hours a week.

In Wilmington, St. Peter Cathedral School (at 310 W. Sixth Street) opened in 1830 to educate the orphans of workers killed in accidents at the DuPont gunpowder works. The children were taught by three Sisters of Charity from Elizabeth Ann Seton's religious community in Emmitsburg, Maryland. The school became a boarding school and eventually a diocesan elementary school.

The first parochial school in Camden, St. Mary's, opened in 1859 when Sarah Fields held classes in her home at Fifth and Arch Streets. In 1862, the school relocated to the second floor of a newly completed church (at Fifth Street and Taylor Avenue). The same year, another St. Mary's, this one in Gloucester City, also opened a school in the parish rectory (near Cumberland and Sussex Streets) with twenty students who were taught by a lay teacher, a seminarian, and a priest. Although not part of a system, parish schools in New Jersey continued to grow, and after 1865 every church with a resident priest operated a parochial school.

Parochial education expanded as the region's increasing population of Irish Catholics encountered hostility from native-born Americans. In 1836 the Pennsylvania legislature gave the Philadelphia Board of Education a monopoly of public education money, and its pauper schools, dating from 1818, were opened to all children. Many Catholic parents enrolled their children in these common schools, but it was not long before Catholic leaders began to have doubts about them. For instance, they used the King James Bible, the "Protestant" version. In 1842 a Catholic teacher was dismissed for refusing to read from it. When Peter Parlay's Common School History was adopted, the Catholic press complained about its anti-Catholic passages. In protest, Bishop Francis Kenrick (1796-1863) asked that Catholic children attending Philadelphia public schools be granted the freedom to read from the Catholic version of the Bible.

By 1854, 34 Parochial Schools

After Philadelphia's nativist riots of 1844, Kenrick, appalled by the destruction and bloodshed, gave up trying to make the public schools suitable for Catholic children and pushed for parochial schools instead. By 1850, nearly every parish in Philadelphia had a free school, and by 1854, the diocese had thirty-four parochial schools with an enrollment of almost 9,000. Under Bishop John Nepomucene Neumann, the schools became a Philadelphia parochial school system administered by a central school board. Its duties included making plans for funding school construction and recommending policies for hiring teachers, whose salaries were to be paid by each parish..

In 1875, the Diocese of Philadelphia became an archdiocese and Bishop James Frederick Wood (1813-1883), Neumann's successor since 1860, became its first archbishop. Downsized from its previous boundaries, the archdiocese now covered Philadelphia, Berks, Bucks, Carbon, Chester, Delaware, Lehigh, Montgomery, Northampton, and Schuylkill counties. In 1894 Wood's successor, Archbishop Patrick John Ryan (1831-1911), appointed the first superintendent of Catholic schools in the archdiocese, Father John W. Shanahan (1846-1916). He was followed in 1899 by Father Philip McDevitt (1858-1935) who systemized the supervision of each school. By expanding the School Board and refining school administration, Ryan established the system that exists today..

The curriculum in the Philadelphia parochial schools at the close of the nineteenth century was, except for religion classes, prayers and liturgies, almost indistinguishable from that of the Philadelphia public schools. Pastors and school board members worried about maintaining the faith of the students, but they also wanted a curriculum that was as structured and rigorous as that found in the city's public schools, thereby assuring Catholic parents that they would not be short changing their children if they sent them to a parochial school.

The influx of Catholic immigrants from southern and eastern Europe at the end of the nineteenth century led to conflict among Roman Catholics because the new arrivals and even some of the Germans, who were by then well-established, felt disrespected by the "Hibernians" (Irish) whose churches, schools, and bishops now dominated the archdiocese. To accommodate the needs of these recent Catholic immigrants, ethnic parishes and bilingual schools were established throughout the region. These schools tempered the trauma of immigration because their teachers, many of whom were members of religious communities from Poland and Italy, spoke the language and knew the culture. Some of these nuns, however, spoke English so poorly that they were not effective models for Americanization.

Italian Parish Schools

In Philadelphia, the Italian parish schools that opened during this period included Our Lady of Good Counsel (1898, near Eighth and Christian Streets), St. Rita (1907, near Broad and Ellsworth Streets), and St. Donato (1910, at 405 N. Sixty-Fifth Street). St. Mary Magdalene De Pazzi, the oldest Italian parish in the United States, founded thirty years earlier, also began a school in 1874 with teachers from the Missionary Sisters of St. Francis. Schools for German-speaking Catholics opened in Port Richmond, a river ward on the Delaware River, at Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary parish (Belgrade Street and Allegheny Avenue) and later Our Lady Help of Christians (Allegheny Avenue and Gaul Street). Eighteen Polish parishes opened throughout the archdiocese, including six in Philadelphia. In 1904, St. Adalbert (Thompson Street and Allegheny Avenue) was founded just one block east of Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth, a Polish order, taught there.

