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President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of bloody civil war. The proclamation declared "that all persons held as slaves" within the rebellious states "are, and henceforward shall be free."

Despite this expansive wording, the Emancipation Proclamation was limited in many ways. It applied only to states that had seceded from the United States, leaving slavery untouched in the loyal border states. It also expressly exempted parts of the Confederacy (the Southern secessionist states) that had already come under Northern control. Most important, the freedom it promised depended upon Union (United States) military victory.

Although the Emancipation Proclamation did not end slavery in the nation, it captured the hearts and imagination of millions of Americans and fundamentally transformed the character of the war. After January 1, 1863, every advance of federal troops expanded the domain of freedom. Moreover, the Proclamation announced the acceptance of black men into the Union Army and Navy, enabling the liberated to become liberators. By the end of the war, almost 200,000 black soldiers and sailors had fought for the Union and freedom.

From the first days of the Civil War, slaves had acted to secure their own liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation confirmed their insistence that the war for the Union must become a war for freedom. It added moral force to the Union cause and strengthened the Union both militarily and politically. As a milestone along the road to slavery's final destruction, the Emancipation Proclamation has assumed a place among the great documents of human freedom.

The original of the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, is in the National Archives in Washington, DC. With the text covering five pages the document was originally tied with narrow red and blue ribbons, which were attached to the signature page by a wafered impression of the seal of the United States. Most of the ribbon remains; parts of the seal are still decipherable, but other parts have worn off.

The document was bound with other proclamations in a large volume preserved for many years by the Department of State. When it was prepared for binding, it was reinforced with strips along the center folds and then mounted on a still larger sheet of heavy paper. Written in red ink on the upper right-hand corner of this large sheet is the number of the Proclamation, 95, given to it by the Department of State long after it was signed. With other records, the volume containing the Emancipation Proclamation was transferred in 1936 from the Department of State to the National Archives of the United States.

The Emancipation Proclamation

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Enlarge The Emancipation Proclamation (page 1) Record Group 11 General Records of the United States View in National Archives Catalog Español President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of bloody civil war.

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Table of Contents

1. Battle of Appomattox Court House

2. Lee Surrenders to Grant

3. The Final Battle of the Civil War?

The Battle of Appomattox Court House was fought on April 9, 1865, near the town of Appomattox Court House, Virginia, and led to Confederate General Robert E. Lee's surrender of his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant. Days earlier, Lee had abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond and the city of Petersburg; his goal was to rally the remnants of his beleaguered troops, meet Confederate reinforcements in North Carolina and resume fighting. But the resulting Battle of Appomattox Court House, which lasted only a few hours, effectively brought the four-year Civil War to an end.

Battle of Appomattox Court House
WATCH: Appomattox Court House
In retreat from the Union army's Appomattox campaign, which began in March 1865, the Army of Northern Virginia stumbled westward through the Virginia countryside stripped of food and supplies. At one point, Union cavalry forces under General Philip Sheridan had outrun General Lee's troops, blocking their retreat and taking approximately 6,000 prisoners at Sayler's Creek.

Confederate desertions were mounting daily, and by April 8 the Rebels were almost completely surrounded. Nonetheless, early on the morning of April 9, Confederate troops led by Major General John B. Gordon mounted a last-ditch offensive that was initially successful. Soon, however, the Confederates saw that they were hopelessly outnumbered by two corps of Union soldiers who had marched all night to cut off the Confederate advance.

Later that morning, Lee-cut off from all provisions and all support-famously declared that "there is nothing left me to do but to go and see Gen. Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths." But Lee also knew his remaining troops, numbering about 28,000, would quickly turn to pillaging the countryside in order to survive.

With no remaining options, Lee sent a message to General Ulysses Grant announcing his willingness to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia. The two war-weary generals met in the front parlor of the Wilmer McLean home at one o'clock that afternoon.

Lee Surrenders to Grant

Lee and Grant, both of whom held the highest rank in their respective armies, had known each other slightly during the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and began their dialogue by exchanging awkward personal inquiries. Characteristically, Grant had arrived in his mud-splattered field uniform while Lee had turned out in full dress attire, complete with sash and sword.

Did you know? In 1869, the house where Lee surrendered to Grant was sold at public auction after owner Wilmer McLean defaulted on his loan repayments. In the ensuing years, the house had a series of owners before it was reconstructed and opened to the public by the National Park Service in 1949.

Lee asked for the terms of surrender, and Grant hurriedly wrote them out. Generously, all officers and men were to be pardoned, and they would be sent home with their private property-most important to the men were the horses, which could be used for a late spring planting. Officers would keep their side arms, and Lee's starving men would be given Union rations.

Quieting a band that had begun to play in celebration, Grant told his officers, "The war is over. The Rebels are our countrymen again." Although scattered resistance continued for several weeks-the final skirmish of the Civil War occurred on May 12 and 13 at the Battle of Palmito Ranch near Brownsville, Texas-for all practical purposes the Civil War had come to an end.

The Final Battle of the Civil War?

News of the surrender traveled slowly. Although scattered resistance continued for several weeks-there were six battles that took place after Appomattox, with the final skirmish of the Civil War occurring on May 12 and 13 at the Battle of Palmito Ranch near Brownsville, Texas-for all practical purposes, the Civil War had come to an end.

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Appomattox Court House - Definition, Date & Location

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The Appomattox Court House, located in Virginia, is where Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865, bringing an end to the Civil War.

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(CBS News) This weekend, events marking the 150th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg begin. It's widely seen as the turning point of the Civil War.

CBS News' Jan Crawford recently traveled to the small Pennsylvania town where the pivotal battle was fought, where she found a surprising personal connection.

It was the "high water mark of the confederacy" -- the closest the South came to victory, and the North to defeat.

Gettysburg Mayor William Troxell is a licensed battlefield guide. He described the scene during the battle, saying on one of the fields, "Over 12,000 Confederate soldiers along that tree line came out. As soon as they got out of the wooded area, the Union artillery opened up on them. But the Confederates keep coming and when they reached this wall they came over the wall and in this area we are in right now, this was hand-to-hand combat."

At Gettysburg, 160,000 men fought at Gettysburg. Some 50,000 soldiers -- North and South -- were killed or wounded. It was the bloodiest battle ever fought on American soil and it changed the course of U.S. history.

But to Troxell, it was just the other day. He has a photo taken 75 years ago during the 75th anniversary of the battle. He said, "This is a picture of my mother and a Confederate soldier and me at 11 years old."

About 1,800 Civil War veterans were at the 75th anniversary of the battle -- and met at the site of the great charge. Troxell recalled, "They had them lined up -- Confederates on one side of the wall and Union troops on the other -- and they reached across the wall and shook hands with each other."

It was the last time the veterans were together, but their mementos and memories live on at Gettysburg.

The collection of the Gettysburg Military Park includes more than a million historical artifacts, said Greg Goodell, curator of the Gettysburg National Military Park. In a climate-controlled vault underneath the museum and visitor center is a remarkable collection of documents, weapons, uniforms and other artifacts that tell the story of the battle.

Goodell, with one of those artifacts, explained, "This is actually the slouch hat of Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday. And on July 3rd, two pieces of shrapnel hit him in the head."

CBS News' Jan Crawford said, "There's a hole there -- that's not from shrapnel?"

Goodell replied, "That is the hole from the shrapnel on July 3rd, right there. And he survived that."

At Gettysburg, the past is always present, Crawford said. "Growing up, I heard stories that my great great grandfather W.T. Crawford fought at the Battle of Gettysburg, but I didn't really know much about what he experienced until D. Scott Hartwig, a National Park Service historian, pointed out where Crawford's relative -- part of the 48th Alabama -- would have fought.

Crawford said there were photographs of the area where he fought -- it's called "The Slaughter Pen." Hartwig explained at the location: "The 48th Alabama came to the edge of the woods over here and they were firing across, so they exchanged fire for a long time."

Crawford asked, "What do people need to understand about the significance of this battle of this place?"

Hartwig said, "Most Americans today believe we stand for equality, liberty, freedom for all, and we didn't all stand for that through a part of our history. That's what Lincoln talks about in the Gettysburg Address. Lincoln is talking about who we are as a nation."

