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Fatin Nabihah Binti Shuib 231073

Nadia Umairah Binti Amnar 231631

Nur Ain Qistina Binti Adzhar 231457

Nur Huda Binti Mohd Akhir 229650

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1. TO UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL STRUCTURE
2. ABLE TO DESCRIBE WHY THE APPROPRIATENESS TO CHOOSE  STEEL AS A STRUCTURE MATERIAL
3. IDENTIFY BENEFIT AND PROBLEM THAT COULD BE CAUSE BY STEEL STRUCTURE

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Sources can be from lecture notes and  internet. You need to cite the web link for reference.

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Sources can be from lecture notes and  internet. You need to cite the web link for reference.

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1. Form a group of four (4).
2. Pick a group name from the given column
3. Take a WEFIE of your group members (tiktok, camera, reel, etc) and post in your group column, AND write your team members full name and metric card
4. Follow the instruction below:

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Explain 3 factors why the disadvantages of steel structure could effect architectural design

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The properties of structural steel result from both its chemical composition and its method of manufacture , including processing during fabrication. Product standards define the limits for composition, quality and performance and these limits are used or presumed by structural designers.

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Structural Steel - Preferred Material for Construction
Structural steel is not just a material which has only the technical competence. It has many other qualities that make it the preferred material for architects, designers and engineers. It is economical and provides great mechanical functionality; it permits the design of structures which are graceful, light and airy; it streamlines construction site processes; and it offers rapid execution. A major advantage, however, is the infinite freedom for creation which it provides to the architects, designers and engineers. The combination of structural steel with different materials lends themselves to rich and varied types of construction. When combined with glass, structural steel makes fabulous use of light and space.

Structural steel is the material 'par excellence' when it comes to inventing new structures and forms. All solutions are possible, from the very simplest to the most challenging. Structural steel can be used for small buildings as well as large structures, for routine construction projects, and those subject to complex urban constraints. No other material is used to make structures which are so thin, light and airy. Forms can be created using different structural effects and envelopes with pure or finely sculpted curves. Architects, designers and engineers can give free reign to their imagination and creativity with structural steels.

Structural steel is a standard construction material made from specific steel grades and is available in standard cross sectional shapes. This steel exhibits desirable physical properties such as strength, uniformity of properties, light weight and ease of use etc. This makes it one of the most versatile structural materials in use. Major applications for this steel is in high rise and tall multi-storey buildings, industrial buildings, towers, tunnels, bridges, road barriers, and industrial structures etc.

Within the overall architectural concept, the structural steelwork may be concealed or exposed to reveal its essence. In both cases various advantages remain such as facility for modular design, compactness, economy of material, freedom of use, and speed of assembly etc.

Structural steel is a material used for steel construction, which is formed with a specific shape following certain standards of chemical composition and strength. They can also be defined as hot rolled products, with a cross section of special form like angles, channels, tees, rounds, squares, beams, and hollow pipes both round and square etc. There has been an increasing demand for structural steel for construction purposes mainly because the selection of structural steel for the framing system of a building brings numerous benefits to the construction projects. All other materials are measured against the standard of structural steel and hence structural steel is the material of choice for the architects, designers, and engineers. Various benefits provided by the structural steel (Fig 1) are described below.
Fig 1 Benefits of structural steel Speed of construction
Structures made from structural steel can be erected speedily, the predictability and accuracy of steel components speeds up the process. This deliver time savings in the construction programme compared to a concrete frame. In fact, speed of erection is often one of the main criteria for selecting structural steel. Short construction periods leads to savings in site preliminaries, earlier return on investment and reduced interest charges. Time related savings can be substantial and result into reduction in the overall project cost.

Materials other than structural steel may be able to start field work sooner, but the rapid design, fabrication and erection cycle with structural steel allow the framing system to finish sooner than in the case with other materials .

Structural steel enhances the productivity in construction since there is shop fabrication. This also helps in the maintenance of tight construction tolerances. Field placed materials always lag behind the productivity curve. Productivity improvements in construction occur due to shop based technology enhancements and not in labour based field activities.

Rapid erection in all seasons with close tolerances being maintained for integration with other systems of the building construction project and minimal construction site waste is achievable only with structural steel.
Lower costs of the construction project
Fabrication in controlled conditions results in high quality, defect free components that produce very little waste during the construction process. Furthermore, steel structures are durable and require little maintenance, extracting maximum value from the resources invested in the structure and minimizing its whole-life costs.

