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In summary, the 5 colombian plants are in reduced habitats, 4 of them are endemic of the country and are in endangered or critically endangered.

They have in common that they are rare species with very small distribution areas. They are affected mainly by overexploitation and the destruction of their habitat.

Only the wax palm Ceroxylon quindiuense presents clear conservation measures for its protection, the other plants present only proposals for their conservation

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5. Ceroxylon quindiuense
Endemic plant of Colombia. It grows in the Andes mountain range between 2000 and 3000 meters elevation, in humid montane forest areas.

It is a species endangered mainly by the tranformation of the habitat for livestock. Adult individuals are unable to reproduce in open areas and livestock grazing. Until recently thousands were cut of leaves to be used as bouquet in the Holy Week. Chopped stems are used for fences, beams and houses and the wax beams was extracted to make candles and matches, which led to the felling of trees.
A factor that contributes to aggravate the situation for this species, is the appearance, since the end of the 80s, a disease that manifests itself with a gradual drying of the leaves until the death of the plant.
Strictly speaking, it is protected by the law, since it was designated as "Colombian national tree", in 1985, where the protection of its habitat is demanded and logging is prohibited under criminal action. Although it is not confirmed, it is believed that the species is in the state protection area. There is also a ban to prevent the cutting of leaves in the celebrations of Easter and environmental education programs have been carried out throughout the country.

It has been proposed to evaluate the current state of the populations; promote the protection of areas where palm groves are still extensive; include it in botanical gardens and collections live, encourage its cultivation as an ornamental plant. Take actions for the study and control of the disease that affects adult individuals. Continue with the total closure to cut their leaves nationwide.

https://www.humboldt.org.co/es/component/k2/item/277-libro-rojo-de-plantas-de-colombia-vol-2-palmas-frailejones-y-zamias-serie-libros-rojos-de-especies-amenazadas?highlight=YTo2OntpOjA7czo1OiJsaWJybyI7aToxO3M6NjoibGlicm9zIjtpOjI7czo0OiJyb2pvIjtpOjM7czo1OiJyb2pvcyI7aTo0O3M6NzoicGxhbnRhcyI7aTo1O3M6MTA6ImxpYnJvIHJvam8iO30=

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4. Magnolia calimaensis
Endemic plant of Colombia. It is known from Chocó Biogeográfico, in the Bajo Calima region, to the west of the department of Valle del Cauca, below of 100 m of altitude in humid forests and very humid tropical forests.
Is critically endangered  because it is estimated that it has a extension of lesser presence of 100 km2 and it is known of only one location. The forests of the region have been subject to overexploitation of round wood and sawdust.
The locality where M. calimaensis is known has been much explored in the last decades, but the species has not been registered again, which may be indicative of its rarity in the region.
Conservation measures proposals suggest exploring the area of Bajo Calima in search of the species and make a diagnosis of its state of conservation. Confirm your presence in the Bahía Málaga Reserve and others reservations of the region. Develop propagation protocols for the species.

http://repository.humboldt.org.co/bitstream/handle/20.500.11761/31409/121.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

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3. Masdevallia apparitio
Endemic plant of Colombia. Known of a single locality in the north of the Western Mountain range in the municipality of Urrao (department of Antioquia), between 1800 and 2200 ms of altitude.

It has not been reported in its habitat since 1975 and the existing plants belong to descended cultivated plants from the original collection. The species could be affected by the Habitat destruction due to deforestation. Is critically endangered.
The taxon is grown ex situ at the botanical garden of Bogota and by orchid enthusiasts. This orchid is currently listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). It has been suggested that Masdevallia spp. should be protected, by listing them in CITES Appendix I.

https://www.humboldt.org.co/es/component/k2/item/280-libro-rojo-de-plantas-de-colombia-vol-6-orquideas-primera-parte-serie-libros-rojos-de-especies-amenazadas?highlight=YTo2OntpOjA7czo1OiJsaWJybyI7aToxO3M6NjoibGlicm9zIjtpOjI7czo0OiJyb2pvIjtpOjM7czo1OiJyb2pvcyI7aTo0O3M6NzoicGxhbnRhcyI7aTo1O3M6MTA6ImxpYnJvIHJvam8iO30=

for conservation measures: https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/44392250/44416391