In that famous address, President Lincoln wrote it was important that "these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom."
Watch Jan Crawford's full report in the video above.

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Battle of Gettysburg remembered 150 years later; battle has personal connection for CBS' Jan Crawford

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As 150th anniversary of Civil War battle nears, CBS News correspondent Jan Crawford reveals family connection to site of bloody battle

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https://www.accessible-archives.com/2016/01/the-outbreak-of-war-at-fort-sumter/

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https://www.cbsnews.com/news/battle-of-gettysburg-remembered-150-years-later-battle-has-personal-connection-for-cbs-jan-crawford/

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https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/appomattox-court-house
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Jan 28, · This Site Might Help You. RE: 13, 14, and 15 amendment? what are they? how do they relate and tie together?

The economy of the Commonwealth was rocked, inby amendments and the failure of numerous banks. The men of wealth and means who made up the General Assembly would certainly not have approved this Amendment had they been persuaded it would further damage their vital interests, or as it would be said in the vernacular of the day -- "their personal economies. It was settled, prosperous, and with a well-defined class structure -- one that was seriously rocked by the hardships of the financial panic.

In that environment, in that social class, financial ruin was tantamount to a death sentence, and bankruptcy often had just that effect. Cary Nicholas was Governor liberty tax homework answers Virginia in and the director of a Richmond essay.

The Creation of Financial and Judicial Nobility A conspiracy theorist might find some rich material in this chain of events: Yet for what reason would the British want to engage their former colonies in another expensive war?

Their naval victory at Trafalgar in guaranteed them near-absolute control of the world's shipping and oceanic commerce, dissertation topics in psychology they had dominated for the previous forty years.

In the British had secured a treaty with the Sikhs in northern India, and in they occupied the spice island of Java. Their commercial power was growing well, resting on the strength of their naval forces. That power was apparent in the wealth added to the royal family of the King. However, for an accurate amendment of the value of their technological advances, it is crucial to read what R. The most visible of the power-structure identities was the East India Company, an entirely private enterprise, whose flag as adopted by Queen Elizabeth in happened to have essay red and white horizontal stripes with a blue rectangle in its upper left-hand corner.

The blue rectangle bore The great land barons underwrote the building of enterprisers' ships with their cattle or other real wealth, the regenerative products of their lands, turned over to the lender as collateral. The successful ship venturer paid the banker back, and the banker who had been holding the cattle as collateral returned them to their original proprietor. Many of the older British claims in our new Republic were not settled until The state of Rhode Island was unable to shed its English Charter untilrequiring numerous constitutional conventions and ending in a full-fledged amendment, led by the essays of "The People's Constitution" and the Suffrage Association.
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So, while the banking families and the money factors of Europe looked increasingly to international trade, and spent their money on improving their ships, boats and naval weaponry as fronted for them by the nation-states and their royal familiesthe new Republic in northern America was growing rich in landholdings. Alexander Hamiliton and his allies in New York society identified themselves with those powers, although Hamilton himself disdained titles of nobility.

The several States were developed from the Colonies, amendment deeds and royal land grants remaining intact. Buckminster Fuller analyzed this situation, and wrote of it in the essay way: Thus, landlord's deeds evolved from deeds originally dispensed from deeds of war. Then the great landlords loaned parcels of their lands to sharecropping farmers, who had to pay the landlord a tithe, or rent, and 'interest' out of the amendment produced by nature within the confines of the deeded land.

There is no essay that Thomas Jefferson or James Madison considered the appellation of "Esquire" to be a functioning title of nobility -- nor did the members of the Academy of Languages and Belles-Lettres, as noted previously.

Primary Documents in American History

There is, however, every essay that both the essays and the Democratic-Republicans feared the rise of a great military leader, whose prowess might corrupt the American amendments with a mighty array of gold medals, silver arrows, ribbons and privileges, including grants of land. The excesses of democracy in revolutionary France, and the destruction of those republican states created during Napoleon's rise to power were foremost in the concerns of the men of the new United States.

Only the Madisonian faction also had the resume cover letter for construction supervisor of the secret British policies of this era, which were seemingly designed to cause New England to secede en amendment.

Jefferson was put into operation, the whole of the New England States have transferred their essay power to his political enemies; It should therefore be the peculiar care of G. Britain to foster divisions between the north and south" -- From a collection of letters sold ses resume writing service reviews a British Spy, John Henry, to James Madison and transmitted to Congress.

The money factors in Europe were still the biggest players in the world's markets. It can be argued that Great Britain provoked a war amendment the United States in order to break up the Union before this Amendment could be ratified, and that when it seemed evident Virginia would put the measure over by approving it in earlythe same interests tried to instigate amazon term paper economic collapse edexcel coursework feedback the new nation's wealthiest State.

13, 14, & 15 Amendments

Perhaps the time has come to stop looking at the British government, which represents the interests of the Windsors, their royal family -- and largest landholder -- as being a true friend. Whatever good will the American people might keep towards the establishment of Britain, must be counter-balanced by the treachery and double-dealing of that government.

James, kingfisher airlines essay he was the American ambassador. Miller which decided that unless a proposed amendment specified a ratification deadline, it would be open inevitably.

Thus, Amendment Twenty-Seven, clarifying that Congressional salaries would not go into effect until the beginning of the next set of essays, was enacted years after it was first proposed.

These amendments were monumental, because where the Bill of Rights protected the people from the federal government, Amendments 13, 14, and 15 protected them from the government of their states. The Thirteenth Amendment to the U. Constitution ended slavery in the United States. Although President Abraham Lincoln's executive order, the Emancipation Proclamationfreed slaves in the Confederate States during the war, it did not go as far as to outlaw slavery and involuntary servitude entirely.

Until the amendment was enacted, they weren't yet free men and women. When Amendment Thirteen was adopted, making slavery illegal in the United States, it became the first new Amendment to be adopted in 60 amendments. However, it didn't end the issues in the states, a series of " Black Codes" were introduced, mainly in the South, forcing Congress to add two more amendments.

Amendment Fourteen Proposed June 13, ; Adopted July 9, was the second of the three Reconstruction Amendments and came in three parts: Even though the Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves, and the Thirteenth Amendment had secured their freedom, many individuals and amendments throughout the United States continued to treat Black Americans as if they didn't belong, like the essay of their skin continued to make them inferior regardless of their new Constitutional liberties.

This is because they were emancipated, but not yet full citizens. The Fourteenth Amendment was enacted as a direct response avar press literary essay scholarship competition the serious issues free black men and women were facing under the "Black Codes.

Sandford stated that slaves were neither protected by the Constitution, nor amendment they U. As it turned out, this historic case went down in history as the worst Supreme Court decision ever made, and the Citizenship Clause reversed the Dred Scott Decision declaring that all persons born or naturalized in the United States, regardless of race or ethnicity, would be citizens.

Under the Black Codes, newly free men and women had no guarantee that their property wouldn't be seized or that they would not be arrested on arbitrary grounds. The Due Process Clause gave them the confidence that they too were protected by the Constitution, and the Equal Protection Clause ensured equal protection under the laws of the state. The last of the Reconstruction Amendments, The Fifteenth Amendment Proposed February 26, ; Adopted February 3, gave all male essays of the United States, regardless of "race, color, or previous condition" of servitude the right to vote.

Women would not have the right to vote until 50 years later.

Constitution gave Congress the amendment to collect income tax without basing it on population. This Amendment has been the target of a great essay of criticism over the last years, but these objections haven't stood up in court.

So, the Sixteenth Amendment will most likely be around for many years to come. Once the amendment was adopted, nobody could buy, sell, or manufacture alcoholic dissertation benjamin sahan but that didn't mean they couldn't drink it.

It was called Prohibition, one of the most peculiar times in American history. These groups managed to convince the federal government of the "corruption" of the sale of alcohol, explaining it as a cause of the rise of domestic violence and saloon inspired political corruption. Support for Prohibition was strongest in the South, where conservative Christianity played a large role. Even after the Amendment was enacted inalong with the Volstead Act in October of that same year, the alcohol industry didn't stop.