Cost savings in buildings constructed with the structural steel start at the foundations, where the loads imposed by a steel frame are up to 50 % less than those of a concrete alternative. That means foundations can be much smaller and therefore cost considerably less. Foundation costs constitutes a major component of the overall building costs, so lighter foundation loads can have a big impact on the overall costs

In the present day scenario structural steel remains the cost leader for the majority of construction projects when competing framing systems are evaluated using comparable and the current cost data. Comparative studies show that a structural steel framing system including decking and fire protection costs lesser than a concrete framing system.
Aesthetic appeal
General public praises the beauty of structural steel and is excited when it gets exposed in the design of the structures to emphasize grace, slenderness, strength and transparency of frame. Structural steel allows the designers a greater degree of expression and creativity in their design than any other construction material. Column-free clear spans, the use of colored coatings and the opportunity for natural lighting highlight the elegant simplicity of using structural steel. Structural steel sections can be bent and rolled to create non-linear members to further enhance the aesthetic appeal of the structure.
Design flexibility
The advantages that structural steel offers to the construction sector have long been recognized by the designers and specifiers. The versatility of steel gives architects, designer and engineers the freedom to achieve their most ambitious visions.

From the simplest, functional structure to the complex, signature design, structural steel can be readily used to accomplish the design intent of the designer and the structural engineer. No other framing material comes close to structural steel in terms of innovativeness, freedom of expression, and design creativity.
High strength
Structural steel is always more preferred to concrete because it offers better tension and compression properties thus resulting in lighter construction. The strength of the structural steel is much higher than the strength of the other construction materials. All other materials talk about high strength, but their strength is still less than that of structural steel even when enhanced by steel reinforcing. Yield stress of the structural steel is typically 350 N/sq mm in both compression and tension. By comparison, a normal concrete mix has a yield stress of 20 to 35 N/sq mm in compression only and a high strength concrete may have a compressive yield stress of 80 to 100 N/sq mm. Structural steel is not only a stronger material but it also has a much higher strength to weight ratio when compared to other materials. This results in the building being lighter and lighter buildings require less extensive and costly foundations. Unlike concrete, erected structural steel does not shrink or creep. The various other mechanical properties of the structural steels are as follows.

Elasticity - Structural steel follows hooks law very accurately.

Ductility - it is a very desirable property of structural steel, in which steel can withstand extensive deformation without failure under high tensile stresses, i.e., it gives warning before failure takes place.

Toughness - Structural steel has both strength and ductility.

Ease of design
Structural steel is the most desirable material for the structural engineers for designing since there are a variety of tools available for structural steel design. Also these tools are a quantum step ahead of tools being used for designing with other materials. Full integration between analysis, design, detailing and fabricating software is in use today. The structural steel industry is actively associated with 'Building Information Modeling'. This innovative blending of technology is not just for simple boxes, but also for complex structures requiring innovative design approaches and the cost saving techniques of 3-D modeling with full involvement of the steel specialty contractor in the design process.

Now the specifications for structural steel buildings integrate the load and resistance factor design methodology and the allowable stress and plastic design methodology into a single uniform design methodology.

Normally structural steel uses three dimensional trusses hence making it larger than its concrete counterpart. There are different new techniques which enable the production of a wide range of structures and shapes. These techniques are (i) high-precision stress analysis, (ii) computerized stress analysis, and (iii) innovative jointing technology.

Sustainable structural steel

Structural steel is the leading construction material for sustainability, offering exceptional environmental, social and economic benefits. The balance between the three elements sees structural steel deliver a sound sustainability case.

Sustainability is in the core of use of the structural steel. Structural steel is the most recycled material. In the present day scenario most of the recycled steel goes into the production of the structural steel. Further structural steel can be reused without further processing. The carbon footprint of structural steel has been reduced substantially since 1990. Energy used in the production of structural steel has been reduced in the past three decades.

Structural steel can be recycled endlessly with no detrimental effect on its properties. When a steel-framed building is demolished, its components can be reused or returned to the steelmaking process to create brand new components. The recycling rate of structural steel and at the end of its life is 100 %.

Structural steel is also highly durable. Steel piles extracted from an area with a high water table are generally found to be fit for reuse.

The production of structural steel also conserves the most valuable resource which is water. A small amount of water is used in the production of structural steel and no water is used in the fabrication process and during erection at the construction site.
Innovative approach
New systems approaches (girder slab, guide plate etc.) are now available for the project designers with the structural steels. These new approaches join ongoing innovations addressing issues such as long-span deck systems, fire protection, connection optimization, coating systems, and progressive collapse.

The structural steel industry continues to pioneer new innovations for both the material and the use of structural steel. There is improvement in the material specification for hot rolled structural sections with the yield stress increasing by 40 % from 250 N/sq mm to 350 N/sq mm. Design tools continue to mature to allow more efficient steel designs. Further there is better understanding of the behaviour of structural steel through research activities with respect to the increasing of the productivity while bringing greater economy to the construction projects.

The structural steel industry pioneered the movement towards open standards and inter-operable software that has most recently resulted in the growth in popularity of 'Building Information Modeling'. The 'CIMSteel Integration Standards (CIS/2)' is a product model and electronic data exchange file format for structural steel project information. CIS/2 facilitates data exchange through seemingly stand-alone programs, such as structural analysis, CAD and detailing systems by allowing them to communicate with each other. By providing a neutral data format, CIS/2 allows data exchange between a varieties of program types-as long as these programs have translators written to interpret the CIS/2 neutral data into the programs' native format.