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2. Zamia montana
Is a plant endemic to Colombia, known only from a small area in northwestern of the country between 1750 and 2000 meters elevation.
It is critically endangered due to its small distribution area (less than 100km2) and its habitat is extremely threatened by the local exploitation of wood and by the implementation of agricultural activities. It is also assumed that it is collected by nurserymen.
As a conservation measure it is grown in the botanical garden of Medellin. It has been proposed to diagnose the current state of the population and promote the protection of the only known locality under a local reserve area and establish germplasm banks

https://www.humboldt.org.co/es/component/k2/item/277-libro-rojo-de-plantas-de-colombia-vol-2-palmas-frailejones-y-zamias-serie-libros-rojos-de-especies-amenazadas?highlight=YTo2OntpOjA7czo1OiJsaWJybyI7aToxO3M6NjoibGlicm9zIjtpOjI7czo0OiJyb2pvIjtpOjM7czo1OiJyb2pvcyI7aTo0O3M6NzoicGxhbnRhcyI7aTo1O3M6MTA6ImxpYnJvIHJvam8iO30=

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1. Cariniana pyriformis
It is found in Colombia and Venezuela in dry forests or tropical moist forests between 30 and 770 meters elevation.
It is classified as critically endangered due to the overexploitation of wood, felling and the opening of land for extensive livestock and agriculture. It has lost about 80% of the habitat of this species in the last 100 years.
The conservation measures for the species are the exploration and monitoring of the remaining wild populations, propagation in vivarium and reintroduction in farms and reserves. The total closed season on the felling and exploitation of its wood in different locations in Colombia has been proposed.

https://www.sinchi.org.co/files/publicaciones/publicaciones/pdf/LR_MADERABLES.pdf

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5 plants on Red List of my PlantArea in Colombia

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5 plants on Red List of my PlantArea in Colombia

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https://revistas.unal.edu.co/index.php/agrocol/article/view/48412/51271
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322285912_Genetic_Engineering_of_Crop_Plants_Colombia_as_a_Case_Study
http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/agc/v25n2/v25n2a06.pdf

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The red books of plants of Colombia, where the species in the categories of threat are described can be consulted here
http://www.humboldt.org.co/es/buscar?q=libro+rojo+plantas

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Theophrastus Ereso was a Greek philosopher and disciple of Aristotle.
He contributed two of the most important works that are usually indicated as the origin of Botany: The "History of plants" in 9 books and "On the causes of plants" in 6 books. Both books are about the classification and ecology of plants, dealing with topics such as reproduction, distribution, habit of growth and their practical applications as food and medicine.

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Dracula velutina is a species of epiphytic orchid. It is originally from Colombia. Known from only three locations, close to each other. These localities still present some remaining forests, in very steep terrain. Probably, the populations are affected by deforestation and agricultural activities. It qualifies for the category of Vulnerable by criterion D2, since it is known less than five locations.

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Cryosophila kalbreyeri This palm is endemic to Colombia and Panama where it is treated in danger of extinction due to loss of habitat. Although it has a wide range of distribution, its habitat has been deforested and it is estimated that it has lost up to 30% of its population in the last three generations.

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Ceroxylon sasaimae is a species of flowering plant in the family Arecaceae. It is native to Colombia, where it is located in the Cordillera de los Andes at an altitude of 1400-1800 meters. Critically endangered species
The species is endangered by the small number of individuals calculated in 50 mature individuals. Its potential habitat is totally intervened by farming systems

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THEME 5: Threatening factors of plant diver

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THEME 5: Threatening factors of plant diver

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Although Colombia's contribution to the emission of greenhouse gases is very low at the international level, the country is one of the most vulnerable to the direct and indirect effects of the climate phenomenon

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Although Colombia's contribution to the emission of greenhouse gases is very low at the international level, the country is one of the most vulnerable to the direct and indirect effects of the climate phenomenon

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¿Qué está haciendo Colombia frente al Cambio Climático?