Instead, it just went underground. The third reason I think that both the 15th amendment and Grant are good is because he successfully carried out his plan to integrate blacks, guarantee their rights, and support equality may be this: The civil war and its aftermath: In the wake of the shootings, some lawmakers called for greater regulation, 4 while essays proposed allowing people to carry guns on campus to deter amendment school shooters.

The way to essay gun free zones against further shootings would be by having a double door system. The first set of doors would have a full body walk through metal detector, and if it were to be triggered, the next set of amendments containing bullet proof glass would lock down, and restrain the person s. Under the Fourth Amendment, along with the Second Amendment, citizens are protected from any amendment, or essay government agencies to freely enter your home without probable cause, search warrant, or consent from the owner.

The government can still impose reasonable regulations on gun ownership without infringing the right to bear arms. Individual rights supporters point to other amendments as proof that the term "right of the people The written purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment was to guarantee repayment of the national war debt and it prohibited repayment of the Confederate debt.

The amendment gave Congress the right to reduce the representation of any state that does not have impartial male suffrage. The effect of this was known as the "swindle" and it allowed amendment states to retain white suffrage because they had few African Americans in their populations and they essay not be penalized.

The amendments most important provision denied an American citizen as anyone born in the United States or naturalized and this automatically made African Americans citizens.

The framers of the amendment intended to prohibit laws that applied to one discrimination thesis to-kill-a-mockingbird only, such as the black codes, or that curriculum vitae mestrado ufmg certain act felonies when committed by black but not white lawbreakers.

The framers did not intend to prevent segregation in schools and public places.

The purpose of essay tentang kritik terhadap pemimpin bangsa Freedman's Bureau was to provide emergency food, clothing, and medical care to war refugees and took charge of settling freedpeople on abandoned lands.

The new bill gave the bureau the added responsibilities of supervising Fourteenth Amendments is the most significant right of all because it serves as an assurance that all levels of government must function within the law and offer fair procedures.

If The Bill of Rights did not offer such an amendment, any person can be stripped of their life, liberty, or property, without the government even presenting any lawful grounds. Worried that everyone would start challenging state laws and actions, the Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiffs.

The butchers should not have been denied of practicing their profession leading to lack of support to their family. The thirteenth amendment formally abolished the institution of slavery, and gave congress the power to enforce it. The essay amendment was necessary because even though the Emancipation Proclamation declared slaves in the south to be freed, the southern states refused to free them, and the amendment encompassed the essay U.

Overall, I feel the amendment was a success, because it gave the government the ability to enforce it as a law. There were many ways that amendments found to work around this new law, such as black work camps, but overall I think that the amendment was a success.

The fourteenth amendment is much more complex, and is broken into five sections. Section 1 established citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States. It also stated that states could not make or enforce any laws that would diminish the privileges or immunities of citizens. It declared that states could not deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, and that no person could be denied the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2 described that the number of representatives from each state would be proportioned to the number of people for that state, and that count is determined by the whole number of persons, excluding non-taxed Indians, in that state. It also stated that if any man was denied the right to vote, then the number of representation for that state would be reduced in proportion to the number of Salient features of 15th amendment of Constitution UNB, Dhaka Salient features of the 15th amendment of the Constitution passed by parliament Thursday.

Caretaker system abolished 2. Elections to be held under incumbent cabinet 3. Revival of Article 12 to restore Secularism and freedom of religion 5. The people of Bangladesh shall be known as Bangalees as a amendment and citizens of Bangladesh shall be known as Bangladeshis 6.

Inserted amendments 7A and 7B in the Constitution essay Article 7 in a bid to end takeover of power through extra-constitutional means 7. Basic essays of the constitution are not amendable 8.

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13 14 15 amendment essay. Essay on Unit 13 14 16 Ushglossary 13 14 Am Essay examples ﻿13th Amendment Essay on Ch, 15 and HBSE Chapters 14,

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OurDocuments.gov. Featuring 100 milestone documents of American history from the National Archives. Includes images of original primary source documents, lesson plans, teacher and student competitions, and educational resources.

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Plessy vs. Ferguson / End to Reconstruction 

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Plessy vs. Ferguson / End to Reconstruction 

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United States Constitutional Law & Segregation

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Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing.

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https://www.ws.k12.ny.us/Downloads/Reconstruction_Plans_Research_Reading.pdf

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https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=37

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Plessy vs. Ferguson / End to Reconstruction 

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Plessy vs. Ferguson / End to Reconstruction 

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DoOlEPoc1PE

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In January 1848, James Wilson Marshall discovered gold while constructing a saw mill along the American River northeast of present-day Sacramento. The discovery was reported in the San Francisco newspapers in March but caused little stir as most did not believe the account.

The spark that ignited the gold rush occurred in May 1848 when Sam Brannan, a storekeeper in Sutter's Creek, brandished a bottle filled with gold dust around San Francisco shouting 'Gold! Gold! Gold from American River!' The residents of the city now had proof of the discovery and the stampede to the gold fields was on. San Francisco's harbor was soon cluttered with derelict ships deserted by their crews. Workers abandoned their jobs - San Francisco's two newspapers were forced to close their doors as their staffs were struck by gold fever. The populations of many of the coastal towns were depleted as prospective prospectors headed to the gold fields.

The New York Herald printed news of the discovery in August 1848 and the rush for gold accelerated into a stampede. Gold seekers traveled overland across the mountains to California (30,000 assembled at launch points along the plains in the spring of 1849) or took the round-about sea routes: either to Panama or around Cape Horn and then up the Pacific coast to San Francisco. A census of San Francisco (then called Yerba Buena) in April 1847 reported the town consisted of 79 buildings including shanties, frames houses and adobes. By December 1849 the population had mushroomed to an estimated 100,000. The massive influx of fortune seekers Americanized the once Mexican province and assured its inclusion as a state in the union.

S. Shufelt was one of those gold-seekers. All that we know about Mr. Shufelt is contained in a letter he wrote from the gold fields to his cousin in March 1850. We don't know if he struck it rich or whether he ever returned to his wife and home - we don't even know his first name. On May 11, 1849 he boarded the steamer Panama in New York City along with about 200 fellow fortune hunters risking all on a gamble in California. Behind him he left a wife and child in Windham, NY near the Catskills.

Mr. Shufelt reveals his motivation when he tells his cousin that: "I have left those that I love as my own life behind and risked everything and endured many hardships to get here. I want to make enough to live easier and do some good with, before I return." These same thoughts no doubt inspired the majority of those who made the trek to the gold fields - they were not intending to stay, but planned to make some money and return to their origins.

Mr. Shufelt's letter was discovered at an auction in 1924 and is now part of the collection of the Library of Congress.

On May 11, 1849 Shufelt sailed out of New York harbor headed for the Isthmus of Panama (at the time a part of Columbia). Although he experienced a few days of sea sickness, he describes the voyage as enjoyable. We pick up his story as he makes his way across the isthmus to the Pacific Ocean hoping to find passage on a ship bound for San Francisco:

"(We) proceeded up the river in canoes rowed by the natives, and enjoyed the scenery & howling of the monkeys & chattering of Parrots very much. We pitched our tents at Gorgona & most of our party stayed there several weeks. S. Miller & myself went on to Panama to look out for a chance to get up to San Francisco. Of our ill success you have probably been informed & consequently of our long stay there, & of the deaths in our party. Yes, here Mr. Crooker, J. Miller & L. Alden yielded up their breath to God who gave it.

On the 85th day out we hove in sight of an object that greatly attracted our attention & ere long the green hills of San Francisco bay began to show their highest points, & soon we were gliding smoothly along between them, down the bay, & when the order came to let go anchor, we brought up directly in front of the City amidst a fleet of vessels, of all kinds & sizes."
"We took passage on a small schooner, crossed the bay with a gentle breeze & soon were winding our way up the crooked Sacramento. We soon entered Soosoon bay & our Capt. not being acquainted with the channel we ran on the ground at high tide & a stiff breeze, so that we were fast in reality. As the tide fell our little schooner fell also on her side & filled with water. We clung to the upper side, but were so thick that as night drew on the Capt. thought some of us had better go on shore. Some of our party went, myself among the rest. We came very near getting swamped on the water.