In 1990s the industry in USA adopted CIS/2 as a standard data protocol for the exchange of information between structural design, detailing and manufacturing/fabrication programs. The result was that software programs from different vendors were suddenly able to exchange model based information beyond simple geometry. Projects taking advantage of this vertical integration within the structural steel industry were able to demonstrate cost savings of up to 20 % on the structural package. The success of the CIS/2 implementation within the structural steel industry has encouraged the broader design and construction marketplace to pursue similar open standards and data protocols for the exchange of model based data between design disciplines and in other industries vertical supply chains.
Feasibility of modification
The inherent adaptability and flexibility of the structural steel means that future changes or extensions - even vertically - can be carried out with minimal disruption and cost.

The requirements from a building always changes with time. A composite steel frame can be easily modified to satisfy existing or new changed requirements such as increased floor loads for storage and equipment, new openings for mechanical equipment and vertical shafts for floor-to-floor staircases. Existing steel columns and beams can be strengthened through the attachment of steel plate to the flanges or web of sections allowing for greater loads. New stairways can be added to existing steel framed buildings by removing a portion of the floor decking, bracing a single bay and adding the desired stair structure. These types of changes can be accomplished with little disruption while the building is still occupied.

Structural steel buildings can be modified in the future for new applications, loading conditions, vertical expansions and changes as per the requirement which the framing systems with other materials can never accomplish.

Structural steel provides the flexibility needed to enable a building to evolve throughout its working life. The building can be initially designed in order to facilitate the following future evolutions.

Modification of applied loads due to change of use of the building

Floor plan morphology in order to retain the possibility to create new openings

Horizontal and vertical movements, exits: appropriate measures can be taken in order to limit any impact on the primary building structure during alterations.

It is not unusual for a structural steel building to have additional floors added even years after the building was originally completed. This is feasible while it is still occupied.
Provides space efficiency
Structural steel buildings optimize building space efficiency through the use of slender columns maximizing useable floor space, longer spans for open, column-free spaces and the integration of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems into structural spaces.

The typical steel column occupies 75 % less floor space than an equivalent concrete column. At the same time structural steel allows longer spans that eliminate intermediate columns creating larger open floor areas.

Parking structures benefit from smaller structural steel columns and longer spans as well. Structural steel framing systems for parking structures are typically having span of 18 m to 20 m allowing for a drive lane and 2 parking bays without any intervening columns. The use of the smaller footprint steel columns at the front of the parking bays create less intrusion into the parking space than larger concrete columns.
Structural steel is reliable and predictable
Structural steel has consistently high quality standards, precision products and guaranteed strength and durability in the most challenging environments. The quality assurance of structural steel work is always assured since it is produced to the most exacting specifications under highly controlled conditions, eliminating the risks of onsite variability. Rigorous quality assurance processes give full traceability at all stages in the supply chain, from steelmaking to fabrication and erection at site.

Structural steel is reliable and has predictable properties since it is manufactured and fabricated under controlled conditions using modern quality assurance processes. The final strength of the structural steel is verified at the point of production, not after the material is already placed in the frame of the building. Structural steel is shop fabricated to close tolerances impossible for site cast materials. Various international standards closely define the properties of structural steel whereas the actual properties of cast-in-place concrete are a function of concrete mix design, local aggregates and delivery conditions requiring testing of samples 28 days after the material has already been placed in the structure.

The strength and ductility of structural steel make it highly resistant to accidental damage. If any damage does occur, it can easily be repaired by cutting, welding or bolting to restore its full strength. The erection of structural steel on site is not restricted by weather conditions, other than high winds, and can continue year round, with no need for special protection measures in any weather conditions.
Types of structural steel and its availability
The structural steel is readily available. Hot rolled structural steel is a common product for all the steel plants. The common shapes in which structural steels are available consist of sections (beams, channels, tees section and angles), squares and rounds, hexagons, plates, pipes, hollow square sections, steel cable, Z sections and cold formed sections etc.

The structural steel all over the world pre-dominates the construction scenario. This material has been exhaustively used in various constructions all over the world because of its various specific characteristics that are very much ideally suited for construction. Structural steel is durable and can be well molded to give the desired shape and to give an ultimate look to the structure that has been constructed. Steel products made from structural steel demonstrate specific characteristics according to their grade and form and is defined by various national and international standards.

There are many types of structural steels. These are classified, according to their composition. There are three main categories of steel namely (i) non-alloy or carbon steel grades, (ii) stainless steel grades, and (iii) other alloy steel grades. Non-alloy or carbon steel grades are commonly used in the construction sector. The steel grades with yield strengths of 250 N/sq mm and 350 N/sq mm are generally used for structural members. However the higher strength steel with yield strength around 450 N/sq mm is now being used more and more in the construction.