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The future climate on the Colombian territory will be doing

gradually warmer towards the end of the 21st century when it will be at 2.8-3.0 ° C above the 1976-2005 average, with the greatest warming in the low areas Eastern, Caribbean and Pacific
Magdalena river basin; the precipitation towards 2011-2040 will be reduced by more than 30% in sectors of the Caribbean region and in the Amazonian trapeze and will have increases greater than 30% in Cauca and Valle del Cauca, Eje Cafetero, Huila, Tolima, Cundinamarca and Boyacá; for the period 2041-2070 and 2071-2100 is maintained practically the same configuration the changes in precipitation.
More: http://documentacion.ideam.gov.co/openbiblio/bvirtual/023778/variabilidad.pdf

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Solanum tuberosum

The potato or potato  is a species of herbaceous plant. Native to the region that today would comprise the southern highlands of Peru and northwestern Bolivia. The tubers are used for food

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Cuminun cyminum
Native to the warm zones of Europe, China and India, annual herbaceous plant with stems of 30 to 50 cm in height, with finely divided dark green leaves, small flowers, white and sometimes pink or purpureous, growing in umbels. His color is brown
The aroma is warm, strong, pungent and pungent
It is used as a culinary condiment and as a medicine.

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Coriandrum sativum
Originally from the Middle East, it is an annual herbaceous plant, it flowers from the month of May onwards. Its fruits mature in June or July.
It is a usual spice in marinades.
All parts of the plant are used in the kitchen: roots, stems, leaves and seeds aromatize food

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The neotropical forest has the largest amount of plant species on the planet, with more than 90,000, and the most of them (> 95%) are angiosperms (Thomas 1999).

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The Andes mountain range is the main natural component that divides the South American continent in the east-west direction, presenting an Amazonian block and an Andean block, of greater diversity in altitudes and valleys.
The other macroenvironments represented in the Neotropical region are Brazil and Guayana; the sedimentary depressions of the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Chaco-Pampeana plain; the extra-Andean Patagonia; El Monte and Sierra Pampeana.
Tropical climates dominate most of the continent and the Caribbean, while maritime climates dominate to the south.
The western region of Colombia can present a rainfall index of up to 9000mm per year, while the Amazon basin presents an average of 2000mm per year.

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Studies about medicinal properties Bixa orellana:
The studies discussed in this review represent a rich database around the Bixa orellana activities and its potential uses, which evokes the feasibility of phytopharmaceuticals to treat some diseases whenever an antioxidant, hypotensor, or hypoglycemiant activity is necessary.

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Studies about medicinal properties Bixa orellana:
The studies discussed in this review represent a rich database around the Bixa orellana activities and its potential uses, which evokes the feasibility of phytopharmaceuticals to treat some diseases whenever an antioxidant, hypotensor, or hypoglycemiant activity is necessary.

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https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2014/857292/

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba

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This study evaluated the phenolic profiles and the antioxidant activities of seven different accessions of L. alba. The seven accessions of L. alba studied exhibited an important phenolic content, and all accessions demonstrated antioxidant activity with different efficacies...This extract was able to reduce hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in tissue homogenates of cerebellum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus and liver of Wistar rats.

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Antioxidant Effect of Lippia alba (Miller) N. E. Brown

Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, RS 95070560, Brazil

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Received: 11 July 2013; in revised form: 11 September 2013 / Accepted: 12 September 2013 / Published: 26 September 2013

antioxidant; flavonoids; radical scavenger; Lippia alba

1. Introduction

The species Lippia alba (Miller) N. E. Brown, is known in Brazil as "erva-cidreira". L. alba is an aromatic shrub in the Verbenaceae family that grows wild in Central and South America. This plant is used in folk medicine as a sedative [ 1]; a treatment for cardiovascular diseases, diabetes [ 2] and hepatic diseases [ 3]; a syrup against bronchitis [ 4]; and an anticandida agent [ 5]. L. alba expresses morphological and phytochemical variations, which characterize the different accessions of this plant [ 6]. High qualitative and quantitative variations of the essential oil composition of L. alba accessions have been reported previously [ 6, 7, 8]. This plant also contains phenolic compounds, primarily flavonoids [ 9] that exert antioxidant properties. However, possible variations in the levels of these compounds and/or the antioxidant activity of different L. alba accessions are not known. Phenolic compounds possess many biological effects, including the scavenging of free radicals, which minimizes the incidence of several diseases that are associated with oxidative damage, such as found in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, cirrhosis, cancer and atherosclerosis [ 10].