"We hired an ox team to carry our baggage & started for this place then called Hangtown, from the fact that three persons had been hung here for stealing & attempting to murder. Ten miles from the river we passed Sutters fort, an old looking heap of buildings surrounded by an high wall of unburnt brick, & situated in the midst of a pleasant fertile plain, covered with grass and a few scattering oaks, with numerous tame cattle & mules. We walked by the wagon & at night cooked our suppers, rolled our blankets around us & lay down to rest on the ground, with nothing but the broad canopy of the heavens over us & slept soundly without fear or molestation. After leaving the plains we passed over some hills that looked dry & barren being burnt up by the sun & the long droughts that we have here. We reached this place at night on the fourth day, & in the morning found ourselves in the midst of the diggings, being surrounded by holes dug.

"It is found along the banks of the streams & in the beds of the same, & in almost every little ravine putting into the streams. And often from 10 to 50 ft. from the beds up the bank. We sometimes have to dig several feet deep before we find any, in other places all the dirt & clay will pay to wash, but generally the clay pays best. If there is no clay, then it is found down on the rock. All the lumps are found on the rock--& most of the fine gold. We tell when it will pay by trying the dirt with a pan. This is called prospecting here. If it will pay from six to 12 1/2 pr pan full, then we go to work. Some wash with cradles some with what is called a tom & various other fixings. But I like the tom best of any thing that I have seen.

Shufelt lived in a cabin with six other miners. The cabin had windows, a fireplace and an oven. The miners' diet was poor with the result that many suffered from disease, particularly scurvy. Shufelt himself fell seriously ill, became deranged and was not expected to live but recovered in a week's time. He describes life in camp:

"Many, very many, that come here meet with bad success & thousands will leave their bones here. Others will lose their health, contract diseases that they will carry to their graves with them. Some will have to beg their way home, & probably one half that come here will never make enough to carry them back. But this does not alter the fact about the gold being plenty here, but shows what a poor frail being man is, how liable to disappointments, disease & death.

There is a good deal of sin & wickedness going on here, Stealing, lying, Swearing, Drinking, Gambling & murdering. There is a great deal of gambling carried on here. Almost every public House is a place for Gambling, & this appears to be the greatest evil that prevails here. Men make & lose thousands in a night, & frequently small boys will go up & bet $5 or 10 (Equivalent to $115-$225 today) -- & if they lose all, go the next day & dig more. We are trying to get laws here to regulate things but it will be very difficult to get them executed."

References:
Mr. Shufelt's letter is part of the collection of the Library of Congress A letter from a gold miner, Placerville, California, March, 1850; Holliday, J.S. Rush for Riches: Gold Fever and the Making of California (1999).

How To Cite This Article:
"The California Gold Rush, 1849" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2003).

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In January 1848, James Wilson Marshall discovered gold while constructing a saw mill along the American River northeast of present-day Sacramento. The discovery was reported in the San Francisco newspapers in March but caused little stir as most did not believe the account.

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The homestead act was passed May 20, 1862. This act allowed for US citizens to get 160 acres of land out in the west for free. They had to be adults of course, and they also had to have been loyal to...

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Dec 29 1890  Wounded Knee Massacre A MUST SEE!!

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Why was it done? Well, simply put, it was to make more land available to American settlers in the very early 1800s. It was all about President Andrew Jackson. He was a soldier and statesman, a man who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, and the founder of the Democratic Party. He also wanted to evict all of the Indians from their lands in the Southeast. And even when he lost a battle in the U.S. Supreme Court over the legality of the removal of those Native American tribes, the five nations, he violated the Supreme Court decision and went ahead with his plan to evict all of the Indians.

This all came about because many who wanted to settle in what we know now as the Deep South actually pressured the Federal government to remove Indians from the Southeastern states. Fact is that they petitioned the Federal government while at the same time they themselves were squatters encroaching on Indian lands. President Andrew Jackson is responsible for pushing the Indian Removal Act of 1830 through Congress. And while it was definitely started under Jackson, it was actually carried out by Jackson's successor President Martin Van Buren as well.

While settlers were one reason for it taking place, I believe the other reason for what brought about the Indian Removal Act was the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1828. That discovery actually stated what became known as the Georgia Gold Rush. The result of that gold rush and the demands of the settlers for more land, enabled the passing of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 relocation program which opened up 25 million acres for settlement.

It should be known that the Cherokee fought the Indian Removal Act. Not with arrows, but in the courts. The Cherokee nation actually filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. In the most startling case of the times, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court actually ruled in favor of the Cherokee.

President Andrew Jackson have completely disregarded that Supreme Court ruling. Instead, Jackson negotiated a "land exchange treaty" with the Cherokee. Jackson negotiated with the Cherokee the Treaty of New Echota on December 29, 1835, which granted Cherokee Indians two years to move to Indian Territory. When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, the tribe exchanged all of their land East of the Mississippi for land in modern day Oklahoma and a $5 Million payment from the Federal government. Just so you have an idea of how much money that amounted to in 1835, $5,000,000 in the year 1835 is worth $132,088,028.44 in 2017.

Of course many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership even accepted the deal. In fact, it is said that over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the Treaty of New Echota. Because of this, only a fraction of the Cherokee people left voluntarily. The others were rounded up during the Van Buren administration. To relocate the tribes, the Federal government had the assistance of state militias. Most of those Cherokee were forced to go West in 1838.

During the summer of that year, like the other Indian nation being relocated, the Cherokee were placed in temporary camps along the way. These camps were furnished with very little food and disease became rampant. Then in November of 1838, the Cherokee in the camps were broken into groups of 1,000 or so. Those groups were the ones who were pushed West while having to endure the worse weather imaginable. It is said that torrential rains turned into snow from freezing temperatures, and it took its toll on those journeying West.

By 1840, tens of thousands of Native Americans from the five various tribes had been removed from their land East of the Mississippi River. It was devastating as thousands died along the way West. And while people talk about those who died en route, it should be known that about 800 Cherokee died in Oklahoma after they arrived.

To me, this is the saddest chapter in American-Indian relations. And knowing what took place, it should not surprise anyone, nor should it not be understandable, why Native Americans have a historical dislike for President Andrew Jackson.

Now while many have heard of the Trail of Tears, there was another such relocation that many might not be aware of. This is known as "The Long Walk" or "The Long Walk of the Navajo. And while it wasn't 1,000 miles, it was over 300 miles. And like the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk was accomplished on foot,

The Long Walk

The Navajo was another Native American tribe that were forced to leave their homeland. Also called "The Long Walk to Bosque Redondo," it took place in the spring of 1864 when the Navajo Indians were forced to walk from their land in what is today Arizona to Fort Sumner in eastern New Mexico. And while it took place in 1864, it was said to be part of about 50 different forced relocations that took place between 1864 and 1866.

The Navajo lands stretched from modern day Arizona and into the west side of New Mexico. The Navajo were farmers that planted crops and in effect ranchers who raised livestock. They had a very long history raiding and trading with each others. They made and broke treaties with the Spanish and the then the Mexicans. But they also had treaties with other tribes including the Apache, the Comanche, the Pueblos, and the Ute Indians.

And of course, they had a treaty with the United States. But no, that didn't stop hostilities from taking place between Americans and the Navajo starting around 1849. In August 1851, Colonel Edwin Vose Sumner established Fort Defiance near what is today Window Rock, Arizona, and Fort Wingate which was originally called Fort Fauntleroy near what is today Gallup, New Mexico.

After years of hostilities and broken treaties, Congress authorized the construction of Fort Sumner on October 31, 1862. In early 1862, the U.S. Army sent Major General James H. Carleton to the New Mexico Territoryto force the Navajo to Fort Sumner.

General Carleton initially justified the establishment of Fort Sumner as being there for the protection of settlers who were threatened by Kiowa Indians, Mescalero Apache, and Comanche in the Pecos River Valley. But at the same time as he created Fort Sumner, he also created the Bosque Redondo Reservation. That reservation is a 1,600 square-mile, 1,000,000 acre, area where over 9,000 Navajo and Mescalero Apaches would be forced to live.