The pattern was similar in Camden, which in 1881 became part of the newly-created Diocese of Trenton. Adding to Saints Peter and Paul, a church and school for German-speaking Catholics established in 1868-1869 at Fourth and Division Streets, Bishop Michael O'Farrell (1832-94) authorized building St. Joseph Church (Tenth and Liberty Streets) for Polish-speaking Catholics in 1882. Initially run by lay teachers, its school was later taken over by the Sisters of Nazareth and then by the Felician Sisters. A new three-story school with sixteen classrooms was opened in 1914. For Italian speakers, Our Lady of Mt. Carmel parish was founded in 1903 on the site of the former Church of Saints Peter and Paul, which had relocated to Spruce Street above Broadway. Our Lady of Mt. Carmel parish school appeared in 1908. Referred to as St. Michael's School until the 1920s, it initially enrolled 319 children and was staffed by two nuns and a laywoman.

Wilmington gained a school for German-speaking Catholics in 1878 (at Sacred Heart, 917 North Madison Street) and for Poles in 1897 (at St. Hedwig, 408 Harrison Street). In 1924, St. Hedwig constructed a new school building to accommodate 925 children, making it one of the largest parochial schools in the city. St. Stanislaus Kostka parish (901 East Seventh Street) was founded in 1912 in east Wilmington, near the shipbuilding and leather tanneries on the Delaware River, so that Polish parents and their children would not have to travel across town for church services. Three Felician sisters opened an elementary school there in 1914. The first parish for Italian Catholics in Wilmington, St. Anthony of Padua, was established in 1924 and opened a school in 1938 under the direction of the Franciscan Sisters from Glen Riddle, Pennsylvania.

Ursaline of Wilmington

Catholic secondary education in the nineteenth century occurred primarily in tuition-based private academies or pre-collegiate independent schools. They developed "collegiate departments" that ultimately led to the founding of some local Catholic colleges (for example La Salle University and Chestnut Hill College). In 1890, the Philadelphia archdiocese opened Roman Catholic High School, the first free Catholic secondary school in the United States. Father Nevin F. Fisher, the first rector, supervised a faculty comprised exclusively of laymen. In 1912, the archdiocese opened Catholic Girls High School at 311 N. Nineteenth Street. With the opening of these two high schools, the archdiocese now provided education from the first through the twelfth grades, mirroring closely the structure of the Philadelphia public schools.

Catholic secondary education existed in both adjacent dioceses by the 1920s. Wilmington's Ursuline Academy, the only all-female Catholic high school in Delaware until 1930, opened in 1893, followed by Salesianum School in 1903, the first all-male independent Catholic high school in the state. The oldest Catholic high school in South Jersey, Camden Catholic High School, opened in 1924 (originally at Seventh and Federal Streets) as a four-year, co-educational institution with 400 students and a four-track curriculum.

The first half of the twentieth century witnessed dramatic changes in the curriculum of the Philadelphia parochial school system and the preparation of its teachers. By 1930 more than 4,000 nuns were certified in elementary education, in part because the Pennsylvania legislature had waived the requirement that student teaching be done in a public school. To provide needed training, demonstration schools and Schools of Practice were opened so that novice teachers could learn from veterans. Education professors from Villanova University taught methods classes at Hallahan Catholic Girls High School, one of the first demonstration schools. Teachers also took summer courses at Catholic and secular universities, and annual teacher institutes became more professional in focus, with regional and national authorities invited to speak. Under the leadership of Monsignor John Bonner (1890-1945), the superintendent of Philadelphia's Catholic schools from 1926 to 1945, supervisors visited all classrooms to monitor instruction and classroom management. He also introduced standardized mid-year and final examinations, and grouped students according to cognitive ability.

The parochial schools in Camden and Wilmington did not have a fully developed administrative hierarchy until the middle of the twentieth century. Following the 1937 creation of the Diocese of Camden, encompassing Atlantic, Camden, Cape May, Cumberland, Gloucester, and Salem counties, Bishop Bartholomew J. Eustace (1887-56) established four high schools and twenty-two elementary schools and expanded many others. In 1941, he appointed the first school superintendent, Father William Hickey, who was followed ten years later by Monsignor Charles McGarry. Wilmington parochial schools, meanwhile, were led by part-time superintendents from 1932 until the appointment of Father Edmund Julien in 1957.