Different methods to measure the antioxidant activity of natural compounds have been developed, and more than one method should be used to produce more reliable results. Among the in vitro assays, the ability of one compound to donate electrons to the stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH *) is one of the most used and reproducible assays [ 11]. Moreover, the ability of some compounds to act in a similar manner as the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) is also commonly used [ 12, 13]. Assays using mammalian living cells are useful in the identification of antioxidant activity [ 14, 15, 16]. Brain cells are highly vulnerable to oxidative damage due to their high consumption of oxygen, the presence of large amounts of easily oxidizable polyunsaturated fatty acids, and an abundance of redox-active transition metal ions [ 17]. Oxidative damage is also associated with liver diseases, including cirrhosis and tumors [ 18]. Brain and hepatic cells were chosen for this study because L. alba is used in folk medicine as a sedative [ 1] and for the treatment of hepatic diseases [ 3].

Few studies have investigated the in vitro antioxidant activity of L. alba extracts obtained with organic solvents [ 19, 20] and essential oils [ 21]. However, the differences in phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of different accessions of L. alba are not known. In this perspective, this work compared total phenolic content, main flavonoids levels and the antioxidant activity of seven different accessions of L. alba. The ability of the highest phenolic content extract to reduce the oxidative damage in tissue homogenates of central nervous system (CNS) and liver of Wistar rats was also evaluated.

2. Experimental Section

2.1. Plant Material

L. alba (Miller) N. E. Brown plants were collected from six different localities (Barra do Quaraí, Caxias do Sul, Harmonia, Pelotas, Porto Alegre and Santa Vitória do Palmar) in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. One plant, the Pinheira accession, was collected in the state of Santa Catarina, which is also in southern Brazil ( Table 1).

The accessions were maintained in a greenhouse at the Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul (29°10′122″ S 51°11′118″ W), Brazil. Plants were propagated by cutting the branches and maintaining the descendants, which were genetically identical to the mother plant. Voucher specimens were identified by the herbarium of the University of Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Barra do Quaraí HUCS26630; Caxias do Sul HUCS24689; Harmonia HUCS35972; Pelotas HUCS26631; Pinheira HUCS35971; Porto Alegre HUCS26632; Santa Vitória do Palmar HUCS32197).

2.2. Preparation of Lippia alba Extracts

Plant leaves were collected on the morning of April 2009 and dried at a constant temperature of 32 °C. The dried leaf powders (10 g) were extracted with 200 mL of hexane, chloroform and ethanol, consecutively, using a Soxhlet apparatus. The last extracts (ethanolic) were filtered and concentrated in a rotary vacuum evaporator to completely remove the solvent. These extracts were dissolved in 10 mL ethanol, and the solutions were used for determination of total phenolic content, main flavonoids and antioxidant activity. The effects of L. alba on rat tissues were evaluated using the extract with the highest naringin and total phenolic content, Santa Vitória do Palmar, which was dissolved in 2.5 mL dimethylsulfoxide plus 7.5 mL distilled water. This solution was dissolved in water to obtain a final concentration of 10 μg/mL. All solutions were prepared immediately prior to use.

2.3. Determination of Total Phenolic Content

Total phenolic content of L. alba extracts was measured using the Singleton and Rossi modification of the Folin-Ciocalteau colorimetric method [ 22]. Briefly, 200 μL of the extracts were assayed in 1000 μL Folin-Ciocalteau reagent and 800 μL sodium carbonate (7.5%, w/v). The mixture was vortexed and diluted (1:10) in distilled water. The absorbance was measured at 765 nm (SP-220 spectrophotometer, Biospectro/Brazil) after 30 min, and the total phenolic content is expressed as equivalents of gallic acid/ dry leaves (mg/g).