Structural steel exhibits desirable physical properties that make it one of the most versatile structural materials in use. Its great strength, uniformity, light weight, easy to use, and many other desirable properties makes it the material of choice for numerous structures such as steel bridges, high rise buildings, towers, and other structure. It also finds use in the manufacturing of automotive vehicles, wagons, and ships etc.
Disadvantages of structural steel
Although structural steel has all the above advantages as structural material, it also has some disadvantages that make reinforced concrete as a replacement for construction purposes. For example steel columns sometimes cannot provide the necessary strength because of buckling, whereas reinforced concrete columns are generally sturdy and massive, i.e., no buckling problem occurs. Other disadvantages are given below.

Maintenance cost - Structural steel structures are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air.

Fire proofing cost - Structural steel is an incombustible material; however, its strength is reduces at high temperature caused by a fire.

Fatigue - The strength of structural steel member can be reduced if this member is subjected to cyclic loading.

Brittle fracture - Under certain conditions structural steels lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at places of stress concentration. Fatigue type loadings and very low temperature trigger the situation.

The response of structures made from structural steel to fire is well understood, and extensive best-practice guidance is available. The performance of steel components and steel structures in fire has been researched more extensively than any other building material. The steel sector has invested decades of research into understanding the behaviour of structural steel components in fire - giving designers the confidence to engineer the buildings safely in steel.

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Structural Steel - Preferred Material for Construction

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Structural Steel - Preferred Material for Construction Structural steel is not just a material which has only the technical competence. It has many other qualities that make it the preferred material for architects, designers and engineers.

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To further understand  the steel structure system, the design factors, processes and types using, the lesson will use these 5 Stages .

STAGE  1: LEARN
Read and collect key information form the lecture notes and INTERNET.

STAGE 2: DISCUSS
Find appropriate IMAGES and discuss with your team members the best way to answer STAGE 3 QUIZ

STAGE 3: QUIZ
answer quiz's question from column 2. Write your answers in your group column.
Show references and link in your group column when answering the questions

STAGE 4: MAKE A group TIKTOK
Make a 30 seconds of your group's vlog/ TIKTOK/ reel to show that you have complete your tasks. Its good to say creatively!

STAGE 5: KAHOOT! time
Answer the Kahoot quiz question to measure individual understanding about the subject.

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1.  GRADE OF STEEL
2. CHARACTERISTIC AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL
3. SHAPES AND FORM OF STEEL STRUCTURE

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Structural materials-steel

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What is the appropriate steel system to use in a single-storey high ceiling multipurpose hall building? with the aid of sketches, explain 3 reasons why.

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1. Depth of understanding and concise summaries (pack and comprehensive) of the  about the topic given (Cognitive)
2. Team collaboration spirit in creative postage  in group column (Affective)
3. Group who wins in Kahoot will get extra points for his/her group (Psychomotor)

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FIRDAUS YAHYA AYYASH 226698

AYE MYAT CHEL 226585

VALERIE KUEK WENG YI 227890

LIM JIA YEE 230392

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KHOUJA NOUR 226783

VEISHINAVI D/O MURUGAN 229953

SORNAH D/O SIVAM 229596

ZHENG JIAYI 227216

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MARIAH 230034

QIAO MIN 228643

DEITRA 231180

ADAM 227262

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YOGEETHA ANNE 228522

SHUMITTHA 231689

NAINIKA 231635

IZZAH ATHIRAH 229485

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NUR ALYA DAFINA BINTI RAZMIN HAFIZ 228533

SITI AISYAH HUMAITAH BT HAMKA 222471

FISA JULIANA A/P KONG CHONG LEONG 229001

AL SHEHHI LATIFA ALI MOHAMMED 226570

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PUVANNA 231684

SUMEETRRA 231704

THANALOSHINY 231711

ADRIANA 227284

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Maintenance cost - Structural steel structures are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air.

Fire proofing cost - Structural steel is an incombustible material; however, its strength is reduces at high temperature caused by a fire.

Buckling - As the length of the steel column increases, the chances of steel buckling also increases

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NUR NAFISAH 230130

NOR ALIYA SAFIYA 227629

GENEVIEVE FUNG 231249

CHIN JI WEI 228995

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explain 3 factors why the disadvantages of steel structure could effect architectural design

1) can be weakened by fire and requires fire protection

- Steel's vulnerability to extreme heat requires architects to integrate active and passive fire protection systems, fundamentally shaping building design, layouts, and aesthetics.

2) Its manufacture is energy intensive

-steel requires a massive amount of energy and carbon to produce, modern architectural design now focuses on reducing its environmental footprint. Architects achieve this by optimizing material usage (e.g., using high-strength alloys), embracing Modular Prefabrication to eliminate waste.

3)tends to corrode and expand in the presence of moisture , requiring protection by alloying or protective coatings

-Steel’s high sensitivity to moisture profoundly shapes architectural design by mandating specific material selections, facade articulation, and building envelope details. Because unprotected steel is susceptible to oxidation (rust) and condensation when exposed to temperatu

re gradients

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1. Wind resistance of steel structure factory building:

It resists the highest local wind pressure, and the steel structure factory building will not be pulled off by negative wind pressure.