Philadelphia led the way in reforming Catholic secondary education in the region. No longer perceived to be a luxury, a high school diploma became common by the 1950s. The high school curriculum now prepared students for employment as well as college. Besides traditional subjects, many Catholic high schools in Philadelphia expanded their practical and vocational arts curricula to include mechanical drawing, elementary typesetting and printing, and auto mechanics. They offered extra-curricular and co-curricular activities, including music, debating, and both intramural and varsity sports. Many of these extra-curricular activities also appeared in the high schools of Camden and Wilmington. System-wide reforms in Philadelphia after World War II included basic science in the elementary schools and laboratory science in the high schools. In 1966, the archdiocese introduced a human relations program to foster appreciation for racial justice and to address challenges posed by diversity.

Meeting the "Baby Boom"

The "baby boom" that transformed the United States in the 1950s and 1960s had profound effects on the organization and geography of the region's Catholic education. With the increase of population, Catholic leaders carved Berks, Carbon, Lehigh, Northampton, and Schuylkill counties from the Archdiocese of Philadelphia to create the Diocese of Allentown in 1961. The new diocese acquired 28,450 students, 109 elementary schools, and 13 secondary schools from Philadelphia, but because the archdiocese still included Philadelphia, Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, and Delaware counties, its schools were well attended. In 1964 there were 212,267 students in 286 elementary schools (102 fewer schools and 16,322 fewer students than in 1960), and 57, 237 students in twenty-five high schools (thirteen fewer schools but 1,511 more students than in 1960). Consequently, the archdiocese embarked on a building program that, by 1967, resulted in twenty-one new elementary schools and five new high schools, which brought the total by 1970 to thirty. Most of these new schools were in the fast-growing suburbs.

The Camden and the Wilmington dioceses also mobilized to accommodate more students, improve instruction, and refine administration. Between 1950 and 1965 the Diocese of Camden experienced the largest growth in its history, much of it driven by suburbanization. Its bishop, Celestine Damiano (1911-67), announced a drive in 1960 to raise $5 million to build and improve diocesan high schools that resulted in a new Camden Catholic (in suburban Cherry Hill in 1962), Cathedral Academy (on the site of the old Camden Catholic in 1965), and Pope Paul VI (in Haddonfield in 1966). He also authorized Superintendent Monsignor Charles McGarry to upgrade the secondary curriculum and guidance services, initiatives that were continued by Fr. John J. Clark when he became the superintendent after McGarry's death in 1965. Damiano also created a diocesan board of education that included seven lay members. By 1965 the diocese had seventy-four elementary schools, thirteen high schools, 338 lay teachers, and 43,465 students.

Enrollment increases in the Diocese of Wilmington between 1950 and 1970 also led to the construction of several elementary and secondary schools, both diocesan and independent. The new Salesianum High School (at Eighteenth and Broom Streets) opened in 1957 at a cost of $3 million. It featured a 1,500 seat auditorium, a gymnasium, cafeteria, library, machine shops, a chapel, and a faculty house for priests who taught there. By 1968 the Diocese of Wilmington (encompassing the state of Delaware and the Eastern Shore of Maryland) had seven kindergartens, thirty-two elementary schools, four independent elementary schools, seven parochial high schools, and four independent high schools, serving 16,094 students.

High School Tuition

Expansion came at a cost. Philadelphia diocesan high schools charged tuition for the first time in the 1970s, followed later in the decade by the elementary schools. The number of lay faculty and lay administrators gradually increased, adding to the cost of operations. The archdiocese responded to continuing suburban growth by constructing two high schools, Bishop Shanahan in Downingtown, Chester County (1998) and Pope John Paul II in Pottstown, Montgomery County (2010). Meanwhile, the Catholic population in Philadelphia decreased, and the Pennsylvania Charter School Law, adopted in 1997, gave Catholic parents another option. The archdiocese addressed these issues by allowing open enrollment in its secondary schools, thereby permitting students to cross traditional boundaries. Parochial schools also accepted more non-Catholic children. The archdiocese lobbied in Harrisburg for educational choice legislation, an effort that was largely unsuccessful. But in 2012, Pennsylvania's Educational Improvement Tax Credit Program was expanded to provide an incentive for businesses to contribute to scholarships for low-income students wanting to attend private, parochial, or higher-performing public schools.

Gradually, the Philadelphia archdiocese closed many schools and consolidated others. By 2012, its parochial school enrollment had decreased to about 70,000 students. In August of the same year, the archdiocese announced a five-year contract with the Faith in the Future Foundation, an independent agency that would manage the finances and enrollment of the diocesan secondary schools.