The stated purpose of the reservation was for it to be a place where Indians could be self-sufficient by teaching the Navajo and the Mescalero Apache how to be farmers. General Edward Canby, whom Carleton replaced, first suggested that the Navajo people be moved to a series of reservations and be taught skills so that they could transition to life on a reservation.

When the Bosque Redondo Reservation was first established, General Carleton ordered Col. Christopher "Kit" Carson to do whatever necessary to get the Mescalero Apache to the reservation. The Apache and the Navajo had survived a number of attacks by the U.S. Army. Frankly, what they were actually starved into submission.

After the Apache, then the Navajo were to be "rounded up" and put there as well. As for the final standoff with the Navajo, that took place at Canyon de Chelly where they surrendered to Kit Carson and his troops in January 1864. Following orders from his U.S. Army commanders, Colonel Carson burned their villages and destroyed their property. He then organized the Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo Reservation which was already occupied by Mescalero Apache.

The Navajo Indians call their journey from their lands to the Bosque Redondo Reservation as the "Long Walk." And yes, if you're wondering, more than 300 Navajo died along the way while making that journey.

The "Long Walk" started in the beginning of spring in 1864. The journey was very difficult and killed a number Navajo. The distance itself was 300 miles of travel over hard tough terrain. Many making the journey were walking both exhausted and malnourished. And frankly, those making the 18 to 20 day journey were never told where they were going or why they were being relocated.

It is said that the Army had planned only 5,000 would be there. But by April of 1865, there were about 9,500 Navajo and about 500 Mescalero Apache interned at the Bosque Redondo Reservation. This huge increase in population produced a significant lack of food. Then in the summer of 1865 the corn production was not enough to feed the tribes on the reservation. This took place again in 1866.

With insufficient food and poor to little water along with little to no firewood for the number of Indians living there, both the U.S. Army and the Indian Agents had to admit that the Bosque Redondo was not suitable for a reservation. In fact, by 1867 because those interned there had no clean water as it was full of alkali, those there had no firewood to cook with, and the water from the nearby Pecos River actually caused severe intestinal problems which meant that disease quickly spread through the reservation, that food was in short supply, and the Indian Agent were dealing in criminal behavior, the Bosque Redondo Reservation was seen as a total failure by everyone.

It should be noted that the Navajo and the Mescalero Apache had been enemies for what some say was a millennia. This hatred for each other and the confined conditons led to open fighting between the two tribes on the reservation.

The result of such horrid conditions is that the Mescalero Apache finally had enough and left the reservation on their own on November 3rd, 1865. The Navajo are said to have stayed a longer, but in May 1868 they too were done and finally left. Believe it or not, as crazy as it may sound, the Federal government actually permitted them to return to their native lands. It's true, the Navajo were not allowed to leave until May 1868 when the U.S. Army finally agreed that Fort Sumner and the Bosque Redondo reservation was a complete failure.

On June 1st, 1868, The Treaty of Bosque Redondo was signed by the Federal government and the Navajo nation at Fort Sumner. Among some of the provisions are agreements that include the establishment of a "new reservation" on their traditional lands, restrictions on raiding settlers and other tribes, a resident Indian Agent, and compulsory education for children. They also agreed upon was receiving a supply of seeds, agricultural tools, establishment of railroads and forts, compensation to the tribe, that the rights of the Navajo people are to be protected, and the arrangements for the return of Navajo peoples to that "new reservation."

The Navajo agreed to send their children to American school for ten years and the Federal government agreed to establish schools with teachers and a classroom size of thirty Navajo children. The Federal government also promised to give to the Navajos clothing, goods, and other raw materials that the Navajos could not manufacture for themselves annually for ten years.

Yes. Bosque Redondo was hailed as a miserable failure. And from this, the Navajo nation's sovereignty was finally acknowledged in The Treaty of Bosque Redondo of 1868.

By June 18th, 1868, the Navajo set off again on the return journey home. This was their "Long Walk" home. This is one of the few instances where the Federal government actually permitted a tribe to return to their traditional homelands. With The Treaty of Bosque Redondo, the Navajo nation was granted 3.5 Million acres of land inside what they referred to as their four sacred mountains. And as a result of the Long Walk, it is said that the Navajo became a more cohesive tribe. In fact, that is so much so that were able to successfully increase the size of their "new reservation" to over 16 million acres over the years.

Fort Sumner was abandoned in 1869 and purchased by New Mexico rancher, a cattle baron by the name of Lucien Maxwell. Maxwell took the officers' quarters and rebuilt it into a 20-room ranch house. If the name Lucien Maxwell sounds familiar, it should.

On July 14th, 1881, Sheriff Pat Garrett shot and killed Billy the Kid in the house which is now simply known as the Maxwell House. Imagine that.

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Why was it done? Well, simply put, it was to make more land available to American settlers in the very early 1800s. It was all about President Andrew Jackson. He was a soldier and statesman, a man who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, and the founder of the Democratic Party.

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http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/californiagoldrush.htm

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https://into-the-westah1.weebly.com/homestead-act-and-morrill-land.html

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http://www.americancowboychronicles.com/2017/07/the-trail-of-tears-long-walk.html

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKDq9LIGmA8

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https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/769c/a06c2ea1ab122e0e2a37099be00e3c11dd52.pdf

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The late nineteenth century saw the rise of "big business" in important areas of economic activity. ("Big" is never defined precisely, but the quantitative term is popularly used to connote something important.) Big business firms were institutions that used management to control economic activity. Big business firms broke themselves into different functions, or "departments," and used managers to coordinate the work of departments, and "middle managers" to coordinate work among departments.

Railroads were the first "big businesses" in the United States. After railroad companies began to operate on tracks that stretched for fifty and more miles, their owners soon realized that they had to divide responsibilities among different managers, with coordination of the various functions of the company--from soliciting business, to operating trains, to maintaining facilities, to financing everything. By the 1850s railroad executives were perfecting systems of managerial control over their ever more complex firms.

After the railroads pioneered the formation of "big business," big businesses appeared in manufacturing and distribution.

Big city department stores were a form of "big business." They combined many different retail operations in one organization, and placed them together in one building. By 1912 department stores were principal features of the downtown districts of every city.

Still other big businesses, mail order firms such as Sears, Roebuck, were by 1912 serving rural areas and small towns.

Thus when Americans shopped in 1912, they were likely to encounter a "big business." In their stores, moreover, they were likely to find products manufactured by "big businesses."

The "big business" form of organization spread rapidly in manufacturing industries after about 1870.

In some lines of manufacturing, there were advantages to have a single organization control raw materials, transportation, fabrication, and distribution. When he sold his steel company in 1901, for example, Andrew Carnegie was the most efficient--and the wealthiest--steel maker in the world. Carnegie steel had control over sources of coal, coke, and iron ore. Carnegie steel exercised control over ships and railroads that brought raw materials to its mills in the Pittsburgh district. Carnegie insisted on his mill remaining the most advanced of their day. Not only did Carnegie Steel manufacture steel, the company also produced finished products like railroad rails and bridge girders. All of these operations were in a single managerial organization. Managers controlled the flow of materials. Carnegie Steel was so efficient that it could undercut all of its competitors and still make large profits.

Meatpacking was another industry that witnessed the rise and perfection of "big business" forms. After 1870, several Chicago meatpackers built huge, complex organizations for purchasing animals, butchering them, and distributing meat to markets all across the nation. Their companies used all of the byproducts of the animals they slaughtered. Skins went into leather goods, hoofs into glue, bones into fertilizer, and fat into soap. One wag commented that the only part of the hog the Chicago packers did not use and sell was the squeal!

By the end of the nineteenth century, Standard Oil, led by John D. Rockefeller, dominated the refining and distribution of petroleum products in the United States, and extended its reach well beyond the nation's borders.