The wind resistance performance is related to the bearing capacity and density of the steel beams and columns of the steel structure workshop.

2. Lightning protection for steel structure workshops:

Lead lightning to the ground to prevent lightning from penetrating the roof of steel structure workshops and entering the room.

3. The sound insulation effect of the steel structure factory building:

The sound insulation effect is related to the density and thickness of the sound insulation material. It should be noted that the sound insulation materials have different blocking effects on different frequencies of sound.It also prevents sound from being transmitted indoors or from indoors to outdoors.

https://www.directorsteelstructure.com/5-factors-building-a-steel-structure-workshop/

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5 factors you need to consider when building a steel structure workshop – Directorsteelstructure

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Compared with traditional workshops, steel structure workshops have significant advantages, such as low construction cost, short construction period and high strength.

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Fatin 231073

Nadia 231631

Ain 231457

Huda 229650

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1. Strength and Load Capacity

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing buildings to support heavy loads while using slimmer structural elements. It also makes it possible to create large open spaces with fewer columns.

2. Durability and Maintenance

Steel is durable and can last for many years when properly maintained. However, it needs protection against rust and corrosion, especially in humid or tropical climates, through coatings or paint.

3. Cost and Construction Speed

Steel structures can be prefabricated in factories, which speeds up the construction process and reduces site work. Although construction is faster, the material and fabrication costs may sometimes be higher compared to other structural systems.

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MARIAH QISTINA BINTI MOHD ARIFF 230034

LEONG QIAO MIN 228643

NAYYARASINTA DEITRA ALISHYA 231180

IMRAN ADAM ALI 227262

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PUVANNA MURALI 231684

SUMEETRRA RAVINDRAN 231704

THANALOSHINY SUBRAMANIAM 231711

ADRIANA AISYA BINTI KHAIRULANUAR 227284

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What is the appropriate steel system to use in a single-storey high ceiling multipurpose hall building? with the aid of sketches, explain 3 reasons why.

1. Large Column-Free Space

- frames can span long distances without many internal columns. For multipurpose hall because easier movement flexible space arrangement suitable for events, sports, exhibitions, assembly.

2. Strong but Lightweight

- Steel has a high strength to weight ratio. faster construction, reduced foundation load, durable and stable structure, easier future extension or modification. Usually common use in warehouse and hall

3. Suitable for High Ceiling Design

- can support tall roof structures efficiently. This for better ventilation, more natural lighting opportunities, spacious interior feeling, accommodates stage lighting or sports activities

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1. Strength and Load Capacity

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing buildings to support heavy loads while using slimmer structural elements. It also makes it possible to create large open spaces with fewer columns.

2. Durability and Maintenance

Steel is durable and can last for many years when properly maintained. However, it needs protection against rust and corrosion, especially in humid or tropical climates, through coatings or paint.

3. Cost and Construction Speed

Steel structures can be prefabricated in factories, which speeds up the construction process and reduces site work. Although construction is faster, the material and fabrication costs may sometimes be higher compared to other structural systems.

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1) Fire Resistance Requirements
Steel loses its strength quickly when exposed to high temperatures during a fire. Because of this, fireproof materials were needed such as concrete coating or spray protection.

2) Corrosion and Maintenance
Steel can rust when exposed to moisture, humidity, or coastal environments. It need to consider a protective coatings or paints to prevent corrosion.

3) Thermal Expansion
Steel expands and contracts when the temperature changes. If not properly designed, this movement can cause cracking or deformation in the building.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Structures in Construction

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Explore the major advantages and disadvantages of steel structures to make informed decisions in construction projects.

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MUHAMMAD NABIL SYUQRI BIN HUSSIN 231634

MOHD FAIRUZ HAKIMI BIN MOHD ASRI 228374

SAIF MUHANNAD A.MAHDI 231695

MUHAMMAD AMMAR BIN MOHD FAUZI 231444

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1. Corrosion and Rusting

Steel can corrode when exposed to moisture and weather. This affects the durability and appearance of the building, so architects need to add protective coatings, cladding or maintenance systems, which may increase cost and influence the design aesthetics.

2. Poor Fire Resistance
Steel loses strength at high temperatures and may deform during a fire. Because of this, architects must include fireproof materials such as concrete encasement or fire-resistant coatings which can affect the size, form and interior space planning of the building.

3. High Maintenance and Cost
Steel structures require regular maintenance to prevent rust and damage. The higher construction and maintenance costs may limit architectural choices, materials and complex design ideas, especially for projects with limited budgets.

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SPACE FRAMES SYSTEM

large span capability

- span long distances without requiring internal columns, creating an unobstructed hall space

Strong yet lightweight structure

- the triangulated steel members distribute loads efficiently, making the structure lightweight while still providing high stability

Prefabricated

- speed up construction time, improves accuracy, reduces and on site labor.