Similar circumstances faced the Camden and Wilmington dioceses. Overall enrollment in all Catholic schools in the Camden Diocese dropped from 28,796 in 1980 to 12,929 in 2012. By then, the cost of educating a single elementary student exceeded the tuition, which became a challenge because each school was responsible for its own finances. This led to school closures and mergers. To address this financial crisis, attorney and businessman Robert T. Healey founded the Catholic School Development Program (CSDP) in 2004 to help Catholic elementary schools with governance, enrollment, management, and development issues. By 2013, CSDP was working with five schools in Camden city and fifteen other schools in the diocese. Total parochial enrollment in the State of Delaware decreased from 13,513 in 2000 to 11,350 in 2009. Like the schools in the Camden diocese, those in Wilmington are responsible for their own finances. While the parochial schools in all three dioceses struggled with the financial aftermath of the 2008-9 recession, the Diocese of Wilmington experienced the added burden of declaring bankruptcy in 2011 because of a $77.4 million settlement paid to victims of sexual abuse.

The Catholic schools in the tri-state area ultimately compete with public education. Consequently, they stay current in national trends in curriculum, instruction, and administration. In 2012 the Philadelphia archdiocese split the superintendent's office into two separate positions, one for elementary and the other for secondary education. In 2013, it also announced a new Executive Board of Elementary Education to assist elementary and regional schools with planning, enrollment, and governance. Schools in all three dioceses provide in-service programs for teachers based on research-based pedagogy and technology and are moving to adopt the Common Core State Standards. While Neumann and Ryan would not be familiar with the complex administration or the high-tech classrooms of the twenty-first century, they would recognize the faith-based mission that still animates Catholic education.
Francis J. Ryan is Professor and Director of American Studies at La Salle University. He is a co-author of Drowning in the Clear Pool: Cultural Narcissism, Technology & Character Education (Peter Lang Publishing, 2002). He is currently working on the history of progressive education in the Philadelphia Catholic schools, 1890-2010.
Copyright 2013, Rutgers University

Bochansky, Father Philip G. Ed. Our Faith-Filled Heritage: The Church of Philadelphia, Bicentennial as a Diocese, 1808-2008. Philadelphia. The Archdiocese of Philadelphia, 2007.

Brady, Patrick D. "The Cooperation Between the School District of Philadelphia and the Philadelphia Archdiocesan School System, 1961-1980." Ed.D. diss., Temple University, 1993.

Connelly, James F. Ed. The History of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia. Philadelphia: The Archdiocese of Philadelphia, 1976.

Donaghy, Thomas A. Philadelphia's Finest: A History of Education in the Catholic Archdiocese, 1692-1970. Philadelphia: The American Catholic Historical Society, 1972.

Giglio, Rev. Msgr. Charles J. Ed. Building God's Kingdom: A History of the Diocese of Camden. South Orange, NJ: Seton Hall University Press, 1987.

Lannie, Vincent P. and Bernard C. Diethorn. "For the Honor and Glory of God: The Philadelphia Bible Riots of 1844." History of Education Quarterly. Vol. 8, No.2 (Summer, 1968): 44-106.

O'Breza, John E. "Philadelphia Parochial School System From 1830-1920: Growth and Bureaucratization." Ed.D. diss., Temple University. 1979.

Ryan, Francis J. "Monsignor John Bonner and Progressive Education in the Archdiocese of Philadelphia, 1925-1945." Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia. Vol. 102, No.1-2 (Spring 1991): 17-44.

Touhey, O.S.U., Mother St. Philip. "A History of Education in the Diocese of Wilmington, Delaware." M.A. diss, Catholic University of America, 1957.

Delaware Historical Society, 505 Market Street, Wilmington, Del.

"Annual Reports of the Superintendents of Catholic Schools of Philadelphia," Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center, 100 E. Wynnewood Rd., Wynnewood, Pa.

Salesianum School Archives, 1801 N. Broom Street, Wilmington, Del.

Camden Catholic High School, 300 Cuthbert Boulevard, Cherry Hill, N.J.

John W. Hallahan Catholic Girls High School, 311 N. Nineteenth Street, Philadelphia

Roman Catholic High School, 301 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia

Salesianum School, 1801 N. Broom Street, Wilmington, Del.

St. Peter Cathedral School, 310 W. Sixth Street, Wilmington, Del.

Ursuline Academy, 1106 Pennsylvania Avenue, Wilmington, Del.

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Parochial schools in the Philadelphia region share a common Catholic mission and similar patterns of growth and development. For more than three centuries they have responded to the changing characteristics of the region's Catholic population. Several of these developments, such as schools for specific ethnic groups, occurred in Philadelphia, Camden, N.J., and Wilmington, Del., within years of each other.