2.4. Quantification of the Main Flavonoids of Lippia alba

A hydrolysis of the ethanol extracts was performed to release the aglycones of the flavonoid glycosides. The extracts were diluted in ethanol to a final volume of 50 mL. Twenty-five milliliters of this solution were added to 0.5 mL of an aqueous solution of hexamethylenetetramine 0.5% (w/v) followed by 30 mL acetone and 1 mL hydrochloric acid 37% (w/v). This mixture was refluxed for 30 min and filtered at room temperature. Twenty milliliters of this solution was diluted in distilled water (30 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (15 mL). This procedure was repeated three times. The ethyl acetate fraction was concentrated in a rotary evaporator and resuspended in 20 mL methanol.

HPLC analysis evaluated apigenin, catechin, epicatequin, kaempferol, luteolin, naringin, quercetin, rutin, and taxifolin content using a series HP1100 equipped with a UV detector and quaternary pumping system as described previously [ 23]. Flavonoid separation was performed in a 5 µm Lichrospher RP18 column, 250 mm 4 mm. The hydrolyzed extracts were eluted at 1 mL/min (20 µL injection volume) using a binary solvent system as the mobile phase. Solvent A was methanol, and solvent B was a water/acetic acid glacial mixture (100/1 v/v). The following gradient conditions were used: solvent A 5% and solvent B 95% (0 min), solvent A 40% and solvent B 60% (25 min), solvent A 60% and solvent B 40% (40 min), solvent A 90% and solvent B 10% (50 min), solvent A 90% and solvent B 10% (55 min), solvent A 5% and solvent B 95% (60 min). Flavonoids were monitored by UV absorbance at 350 nm. All chromatographic procedures were performed at 25 °C. The quantities of the main flavonoids were estimated from the standard curves of standard compounds (all from Sigma-Aldrich). Flavonoids concentrations are expressed as µg/g of dry leaves.

2.5. Antioxidant Activity of the Different Accessions of Lippia alba

Antioxidant activity of the seven extracts of L. alba was measured using DPPH * (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging ability, and superoxide dismutase-like and catalase-like assays. The DPPH * assay was performed using a modified Yamaguchi et al. [ 11] method. Briefly, the ethanolic stock solutions of the extracts were diluted to different concentrations (0.05% to 0.50%, v/v) using ethanol p.a. These solutions were added to a Tris-HCl buffer (100 mM, pH 7.0) containing 250 µmol L −1 DPPH * dissolved in ethanol. Tubes were stored on dark for 20 min, and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. The results are expressed as IC ₅₀ (the amount of the extract needed to scavenger 50% of DPPH *). Superoxide dismutase-like assay was measured as the inhibition of the self-catalytic adrenochrome formation rate at 480 nm in a reaction medium containing 1 mmol L −1 adrenaline (pH 2.0) and 50 mmol L −1 glycine (pH 10.2). This reaction was performed at 30 °C for 3 min [ 24]. The results are expressed as IC ₅₀ (µL of extract needed to reduce 50% of the adrenochrome formation). Catalase-like assay determined the hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate at 240 nm [ 25]. The results are expressed in mmol of H ₂O ₂ decomposed/min.

2.6. Effects of Lippia alba Extract in Brain and Liver Tissues of Wistar Rats

The extract of L. alba with the highest naringin and total phenolic content (Santa Vitória do Palmar) was also studied in brain and livers tissue homogenates of thirty-day-old Wistar rats. The rats were obtained from the breeding colony of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, and maintained at approximately 25 °C on a 12-h light/dark cycle with food and water available ad libitum. All experiments were conducted in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. All efforts were made to minimize animal suffering and the number of animals necessary to produce reliable scientific data.

Ten male rats were euthanized by decapitation without anesthesia, and the brain and liver were rapidly excised on an iced Petri dish. The cerebellum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and liver were dissected. Tissues from all rats were mixed and homogenized in PBS (pH 7.4) using a ground glass-type Potter-Elvehjem homogenizer. The homogenates were centrifuged (800× g) for 10 min at 4 °C, the pellets were discarded, and the supernatants were used immediately. Aliquots (1000 µL) were added to the L. alba extracts for 30 min, and 5 mmol L −1 H ₂O ₂ was added. Tubes were maintained for 1 h at 37 °C under constant agitation. Samples including only the extract or H ₂O ₂ (5 mmol L −1) were also evaluated.