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https://northern-weldarc.com/blog/advantages-disadvantages-structural-steel-structures

https://www.honglusteel.com/discuss-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-space-frame-steel-structure/

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1. Poor fireproof resistance
Steel weakens quickly in high heat, this affects the building’s appearance and increases structural size. Therefore extra fireproof material is needed.

2. Corrosion
Steel can rust easily and this requires coating and usual maintenance, influencing the facade design and increasing long term maintenance.

3. Thermal Expansion
Steel expands and contracts with temperature changes. Therefore, adding flexible details and joints to prevent damage might affect the building’s form and construction details.

Disadvantages of steel structure houses https://share.google/dTla22VEj1ug61dKt

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descivebe 3 factor needed when considering steel as a structural system in buildings.

1. Strength-to-Weight Ratio and Design Freedom

Structural steel is highly efficient because it has an exceptional strength-to-weight ratio in both tension and compression (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). This high strength allows engineers to design long, column-free internal spans and thinner structural profiles (IspatGuru, 2015). Using lighter steel components reduces the overall dead load of the building, which directly lowers foundation costs while maximizing usable floor space (IspatGuru, 2015).

2. Vulnerability to Fire and Corrosion

While steel is noncombustible, its strength and stiffness drop drastically when exposed to the high temperatures of a building fire (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Because of this structural degradation, steel frames must be protected with code-compliant insulation like drywall enclosures, spray-on fireproofing, or intumescent paint (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Additionally, steel is prone to rust when exposed to moisture. This is requiring protective coatings or alloying to avoid long-term structural failure (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.; SteelConstruction.info, n.d.).

3. Connection and Assembly Methods

Because steel structures are assembled from prefabricated parts rather than cast as a single unit, connection details are critical to the building's stability. Workers primarily use high-strength bolts or electric arc welding to join members (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Bolting is faster and easier for field assembly but creates specific tearing and shearing stresses at the joints (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Welding creates a seamless, incredibly strong connection but is expensive, highly technical, and requires strict non-destructive testing like ultrasonic checks to ensure safety (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.).

material that use https://www.ispatguru.com/structural-steel-preferred-material-for-construction/

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties

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1. Design Flexibility

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing architects to create large open spaces with fewer columns. This gives more freedom for flexible layouts, longer spans, and unique forms such as curves and cantilevers, making modern and innovative designs possible. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

2. Faster Construction

Steel components are prefabricated off-site and assembled quickly on-site. This shortens construction time, improves accuracy, and allows architects to plan more efficient building systems and modular designs. Faster construction also reduces site disruption. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

3. Sustainability

Steel is recyclable and reusable, reducing construction waste and environmental impact. Its durability also increases building lifespan, supporting sustainable architectural design and green building practices. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

Reference

Altintas Steel. (2023). Advantages of Steel Structures. Retrieved from  Altintas Steel Official Website

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1. High Susceptibility to Fire (Thermal Vulnerability)

Steel rapidly loses its strength and stiffness at high temperatures (around 550°C), making it vulnerable to structural failure during a fire.

2. Susceptibility to Corrosion

Steel tends to corrode and expand when exposed to moisture and oxygen over time.

3. High Slenderness and Buckling Under Compression

Because steel is exceptionally strong, sections can be designed very thin. However, these slender elements are highly susceptible to buckling under compressive loads.

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1. Corrosion and Maintenance

Steel can rust when exposed to moisture and air.

Architects need to add protective coatings and cladding systems.

Increases maintenance requirements and building cost.

May affect the visual appearance of exposed steel elements.

https://peb.steelprogroup.com/steel-structure/knowledge/what-is-ss/?utm

2. Poor Fire Resistance

Steel loses strength quickly under high temperatures.

Additional fireproof materials are needed in the design.

Increases wall thickness and construction cost.

Limits the use of exposed steel aesthetics in architecture.

https://www.sciencing.com/disadvantages-steel-structures-6889311/?utm

3. High Initial Cost and Design Complexity

Steel structures require skilled labour and precise fabrication.

Complex connections increase design and construction difficulty.

Higher material and installation costs may limit design ideas.

Architects must coordinate closely with engineers and fabricators.

https://www.gharpedia.com/blog/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-steel-structures/?utm

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Steel Structures 101: Key Facts, Types, Benefits, and Common Applications - SteelPRO PEB

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Explore the benefits, types, applications, and challenges of steel structures, including their lifespan, maintenance, and future trends.

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What is the appropriate steel system to use in a single-storey high ceiling multipurpose hall building? with the aid of sketches, explain 3 reasons why.

-Steel system

Portal frame structure

Reason:

1. Large Column-Free Space

- frames can span long distances without many internal columns. For multipurpose hall because easier movement flexible space arrangement suitable for events, sports, exhibitions, assembly.

2. Strong but Lightweight

- Steel has a high strength to weight ratio. faster construction, reduced foundation load, durable and stable structure, easier future extension or modification. Usually common use in warehouse and hall

3. Suitable for High Ceiling Design

- can support tall roof structures efficiently. This for better ventilation, more natural lighting opportunities, spacious interior feeling, accommodates stage lighting or sports activities

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1. Load-Bearing Capacity & Structural Behavior

Steel is highly valued for its high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing it to support massive loads while remaining relatively lightweight compared to concrete.