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#stillsegregated #labeled #stilladinosaur

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#segregation #nationalismamoungregions #evolutionofthedinosaur

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Slavery.. No freedom...No education. only WORK. #laboristhebreadoflife

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Slavery.. No freedom...No education. only WORK. #laboristhebreadoflife

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http://melyjanex3.blogspot.com/2010/11/what-is-immigration-of-united-states.html

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Failing education from lack of funding and apparent importance of education. #peoplecaremoreaboutfootballtheneducation

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ATLANTA-The existence of Civil War emblems on campus has pounded out a drumbeat of angst and activism at universities across the South in the last few years.

But some campuses in this region are part of another North-South rift that's gotten less attention:

More From The Hechinger Report

Southern states have been disproportionately cutting spending on public higher education. In a region where the poorest families already face some of the nation's highest poverty rates, forced tuition increases make their colleges and universities among the least affordable, a slew of recent data show.

This contributes to falling enrollment in states already struggling with some of the nation's lowest percentages of residents with college educations.

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Universities in America's South Are Fiscally Crumbling

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ATLANTA-The existence of Civil War emblems on campus has pounded out a drumbeat of angst and activism at universities across the South in the last few years. But some campuses in this region are part of another North-South rift that's gotten less attention: More From The Hechinger Report Southern states have been disproportionately cutting spending on public higher education.

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It was very common for Southern states to pass laws banning the education of slaves. Therefore, slaves who were literate were the highly looked up to by other slaves. #slaverysucks #revoltszn #StonoRebellion -via Cody Korth

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Slavery and the Making of America . The Slave Experience: Education, Arts, & Culture | PBS

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In the North, where black education was not forbidden, African-Americans had greater access to formal schooling and were more likely to have basic reading and writing skills than Southern blacks. Quakers played an important part elevating literacy rates among Northern blacks by rigorously promoting education programs in the years before and after the Revolutionary War.

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Today, some of the nation’s top schools are located in the west, such as Stanford University -via Cody Korth

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I explore how design thinking and technology are impacting education Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own.

Stanford has reclaimed its No. 1 position on the FORBES Top Colleges list, proving again that West Coast schools can compete with the nation's oldest universities in the Northeast, including Princeton (No. 3), Harvard (No. 4), and Yale (No. 6). California schools, in fact, dominate the FORBES Top 100 with 11 making the cut. The Silicon Valley super school for techies, leaders and entrepreneurs has a $1.22 billion research budget, and its alumni and faculty have created 39,900 companies since the 1930s.

Though Pomona fell from No. 1 to No. 7 on this year's overall college ranking, it still wears the crown of the Claremont Consortium, coming in at No. 2 in the West with Claremont McKenna just behind at No. 3., followed by Harvey Mudd College (No. 10), Scripps College (No. 14), and Pitzer College (No. 21).

Even though the University of California, Berkeley fell to No. 6 on this year's regional ranking, the UC schools continue their reign over the west with a total of five making the top 25.

Colorado's United States Air Force Academy rose to No. 4, surpassing both UC Berkeley and the tech powerhouse, California Institute of Technology (No. 5). The state's schools had a particularly strong showing this year as Colorado College also rose two places, now at No. 9., and the University of Denver (No. 24) entering the list in place of Willamette University.

Utah's only top 25 school in the West, Brigham Young University (No. 15) climbed 3 ranks in the West, and 18 ranks on the America's Top Colleges list.

Following are the 25 Top Colleges in the West:

1. Stanford University

2. Pomona College

3. Claremont McKenna College

4. United States Air Force Academy

5. California Institute of Technology

6. University of California, Berkeley

7. University of California, Los Angeles

8. Whitman College

9. Colorado College

10. Harvey Mudd College

11. Reed College

12. University of Southern California

13. University of Washington

14. Scripps College

15. Brigham Young University

16. Santa Clara University

17. Occidental College

18. University of California, Santa Barbara

19. University of California, San Diego

20. University of Colorado, Boulder

21. Pitzer College

22. University of California, Davis

23. Pepperdine University

24. University of Denver

25. Colorado School of Mines

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I explore how design thinking and technology are impacting education Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own. Stanford has reclaimed its No. 1 position on the FORBES Top Colleges list, proving again that West Coast schools can compete with the nation's oldest universities in the Northeast, including Princeton (No.

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There was education on the frontier, however, schools struggled with supplies to keep schools running, as well as the problem of women as teachers.
#womensrights #teachthechildren # frontierlife -via Cody Korth
https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/frontierhouse/frontierlife/essay10_3.html

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Equality in colleges rooted to more equality due to Civil War (more liberal in thinking even though traditional as well) #civilrightsmovement

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If you would like to authenticate using a different subscribed institution that supports Shibboleth authentication or have your own login and password to Project MUSE, click 'Authenticate'.