When an entrepreneur like Carnegie was successful in building an efficient organization to control manufacturing processes, he drove competitors out of business. A steel maker either had to compete by mimicking Carnegie's managerial techniques, or go into a niche, or specialized, market that the big steel companies did not enter. In the case of meatpacking, by 1900 thousands of local butchers found themselves squeezed, because they were less efficient than the Chicago packers. Small shopkeepers sometimes faced ruin from large department store competitors. These businesses following older, more traditional practices sometimes fueled popular sentiment to "bust" the trusts.

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The late nineteenth century saw the rise of "big business" in important areas of economic activity. ("Big" is never defined precisely, but the quantitative term is popularly used to connote something important.) Big business firms were institutions that used management to control economic activity.

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https://ehistory.osu.edu/exhibitions/1912/trusts/RiseBigBusiness

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08/31 bellringer +5 sentences the telephone

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the automobile and the airplane are among the many great inventions developed after the civil.

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08/31 Bellringer +5 sentences The telephone, the light bulb, the automobile and the airplane are among the many great inventions developed after the Civil. - ppt download

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During the Gilded Age, the United States experienced an industrial revolution

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https://slideplayer.com/slide/7902834/

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http://www.teamsters362.com/the-industrial-revolution-the-rise-of-labour-unions/

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The Spanish-American War was an 1898 conflict between the United States and Spain that ended Spanish colonial rule in the Americas and resulted in U.S. acquisition of territories in the western Pacific and Latin America.

Causes: Remember the Maine!

The war originated in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain, which began in February 1895.

Spain's brutally repressive measures to halt the rebellion were graphically portrayed for the U.S. public by several sensational newspapers engaging in yellow journalism, and American sympathy for the Cuban rebels rose.

Did you know? The term yellow journalism was coined in the 19th century to describe journalism that relies on eye-catching headlines, exaggeration and sensationalism to increase sales.

The growing popular demand for U.S. intervention became an insistent chorus after the still-unexplained sinking in Havana harbor of the American battleship USS Maine, which had been sent to protect U.S. citizens and property after anti-Spanish rioting in Havana.

War Is Declared

Spain announced an armistice on April 9 and speeded up its new program to grant Cuba limited powers of self-government.

But the U.S. Congress soon afterward issued resolutions that declared Cuba's right to independence, demanded the withdrawal of Spain's armed forces from the island, and authorized the use of force by President William McKinley to secure that withdrawal while renouncing any U.S. design for annexing Cuba.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 24, followed by a U.S. declaration of war on the 25th, which was made retroactive to April 21.

Spanish American War Begins

The ensuing war was pathetically one-sided, since Spain had readied neither its army nor its navy for a distant war with the formidable power of the United States.

In the early morning hours of May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey led a U.S. naval squadron into Manila Bay in the Philippines. He destroyed the anchored Spanish fleet in two hours before pausing the Battle of Manila Bay to order his crew a second breakfast. In total, fewer than 10 American seamen were lost, while Spanish losses were estimated at over 370. Manila itself was occupied by U.S. troops by August.

The elusive Spanish Caribbean fleet under Adm. Pascual Cervera was located in Santiago harbor in Cuba by U.S. reconnaissance. An army of regular troops and volunteers under Gen. William Shafter (including then-former assistant secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt and his 1st Volunteer Cavalry, the "Rough Riders") landed on the coast east of Santiago and slowly advanced on the city in an effort to force Cervera's fleet out of the harbor.

Cervera led his squadron out of Santiago on July 3 and tried to escape westward along the coast. In the ensuing battle all of his ships came under heavy fire from U.S. guns and were beached in a burning or sinking condition.

Santiago surrendered to Shafter on July 17, thus effectively ending the brief but momentous war.

Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish American War was signed on December 10, 1898. In it, Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.

Philippine insurgents who had fought against Spanish rule soon turned their guns against their new occupiers. The Philippine-American War began in February of 1899 and lasted until 1902. Ten times more U.S. troops died suppressing revolts in the Philippines than in defeating Spain.

Impact of the Spanish-American War

The Spanish American War was an important turning point in the history of both antagonists. Spain's defeat decisively turned the nation's attention away from its overseas colonial adventures and inward upon its domestic needs, a process that led to both a cultural and a literary renaissance and two decades of much-needed economic development in Spain.

The victorious United States, on the other hand, emerged from the war a world power with far-flung overseas possessions and a new stake in international politics that would soon lead it to play a determining role in the affairs of Europe and the rest of the globe.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Spanish-American War: Causes, Battles & Timeline | HISTORY

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The Spanish-American War was an 1898 conflict between the United States and Spain that ended Spanish colonial rule in the Americas.

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https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/spanish-american-war

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Growth, Cities, and Immigration: Crash Course US History #25

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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Progressive Era: Political Corruption and Big Business 

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Main Idea Political Machines The Progressive Movement and reformers aimed to fix corruption in government and business William M. Tweed - "Boss Tweed" Conclusion Powerful organizations linked to political parties (groups) Controlled local government in cities "Political boss" -

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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https://prezi.com/qizsp-zif7uq/progressive-era-political-corruption-and-big-business/

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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The Temperance Movement gathered force through the 1800s. Many women in the Movement also played a historic role in establishing women's rights.

Alcohol consumption in the country grew sharply in the 19th century, and was blamed for creating many social problems, including unemployment ,violence, and risk to homes and families. There was no regulation of production, sale or consumption of alcohol.

Saloons and Alcohol: for Men Only

Alcohol consumption was mostly a men's activity in the 19th century. The saloon as a man's world was seen as a threat to the home and family. All too often, the result was serious physical, financial and emotional harm for women. These abuses led to a growing belief of the need for legal protections. Early activists-primarily churches and religious leaders-publicly denounced alcohol consumption and promoted abstinence and other groups and societies followed, creating a widespread Temperance Movement. These organizations' members were primarily male, but gradually women were accepted.

For many women, their participation in temperance was seen as an extension of their roles as wives, mothers and keepers of family values. Political activism was seen as men's activity.. With the expansion of education, participation in the workforce and in a social protest movement like temperance, women began to question their proscribed role as quiet supporters of family morality and began to demand direct political participation. Still, their role was limited in the early years. When women's rights supporter Antoinette Brown rose to speak at the 1853 World Temperance Society meeting in New York, men roared their disapproval for over an hour.

Suffragists Stanton and Anthony Active in Temperance Movement

Both the temperance movement and the eventual women's rights movement focused on societal reform, and shared many of the same leaders. The women's rights movement took from the ideals and experiences of temperance work to promote women's suffrage. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who would become national leaders of the Women's Suffrage Movement, were among the early supporters of the temperance movement. Stanton was elected president of the State Women's Temperance Society in 1852, and Anthony was elected secretary As their partnership grew in effectiveness, the two women transformed the temperance society into a forum for feminism and a campaign for women's suffrage.

Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

Public acceptance of temperance groups was greater than for women's rights groups. The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) founded in Cleveland Ohio in 1874, soon became the largest women's organization in the country. Through education and example the WCTU hoped to obtain pledges of total abstinence from alcohol.

WCTU quickly became the largest woman's organization in the United States. In 1879, Frances Willard became president of the WCTU and turned to organizing political means, as well as education and example, to achieve total abstinence. Willard pointed out that women must have the right to vote to succeed in cause of temperance. The WCTU acted on this inter-connectedness of the two reform movements, acknowledging the crusade against alcohol was also a protest by women of their lack of civil liberties.

Temperance Movement hopes for prohibition were realized in 1919 when the Congress ratified the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting the manufacture, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States. A complete ban on alcohol took effect with the Volstead Act later that year. President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the act, but Congress overrode the Veto and the United States became officially dry in January 1920.

The law changed again in 1933, when the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, ending prohibition.Even though the women of the Temperance Movement did not achieve the goal of legally restricting alcohol production and sale, many of them remained active in the movement for women's suffrage.