Static and Dynamic Loads: Designers must calculate all dead loads (building weight), live loads (occupants and furniture), and lateral loads (wind and seismic activity).

Deflection & Span: Steel can span large open areas without needing intermediate columns, but engineers must carefully manage deflection (bending or sagging) to ensure structural rigidity and stability under load.

2. Environmental Exposure & Protection Measures

Unprotected steel can compromise a building's durability over time, making environmental factors a key consideration in the material selection.

Corrosion Resistance: Steel is vulnerable to rust in high-humidity or coastal environments. Builders must utilize protective coatings, specialized painting, or galvanized treatments to ensure long-lasting performance.

Fire Resistance: While steel does not burn, it loses its structural strength at high temperatures. Steel members usually require applied fireproofing (such as intumescent coatings or fire-rated boards) to maintain their load-bearing capacity in the event of a fire.

3. Fabrication, Erection, & Logistics

The efficiency of a steel structure heavily depends on the logistics of getting it from the fabrication shop to the construction site.

Connection Design: Steel components must be joined using either bolted or welded connections. The chosen method affects both the structural strength and the on-site labor time.

Speed vs. Cost: Because steel is often prefabricated, it allows for fast on-site assembly, significantly reducing construction time. However, structural complexities (like heavy custom bracing or crane limitations) can increase fabrication and erection costs.

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Faculty of Civil Engineering Iaşi. (n.d.). Lecture 7: S.S.III design of steel structures [Lecture notes]. Technical University “Gheorghe Asachi” of Iaşi.

GZ Industrial Supplies. (n.d.). Structural steel material selection factors to consider for different applications.

Advantec Industrial. (n.d.). 6 advantages of structural steel construction.

PEB Steel. (n.d.). Steel structure introduction.

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1. Structural Requirements and Load Capacity

Engineers analyze building codes, heights, and room spans to calculate the total weight and forces a structure must support. This data dictates the exact steel strength grades and beam shapes required to keep the building safe and rigid.

2. Environment and Corrosion Resistance

Moisture and salt in humid or coastal areas cause steel to rust, which destroys its structural strength over time. To prevent this, designers use resilient alloys like stainless steel or shield standard steel with protective finishes like galvanizing and anti-corrosive coatings.

3. Fire Protection and Vulnerability

While steel does not burn, it softens and loses its strength dramatically in high temperatures. To prevent collapse, engineers insulate it by enclosing members in fire-rated drywall, spraying hidden beams with a rough insulating slurry, or applying intumescent paint that swells into a heat-blocking foam crust.

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Factors to Consider When Choosing Structural Steel Material

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Structural steel is a category of steel used in construction and engineered structures due to its strength, ductility, and versatility. It is shaped into various profiles (beams, channels, angles, plates) for load-bearing applications in buildings, bridges, infrastructure, and machinery.

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ISRA MOHAMED 225760

MUHAMMAD HAMIZAN BIN MANAN 229239

MUHAMMAD NAZHEEM BIN SHAFIEE 227598

CHONG RUI HENTZ 228293

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Appropriate Steel System: Portal Frame System

Reason 1

Large Clear Span (Column-Free Space)

The rigid joints allow the frame to span 20–40 m or more without intermediate supports. This creates a wide, unobstructed hall ideal for sports, events, assemblies, or exhibitions where flexible space is required.

Reason 2

Efficient for High Roof & Load Resistance

The triangular action of the rafters and columns efficiently transfers roof loads, wind loads, and lateral forces down to the foundations. The haunched knee joint strengthens the critical bending zone, making it ideal for high ceiling conditions and long roof slopes.

Reason 3

Fast Construction & Cost Efficiency

Portal frames are typically prefabricated steel members that are quickly assembled on site. Fewer members, repetitive bays, and simple connections reduce construction time, labor, and cost compared to trusses or conventional beam-column systems.

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The most appropriate structural steel system is a clear span rigid steel portal frame or a steel truss system. These systems donot require internal columns, providing an unobstructed, flexible, and column free floor area.

Fast construction and flexible design

Strong and lightweight

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Single_storey_industrial_buildings

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1. Fire Protection and Thermal Sensitivity

While steel is non-combustible, it loses its structural integrity rapidly when exposed to high temperatures.Therefore, a steel structural system must always be paired with a robust fireproofing strategy to meet local building codes.

2. Buckling and Slenderness Ratios

Because steel is incredibly strong, structural members (like columns and beams) can be made much thinner and more slender than their concrete or masonry counterparts.

3. Corrosion Control and Environmental Exposure

Steel is highly susceptible to oxidation (rusting) when exposed to moisture and oxygen. Corrosion reduces the cross-sectional area of the structural members over time.