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Protestant Reformation = more education to read Scriptures, while South was Anglican Church and was more about labor y’all #transubstantiation #consubstantiation

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History of education in the United States - Wikipedia

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The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States. The first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639.

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Via Paige Bulgrin

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Post-Revolutionary Plans. As citizens of the United States and immigrants migrated westward in the first half of the nineteenth century, they brought to new communities and states educational experiments and plans that had first taken shape in Europe and the Eastern states. While some individuals feared what they believed was an untamed land, many Americans who were influenced by ideas of the Enlightenment were convinced that the West would be civilized through the diffusion of knowledge. Others dared to hope for the regeneration of human nature in what they viewed as the blank slate of the West. In the early American republic the transmission of culture and work procedures still took place largely in home or workplace settings, outside of formal schools and colleges. The primary institution for educating children was the family. In the decades after the American Revolution, however, cultural leaders argued that schooling was essential in order to train citizens. According to the widely shared republican ideology, the stability of the nation would depend upon the virtue of its citizens, who would be capable of exercising sovereignty through their capacity for moral restraint. Those who were influenced by such thinkers of the Enlightenment asJohn Locke believed that human nature was malleable and formed by influences in the environment. For them, education would provide the means to form ordinary children into future citizens. In addition, in a large republic, diffusion of knowledge could shape apluralistic population into a homogeneous body politic. Individuals from various parts of the British Isles and western Europe had flocked to America in the eighteenth century, settling in regions where they spoke in local dialects and identified with local folkways. Education could instill the common aspirations and behavior that would shape these colonial regional cultures into a uniform national polity. In the eighteenth century, religious establishments and denominations had assumed responsibility for moral and intellectual training. After state provisions and the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution separated church and state, some individuals began to propose more-secular educational plans.

Jefferson and Rush. As early as 1779 Thomas Jefferson prepared his "Systematic Plan of General Education" for the House of Delegates in Virginia. Linked to his proposals to repeal the feudal practices of entail and primogeniture and to establish religious freedom, his plan aimed to eliminate aristocratic privilege and to create a republican society in which natural merit could be recognized and rewarded. According to the plan, in hundreds of wards in every county, statesupported elementary schools would teach reading, writing, and common arithmetic. In districts throughout the state, additional schools would offer the classics, grammar, geography, and higher arithmetic. The College of William and Mary would provide a scientific curriculum; elementary schools would teach the rudiments of education to ordinary citizens; district schools would develop reasoning skills and instill virtue in the more talented; and the university would form a select few into local leaders and national and international statesmen. In 1784 Benjamin Rush of Pennsylvania also was concerned with planning an education suitable for a republican society. Fearful that reason alone would not create binding social ties, Rush proposed a union of affection, in which an emotional patriotism would be reinforced in children through early associations in school. To instill the moral restraint essential for republican virtue, Rush believed that education should be grounded in Christianity, and he argued that the Bible should be the primary textbook. Boys who learned Christian principles and habitual obedience in early childhood would become adult citizens capable of submitting personal inclination to the rule of law and private interest to the public good. In 1787 Rush advocated a similar education for girls, who would learn o t submit personal inclination to the demands of domestic life in preparation for their role as republican wives and mothers.

Early Educational Opportunities. Although legislatures in Virginia and Pennsylvania discussed these comprehensive plans for tax-supported schools in the 1790s, they enacted only limited provisions for charity education. The Massachusetts legislature in 1789 required towns of fifty or more families to provide "district" schools for at least six months of the year and towns of two hundred or more families to provide a grammar school. The state did not offer financial aid, however, and both initiative for and control over a school remained with local parents. The New York legislature in 1795 appropriated funds to local areas to support schools for five years, but they did not renew the legislation in 1800. Boston was the only city that supported a system of public schools. According to their provisions, an annually elected school committee supervised grammar schools for boys and girls ages seven to fourteen and a Latin school for boys over the age often. Children under the age of seven learned to read in dames' schools, private schools conducted in various homes by female teachers who were licensed by the city. Yet similar school systems were not enacted in other areas, largely because the United States was still a rural society where full-time schooling did not fit the needs of many families. Farmers and craftsmen relied on family more than hired labor and expected their large numbers of children to work. Education occurred in family or workplace settings, and schooling was only sporadic, fitted into hours of the day or seasons of the year that the rhythms of an agricultural society allowed. Revolutionary rhetoric inspired interest in education, but actual practice followed the rural intermittent model. Yet even under these conditions, enrollments increased in locally controlled district or subscription schools, and private academies throughout the nation proliferated, especially those that concentrated on the education of girls.