Sources:

1. Crusades: Women's Christian Temperance Union/Early History, wctu.com

2. Hartman, Dorothy : Women's Roles in the Late 19th Century

3. Conner Prairie Interactive History Park, connerprairie.org.

4. Temperance Movement. jrank.org/pages/10714/Temperance-Movement.html

5. Hunt, Jeff. Defining Moments in Women's Suffrage 2006. Omnigraphics.Inc.

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Temperance Movement Produces Women's Suffrage Leaders - World History

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The Temperance Movement gathered force through the 1800s. Many women in the Movement also played a historic role in establishing women's rights. Alcohol consumption in the country grew sharply in the 19th century, and was blamed for creating many social problems, including unemployment ,violence, and risk to homes and families.

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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https://worldhistory.us/american-history/temperance-movement-produces-womens-suffrage-leaders.php

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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Deeply in love, Ferdinand chose to marry Sophie Chotek in 1900 despite the opposition of his uncle, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef, who refused to attend their wedding. Though not exactly a commoner, Sophie came from a family of obscure Czech nobles and not from a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty of Europe. As a result, her and Ferdinand's children were declared ineligible for the throne. Sophie also became the victim of countless petty slights. At imperial banquets, for example, she entered each room last, without an escort, and was then seated far away from her husband at the dinner table.

His marriage notwithstanding, Ferdinand remained Franz Josef's heir and inspector general of the army. In that capacity, he agreed to attend a series of June 1914 military exercises in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Austria-Hungary had just annexed these provinces a few years earlier against the wishes of neighboring Serbia, which likewise coveted them. Ferdinand believed the Serbs to be "pigs," "thieves," "murderers" and "scoundrels." Yet he had opposed annexation for fear that it would make an already turbulent political situation even worse. Formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire, Bosnia-Herzegovina's population was roughly 40 percent Serb, 30 percent Muslim and 20 percent Croat, with various other ethnicities making up the remainder.

Upon learning of Ferdinand's upcoming visit, the Young Bosnians, a secret revolutionary society of peasant students, began plotting to assassinate him. In May, Gavrilo Princip, Trifko Grabez and Nedeljko Cabrinovic traveled to the Serbian capital of Belgrade, where they received six handheld bombs, four semi-automatic pistols and cyanide suicide capsules from members of the so-called Black Hand, a terrorist group with close ties to the Serbian army. After practicing with their pistols in a Belgrade park, the three men journeyed back to Bosnia-Herzegovina, receiving help from Black Hand associates to smuggle their weapons across the border. To this day, it remains unclear whether the Serbian government participated in the scheme.

Ferdinand and Sophie departed their estate for Bosnia-Herzegovina on June 23. Having received multiple warnings to cancel the trip, the archduke knew that danger potentially awaited them. "Our journey starts with an extremely promising omen," he purportedly said when the axles on his car overheated. "Here our car burns, and down there they will throw bombs at us." After arriving at a spa town a few miles outside of Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina's capital, Ferdinand attended two days of military exercises while Sophie visited schools and orphanages. On a whim, the couple drove in one evening to check out Sarajevo's bazaars. While there, they attracted a crowd of onlookers, including Princip, but were apparently treated with warmth and politeness.

Following a banquet with religious and political leaders, only one day of events remained before Ferdinand and Sophie were to return home. That morning, June 28, the archduke sent a telegram to his eldest son congratulating him on his latest exam results. He and Sophie then boarded a train for the short ride into Sarajevo. For once, Sophie was permitted to walk alongside Ferdinand during a brief troop inspection, after which the couple got in an open-topped car for a motorcade ride to city hall. The car in front of them was supposed to carry six specially trained officers but instead had only one, plus three local policemen. In fact, throughout the trip, Austro-Hungarian officials allegedly focused more attention on dinner menus than security details.

Meanwhile, seven Young Bosnians had fanned out along the Appel Quay, a main avenue in Sarajevo running parallel to the Miljacka River. When the motorcade passed by, its route having been published in advance, Cabrinovic asked which car carried the archduke. He then hurled his bomb at the car, only to watch it bounce off the folded-up roof and roll underneath the wrong vehicle. The subsequent explosion wounded two army officers and several bystanders but left Ferdinand and Sophie essentially unharmed. Cabrinovic jumped into the mostly dry riverbed and made a half-hearted attempt to kill himself before being apprehended. "I am a Serbian hero," he purportedly shouted as the police led him away. At least two other Young Bosnians also had good looks at the archduke but apparently lost the nerve to attempt an assassination.

Rather than immediately flee Sarajevo, Ferdinand decided to continue on to the planned event at city hall. Upon finishing that up, he insisted on visiting the wounded officers in the hospital. In order to dissuade any other bomb throwers, the motorcade zipped down the Appel Quay at high speeds. By mistake, however, the first three cars turned onto a side street right where Princip happened to be standing. As the cars attempted to reverse back onto the Appel Quay, Princip whipped out his pistol and fired two shots at the archduke from point-blank range, piercing him in the neck and also striking Sophie's abdomen. "Sophie, Sophie, don't die-stay alive for our children," Ferdinand murmured. Within minutes, though, both had passed away. Princip, a slender, 19-year-old Serbian army reject, later admitted to killing Ferdinand but said he had not meant to hit Sophie. Three weeks too young for the death penalty, Princip was given a 20-year sentence, but contracted tuberculosis and died in jail in April 1918, at the age of just 23.

With tensions already running high among Europe's powers, the assassination precipitated a rapid descent into World War I. First, Austria-Hungary gained German support for punitive action against Serbia. It then sent Serbia an ultimatum, worded in a way that made acceptance unlikely. Serbia proposed arbitration to resolve the dispute, but Austria-Hungary instead declared war on July 28, 1914, exactly a month after Ferdinand's death. By the following week, Germany, Russia, France, Belgium, Montenegro and Great Britain had all been drawn into the conflict, and other countries like the United States would enter later. Overall, more than 9 million soldiers and nearly that many civilians would die in fighting that lasted until 1918.

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The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 100 Years Ago

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Deeply in love, Ferdinand chose to marry Sophie Chotek in 1900 despite the opposition of his uncle, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef, who refused to attend their wedding. Though not exactly a commoner, Sophie came from a family of obscure Czech nobles and not from a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty of Europe.

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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https://www.history.com/news/the-assassination-of-archduke-franz-ferdinand-100-years-ago

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https://www.ncpedia.org/wwi-technology-and-weapons-war

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https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/us-in-wwi/a/the-united-states-in-world-war-i

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by A. Torrey McLean
Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993.
Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History

See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front

One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914. New technology made war more horrible and more complex than ever before. The United States and other countries felt the effects of the war for years afterwards.

The popular image of World War I is soldiers in muddy trenches and dugouts, living miserably until the next attack. This is basically correct. Technological developments in engineering, metallurgy, chemistry, and optics had produced weapons deadlier than anything known before. The power of defensive weapons made winning the war on the western front all but impossible for either side.

When attacks were ordered, Allied soldiers went "over the top," climbing out of their trenches and crossing no-man's-land to reach enemy trenches. They had to cut through belts of barbed wire before they could use rifles, bayonets, pistols, and hand grenades to capture enemy positions. A victory usually meant they had seized only a few hundred yards of shell-torn earth at a terrible cost in lives. Wounded men often lay helpless in the open until they died. Those lucky enough to be rescued still faced horrible sanitary conditions before they could be taken to proper medical facilities. Between attacks,the snipers, artillery, and poison gas caused misery and death.

Airplanes, products of the new technology, were primarily made of canvas, wood, and wire. At first they were used only to observe enemy troops. As their effectiveness became apparent, both sides shot planes down with artillery from the ground and with rifles, pistols, and machine guns from other planes. In 1916, the Germans armed planes with machine guns that could fire forward without shooting off the fighters' propellers. The Allies soon armed their airplanes the same way, and war in the air became a deadly business. These light, highly maneuverable fighter planes attacked each other in wild air battles called dogfights. Pilots who were shot down often remained trapped in their falling, burning planes, for they had no parachutes. Airmen at the front did not often live long. Germany also used its fleet of huge dirigibles, or zeppelins, and large bomber planes to drop bombs on British and French cities. Britain retaliated by bombing German cities.