Reference : https://www.google.com/search?q=https://doi.org/10.1061/41130(369)215

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Appropriate System: Steel Portal Frame System

3 Reasons Why:

1.Column-Free Clear Span:

It can span wide distances without needing any middle pillars. This provides a completely open, unobstructed floor space for sports and events.

2.Moment-Resisting Knee Joints:

High-ceiling halls face strong wind loads. The Haunching (Knee Joint) uses grouped bolts to create a rigid connection that safely resists and transfers these heavy side forces.

3.Easy Assembly of Cladding & Roof:

The structural frame makes it simple to attach secondary pieces. Wall girts can support side cladding, and Z-purlins fit directly onto the rafters to carry the roof sheets easily.

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Portal_frames

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Structural_steelwork_specification

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1) Large Column-Free Space

A multipurpose hall requires a large uninterrupted space for activities such as exhibitions, sports, events, or assemblies. Steel portal frames can span large distances without internal columns, creating a flexible open-plan area.

2) High Strength and Durability

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making the structure strong yet relatively lightweight. It can withstand heavy roof loads, wind loads, and long spans while maintaining structural stability. Steel is also durable and long-lasting when properly protected from corrosion.

3) Fast and Economical Construction

Steel portal frames are usually prefabricated in factories and assembled on-site quickly. This reduces construction time, labour cost, and material waste, making it a cost-effective solution for large-span buildings like multipurpose halls.

https://kobexprojekt.eu/en/offer/steel-portal-frame-hall-design/

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Q1

Threat of Rust

Steel rusts quickly when exposed to moisture and air, architects cannot simply leave it bare without a plan. To keep the building safe and looking good, they either have to invest in expensive protective coatings like galvanization or hide the steel entirely behind cladding, which changes the overall look and bulk of the building.

Vulnerability to Extreme Heat

Even though steel does not burn, it loses its strength rapidly during a fire and can buckle under the building's weight. This forces architects to design around bulky fireproofing materials like wrapping the steel in drywall or spraying it with thick insulation, which ruins the slim, minimalist aesthetic they might have been aiming for.

Risk of Buckling

Steel is incredibly strong, allowing for very thin columns, but these thin pieces can easily bend or buckle under heavy, compressive loads. To prevent this, designers have to add diagonal bracing walls or X-frames, which can block views, disrupt open floor plans, and limit where windows can be placed.

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Appropriate Steel System: Space Truss (Space Frame) Steel System

3 Key Reasons:

1. Large column-free span

A space truss system can achieve a very large column-free open space (tens of meters in span), which perfectly meets the demand of a multipurpose hall for flexible layout, unobstructed sightlines, and versatile use for events, gatherings, or activities, while matching the high ceiling design.

2. Light weight & high structural rigidity

Compared with traditional concrete long-span structures or heavy steel beams, space trusses have lower self-weight but excellent overall structural rigidity. This effectively controls deflection and deformation in the high-ceiling, long-span condition, ensuring the safety and comfort of the building.

3. Flexible design & efficient construction

Space trusses can adapt to various roof shapes (flat, sloped, curved) to meet aesthetic requirements for the multipurpose hall. Also, steel members can be prefabricated in factories and assembled on-site, which greatly speeds up construction, shortens the project cycle, and simplifies later maintenance.

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Reason

1. Cost-effective and easy to construct.
- steel portal frames use fewer materials and can be prefabricated, making construction faster and more economical.

2. Rigid frame provides excellent resistance to bending.
- the strong beam-to-column connections help the structure resist heavy roof loads and wind forces.

3. Best for medium to large spans
- portal frames can create wide open spaces without many internal columns, suitable for multipurpose hall activities.

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Q3

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When considering steel as a structural system in buildings, there are several important factors that architects and engineers need to study.

1. Strength and Structural Performance
Steel has a very high strength-to-weight ratio compared to many other construction materials. This allows steel structures to support heavy loads while using slimmer columns and beams. Because of this, architects can design buildings with larger open spaces and longer spans without too many internal supports. Steel is also suitable for high-rise buildings because it can resist both vertical and lateral loads effectively.

2. Construction Speed and Flexibility
Another important factor is the speed of construction. Most steel components are prefabricated in factories before being transported to the construction site for assembly. This helps reduce construction time and improves accuracy. Steel structures are also flexible in design because they can be modified, extended, or dismantled more easily than reinforced concrete structures. This gives architects more freedom in planning future changes to the building.

3. Durability, Fire Resistance, and Maintenance
Although steel is strong, it can corrode when exposed to moisture and humid weather conditions, especially in tropical countries like Malaysia. Therefore, protective coatings such as paint or galvanising are required to prevent rusting. Steel also loses strength when exposed to very high temperatures during a fire. Because of this, fireproofing materials and insulation systems are important to maintain the safety and stability of the structure.

Reference:
Lie, T.T. (1978). Fire Resistance of Structural Steel. Engineering Journal, 15(4), 116–125.  Engineering Journal Article

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Describe 3 factors needed when considering steel as a structural  system in buildings.