District and Subscription Schools . Following the American Revolution, New England farmers flooded into western New York, and yeomen from the Upper South and Carolina backcountry filtered into Kentucky and Tennessee. Under the Articles of Confederation of 1781, when states had relinquished their claims to western lands, congressional provisions initially drafted by Thomas Jefferson had provided for education in territories carved from this national domain. The Land Ordinance of 1785 required a survey of public lands to establish rectangular townships six miles square, consisting of thirty-six sections of 640 acres, one of which would be reserved for maintenance of public schools. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 created the plan for carving out three to five states north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi Rivers; it also outlawed slavery in the area, promised not to take lands from Indians without their consent, and earmarked support for education. Yet settlement did not follow these orderly plans. In many areas school lands went unsold and school funds went unused; where resources were available, differences in land quality and value led to rancorous disputes. Some states organized districts on the Massachusetts model, in which parents initiated and controlled a district school. In other areas parents took up a subscription, pledging support to erect a building and to hire and board a teacher.

Schools in New Communities . These district, or subscription, schools consisted of one-room log or clapboard buildings where children as young as two or three mingled with older pupils, each child memorizing and reciting his or her lessons under the direction of a more-or-less qualified teacher. Reflecting the post-Revolutionary concern with diffusion of knowledge, such schools dotted Western areas as soon as lands were settled. For example, Daniel Drake's family arrived in Mayslick, Kentucky, in 1788, when it was still Indian country. (Shawnees and their allies in the area would not be defeated until the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794.) Yet as early as 1790, when he was five, Drake attended a log cabin school with paper windows, a wooden chimney, and a puncheon floor, taught by an immigrant from Scotland named McQuitty. Later Drake poured over Dilworth's speller or the New Testament under the direction of Jacob Beaden, a teacher from Maryland's eastern shore who knew only reading, writing, and some arithmetic. Beaden had students of all ages recite the lesson aloud, gathering energy as they spoke. In later life Drake found that he could concentrate in almost any situation and thought it an advantage that he had learned to study in the midst of noise. He also learned to pay deference to adults; when someone came along the road, the children would take off their hats and try to bow or curtsey at the same time. Drake attended school only occasionally, though, for his father depended on his labor. When he was nine and the family moved to a larger farm, he left his lessons temporarily to help clear land. Six years later an injury to his father ended this schooling, and Drake worked the farm alone. Like many children in the early-nineteenth-century West, such would have been his fate had not his illiterate father been determined to have at least one educated child, sending Drake at the age of sixteen to Cincinnati to study medicine. After the War of 1812, as the United States acquired Indian lands through treaty or conquest, white families poured westward; shortly after their arrival in each new territory, local parents organized a district, or subscription, school. Planters and yeomen, who swarmed into Alabama and Mississippi from 1815 to 1819, arrived with not only their slaves but also schoolteachers seeking opportunity. Two years after Illinois became a state in 1818, settlers in Sangamon County founded a subscription school. By 1825 families in Blooming Grove, in central Illinois, subscribed their support to a log cabin school, which was soon followed by an academy.

Origins of Public Schools . From 1820 to 1840 commercial and industrial development transformed the economy of the Northeast, affecting not only urban areas but also rural families who began to rely on distant markets made available by improved transportation. As mechanized mills proliferated, textile production left the household. Merchants inserted themselves into patterns of exchange, engaging women and children in new kinds of outwork. Storekeepers tightened credit and preferred cash transactions, replacing older patterns of neighborly barter and local exchange. Mothers, perhaps influenced by evangelical religion, adopted domestic ideology and tried to curtail fertility. Fathers paid wages to hired workers, relying less on the labor of their children. As rural capitalism developed, children had more time to spend in school. In this economic context Horace Mann, who was the newly appointed secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, worried about the urban poverty and crime accelerated by the financial panic of 1837. Fearing that the habits of adults were already established, he focused on forming moral character in malleable young children. Lecturing throughout the state and lobbying the legislature, Mann advocated a system of state-supervised and supported public schools. He urged that each school offer the same curriculum and conduct classes over a continuous ten-month term. He also argued for carefully designed school buildings and state-supported normal schools to train professional teachers. In 1838, when the Unitarian Mann was approached by managers of the American Sunday School Union and asked to adopt their line of evangelical children's literature, he refused, insisting instead on nonsectarian, yet Protestant, public schools, which would instill the values of republicanism and capitalism.