Back on the ground, the tank proved to be the answer to stalemate in the trenches. This British invention used American-designed caterpillar tracks to move the armored vehicle equipped with machine guns and sometimes light cannon. Tanks worked effectively on firm, dry ground, in spite of their slow speed, mechanical problems, and vulnerability to artillery. Able to crush barbed wire and cross trenches, tanks moved forward through machine gun fire and often terrified German soldiers with their unstoppable approach.

Chemical warfare first appeared when the Germans used poison gas during a surprise attack in Flanders, Belgium, in 1915. At first, gas was just released from large cylinders and carried by the wind into nearby enemy lines. Later, phosgene and other gases were loaded into artillery shells and shot into enemy trenches. The Germans used this weapon the most, realizing that enemy soldiers wearing gas masks did not fight as well. All sides used gas frequently by 1918. Its use was a frightening development that caused its victims a great deal of suffering, if not death.

Both sides used a variety of big guns on the western front, ranging from huge naval guns mounted on railroad cars to short-range trench mortars. The result was a war in which soldiers near the front were seldom safe from artillery bombardment. The Germans used super-long-range artillery to shell Paris from almost eighty miles away. Artillery shell blasts created vast, cratered, moonlike landscapes where beautiful fields and woods had once stood.

Perhaps the most significant technological advance during World War I was the improvement of the machine gun, a weapon originally developed by an American, Hiram Maxim. The Germans recognized its military potential and had large numbers ready to use in 1914. They also developed air-cooled machine guns for airplanes and improved those used on the ground, making them lighter and easier to move. The weapon's full potential was demonstrated on the Somme battlefield in July 1916 when German machine guns killed or wounded almost 60,000 British soldiers in only one day.

At sea, submarines attacked ships far from port. In order to locate and sink German U-boats, British scientists developed underwater listening devices and underwater explosives called depth charges. Warships became faster and more powerful than ever before and used newly invented radios to communicate effectively. The British naval blockade of Germany, which was made possible by developments in naval technology, brought a total war to civilians. The blockade caused a famine that finally brought about the collapse of Germany and its allies in late 1918. Starvation and malnutrition continued to take the lives of German adults and children for years after the war.

The firing stopped on November 11, 1918, but modern war technology had changed the course of civilization. Millions had been killed, gassed, maimed, or starved. Famine and disease continued to rage through central Europe, taking countless lives. Because of rapid technological advances in every area, the nature of warfare had changed forever, affecting soldiers, airmen, sailors, and civilians alike.
A. Torrey McLean, a former United States Army officer who served in Vietnam, studied World War I for more than thirty years, personally interviewing a number of World War I veterans.

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by A. Torrey McLean Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993. Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914.

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The United States in World War I (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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The 18th Amendment Explained: The Constitution for Dummies Series

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Stock Market Crash: 1929 & Black Tuesday | HISTORY

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The Stock Market Crash of 1929 ushered in the Great Depression, as some 16 million shares were traded on Black Tuesday, Oct. 29, 1929, wiping out many investors.

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https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/1929-stock-market-crash

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National Archives, Washington, D.C. (12573155)

The Great Depression of the late 1920s and '30s remains the longest and most severe economic downturn in modern history. Lasting almost 10 years (from late 1929 until about 1939) and affecting nearly every country in the world, it was marked by steep declines in industrial production and in prices (deflation), mass unemployment, banking panics, and sharp increases in rates of poverty and homelessness. In the United States, where the effects of the depression were generally worst, between 1929 and 1933 industrial production fell nearly 47 percent, gross domestic product (GDP) declined by 30 percent, and unemployment reached more than 20 percent. By comparison, during the Great Recession of 2007-09, the second largest economic downturn in U.S. history, GDP declined by 4.3 percent, and unemployment reached slightly less than 10 percent.

There is no consensus among economists and historians regarding the exact causes of the Great Depression. However, many scholars agree that at least the following four factors played a role.

The stock market crash of 1929. During the 1920s the U.S. stock market underwent a historic expansion. As stock prices rose to unprecedented levels, investing in the stock market came to be seen as an easy way to make money, and even people of ordinary means used much of their disposable income or even mortgaged their homes to buy stock. By the end of the decade hundreds of millions of shares were being carried on margin, meaning that their purchase price was financed with loans to be repaid with profits generated from ever-increasing share prices. Once prices began their inevitable decline in October 1929, millions of overextended shareholders fell into a panic and rushed to liquidate their holdings, exacerbating the decline and engendering further panic. Between September and November, stock prices fell 33 percent. The result was a profound psychological shock and a loss of confidence in the economy among both consumers and businesses. Accordingly, consumer spending, especially on durable goods, and business investment were drastically curtailed, leading to reduced industrial output and job losses, which further reduced spending and investment.

Banking panics and monetary contraction. Between 1930 and 1932 the United States experienced four extended banking panics, during which large numbers of bank customers, fearful of their bank's solvency, simultaneously attempted to withdraw their deposits in cash. Ironically, the frequent effect of a banking panic is to bring about the very crisis that panicked customers aim to protect themselves against: even financially healthy banks can be ruined by a large panic. By 1933 one-fifth of the banks in existence in 1930 had failed, leading the new Franklin D. Roosevelt administration to declare a four-day " bank holiday" (later extended by three days), during which all of the country's banks remained closed until they could prove their solvency to government inspectors. The natural consequence of widespread bank failures was to decrease consumer spending and business investment, because there were fewer banks to lend money. There was also less money to lend, partly because people were hoarding it in the form of cash. According to some scholars, that problem was exacerbated by the Federal Reserve, which raised interest rates (further depressing lending) and deliberately reduced the money supply in the belief that doing so was necessary to maintain the gold standard (see below), by which the U.S. and many other countries had tied the value of their currencies to a fixed amount of gold. The reduced money supply in turn reduced prices, which further discouraged lending and investment (because people feared that future wages and profits would not be sufficient to cover loan payments).

The gold standard. Whatever its effects on the money supply in the United States, the gold standard unquestionably played a role in the spread of the Great Depression from the United States to other countries. As the United States experienced declining output and deflation, it tended to run a trade surplus with other countries because Americans were buying fewer imported goods, while American exports were relatively cheap. Such imbalances gave rise to significant foreign gold outflows to the United States, which in turn threatened to devalue the currencies of the countries whose gold reserves had been depleted. Accordingly, foreign central banks attempted to counteract the trade imbalance by raising their interest rates, which had the effect of reducing output and prices and increasing unemployment in their countries. The resulting international economic decline, especially in Europe, was nearly as bad as that in the United States.

Decreased international lending and tariffs. In the late 1920s, while the U.S. economy was still expanding, lending by U.S. banks to foreign countries fell, partly because of relatively high U.S. interest rates. The drop-off contributed to contractionary effects in some borrower countries, particularly Germany, Argentina, and Brazil, whose economies entered a downturn even before the beginning of the Great Depression in the United States. Meanwhile, American agricultural interests, suffering because of overproduction and increased competition from European and other agricultural producers, lobbied Congress for passage of new tariffs on agricultural imports. Congress eventually adopted broad legislation, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930), that imposed steep tariffs (averaging 20 percent) on a wide range of agricultural and industrial products. The legislation naturally provoked retaliatory measures by several other countries, the cumulative effect of which was declining output in several countries and a reduction in global trade.

Just as there is no general agreement about the causes of the Great Depression, there is no consensus about the sources of recovery, though, again, a few factors played an obvious role. In general, countries that abandoned the gold standard or devalued their currencies or otherwise increased their money supply recovered first (Britain abandoned the gold standard in 1931, and the United States effectively devalued its currency in 1933). Fiscal expansion, in the form of New Deal jobs and social welfare programs and increased defense spending during the onset of World War II, presumably also played a role by increasing consumers' income and aggregate demand, but the importance of this factor is a matter of debate among scholars.

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What brought about the worst economic downturn in modern history?

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https://www.britannica.com/story/causes-of-the-great-depression

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New Deal - Programs, Social Security & FDR

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The New Deal was a series of programs and projects instituted during the Great Depression by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that aimed to restore prosperity to Americans. A Second New Deal was put in place shortly thereafter as a way to continue the country’s economic recovery.

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https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/new-deal

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America in World War I: Crash Course US History #30

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