Public Schools in the Midwest . In the Northeast public schools received citizen support largely in areas where commercial development was well under way; their advocates tended to be Whigs who favored a positive role for the state rather than Democrats who usually opted for local control. Farmers in areas less affected by rural capitalism resisted the systems of state-supported education and fought to maintain local control over their district schools. As families moved to the Midwest, farmers there also opposed a general state tax for education and loss of their local control. Where subsistence farming and customs of barter and local exchange prevailed, families depended on their children's labor and preferred voluntary intermittent schooling that could mesh with agricultural work. Laws authorizing the creation of school districts and permitting settlers to support schools by taxing themselves were passed by Ohio in 1821, Indiana in 1824, Illinois in 1825, and Missouri in 1839. The Michigan law of 1837, written by the new state superintendent of public instruction, John D. Pierce, became a model for other states. Yet not until the 1850s, when railroads penetrated the Midwest, did speculators buy up land, tenant farming and hired labor become widespread, and state systems of free public schools characterized by strong district control take root. As rural capitalism transformed the Midwest, legislators established free public education in Indiana in 1852, Ohio in 1854, and Illinois in 1855. The Wisconsin Constitution of 1848 provided for free public education as did those of Iowa in 1846 and Minnesota in 1858. Yet in the Midwest, compromise prevailed between state supervision and local parental control. While states required the length of school terms and passed general rules licensing teachers, local district school boards elected by annual meetings managed the public schools.

Old Southwest . Alabama, Kentucky, and Louisiana in the old Southwest appointed state school superintendents in the 1850s. Yet slavery kept capitalistic relation ships from penetrating the Southern rural household, preventing the development of an economic context in which parents and legislators advocated state-supported full-time schools. In Southwestern states slaves were denied schooling. Well-to-do planters hired a tutor to educate their children at home or sent youngsters to board at private academies. Yeoman families, which maintained the older patterns of barter and local exchange, high fertility, and patriarchal control of children's labor, continued to initiate and support subscription schools, where the intermittent lessons could mesh with agricultural work.

Mexican Cession. In the Spanish areas of the Southwest, Catholic priests had sought to form Indians into gente de razon, or people of reason, who would internalize self-restraint in order to contribute to the good of the community. Concentrating the natives into pueblos and missions, the friars had taught the Indians to engage in agriculture, use European tools, speak Spanish, and practice Catholicism. Focusing on children, whom they found more malleable than adults, the friars taught youngsters to sing and play musical instruments, to memorize and recite Catholic doctrine, and occasionally to read and write. In 1793 King Carlos IV ordered that schools be established in order to teach Indians to speak, read, and write Spanish, an early venture in public education. About the same time artisans arrived from Mexico to instruct neophyte boys in skilled trades and girls in cloth making and fine needlework. Although they fluctuated greatly in attendance and quality, some schools also were established for the children of settlers, who clustered in towns and settlements surrounding the presidios. After the missions were secularized during the period of Mexican rule from 1822 to 1848, Hispanic ranching families in New Mexico and California were eager to differentiate themselves as gente de razon from the Indian labor force. Although various governors promoted education, schooling was intermittent, and well-to-do families taught their children at home or hired private tutors. By 1844 seven or eight tax-supported schools for boys and for girls were established in California. As traders and immigrants from the United States filtered into the area, some individuals provided schooling for immigrant children. In 1848, after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo confirmed the conquest of the Southwest in the Mexican War and after gold was discovered in California, citizens of the eastern United States rushed into the area and advocated their concepts of state-supported public education. By 1849 the city of San Francisco supported a free public school, and the first California constitution included provisions similar to those in the 1837 Michigan law. In 1851 the legislature provided school districts and permitted citizens to tax themselves to support schools. Through the leadership of California State Superintendent of Public Instruction John Swett, a statewide system of free public schools was put into place in the 1860s.

Higher Education in the West . Influenced by revivals of the Second Great Awakening, which engulfed the eastern United States from 1800 through 1860, Protestant denominations competed in founding colleges in the West. Proposed to spread denominational doctrines and to train ministers, these small, often struggling, institutions proliferated. Simultaneously, Catholics founded many parochial institutions. Other educational reformers greatly admired the state-supported secular plan that Thomas Jefferson introduced in the University of Virginia in 1819. Funded by the state and directed by a board of visitors confirmed by the legislature, Jefferson's university was completely separated from religious influence and offered instruction in the ancient and modern languages, mathematics, natural history, moral philosophy, medicine, and law. In the 1820s this plan was greatly admired by individuals in Tennessee and Kentucky who hoped to build similar institutions. These and other plans were thwarted, however, when sectarian interests sought control over education and farmers resisted paying taxes for institutions they feared would create an elite upper class. Secular interests prevailed, however, in Michigan, where the state university, founded in 1837, closely followed the Jeffersonian ideal and became the model for other western states.

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Post-Revolutionary Plans. As citizens of the United States and immigrants migrated westward in the first half of the nineteenth century, they brought to new communities and states educational experiments and plans that had first taken shape in Europe and the Eastern states.

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