Lipid and protein oxidative damage, and activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (EC1.15.1.1) and catalase (EC1.11.1.6) were measured. Lipid peroxidation was monitored using the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) during an acid-heating reaction. This method has been widely adopted as a sensitive method for the measurement of lipid peroxidation. Trichloroacetic acid (1000 μL, 5%) was added to 250 μL of the samples, and the solution was centrifuged at 7000× g for 10 min. Sulfuric acid (1000 μL, 3 mol L −1) was mixed with thiobarbituric acid (1000 μL) solution. The reaction mixture was incubated in a boiling water bath for 15 min and cooled to room temperature. N-butanol (3500 μL) was added and centrifuged at 7000× g for 5 min. The absorbance was read at 532 nm [ 26]. The results are expressed as nmol of TBARS/mg of protein. Oxidative damage to proteins was determined by carbonyl groups based on the reaction with dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). DNPH reacts with protein carbonyls to form hydrazones that are measured spectrophotometrically. DNPH (200 µL, 10 mmol L −1), or HCl (200 μL, 2 mol L −1) for control, were added to the supernatants (50 μL). The reaction mixture was incubated in the dark for 30 min with agitation. Trichloroacetic acid (250 μL, 20%) was added, and the solution was centrifuged at 4000× g for 8 min. The supernatant was discarded, and the pellet was washed 3 times with ethanol-ethyl acetate (1:1) to remove free reagents. The samples were centrifuged, and the pellets were dissolved in a guanidine solution (600 μL, 6 mol L −1) at 37 °C for 15 min. Absorbance was read at 365 nm, and results are expressed as nmol of DNPH/mg of protein [ 27]. Superoxide dismutase activity was measured spectrophotometrically as the inhibition of the ratio of autocatalytic adrenochrome formation at 480 nm in a reaction medium containing 1 nmol L −1 adrenaline (pH 2.0) and 50 nmol L −1 glycine (pH 10.2). This reaction was performed at a constant temperature of 30 °C for 3 min. The results are expressed as superoxide dismutase units/mg of protein. One unit of SOD is defined as the amount of enzyme that inhibits the rate of adrenochrome formation by 50% [ 24]. Catalase activity was measured according to the method described by Aebi [ 25]. The assay determines the rate of H ₂O ₂ decomposition at 240 nm. The reaction was conducted at 30 °C for 1 min. The results are expressed as units/mg of protein. One unit is defined as the amount of enzyme that decomposes 1 mmol of H ₂O ₂ in 1 min at pH 7.4. Total protein was determined as described by Bradford [ 28] using bovine serum albumin as standard. All absorbances were measured in spectrophotometer model UV-1700 (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan).

2.7. Statistical Analysis

All measurements were performed in triplicate, and the means and standard deviation (S.D.) are reported. Data underwent an analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's post hoc test and Pearson correlation using SPSS version 16.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Values of P ≤ 0.05 were considered significant.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content in the Extracts

The different accessions of L. alba exhibited different profiles of phenolic compounds. The Harmonia accession exhibited the lowest level of total phenolic content, and the highest total phenolic content was observed in the Santa Vitória do Palmar accession. HPLC analysis demonstrated presence of the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, naringin and rutin, in all seven different accessions of L. alba. Naringin exhibited the highest concentration in all accessions. The Caxias do Sul accession presented the highest levels of apigenin (73.36 ± 3.30 µg/g of dry leaves). The Harmonia accession contained the highest levels of luteolin (67.82 ± 3.53 µg/g of dry leaves) and rutin (34.53 ± 2.13 µg/g of dry leaves). The Santa Vitória do Palmar accession exhibited the highest concentrations of naringin (707.04 ± 7.67 µg/g of dry leaves) ( Table 2). Catechin, epicatechin, kaempferol, quercetin and taxifolin were not identified in any accession. Apigenin, luteolin [ 9] and biflavonoids [ 29] have been observed in leaves of L. alba previously. However, this study is the first to detect the presence of naringin and rutin in this plant. No biflavonoids were observed in the extracts in our work, which may be due to the different extraction methods used and/or differences in the plants that were evaluated.

The seven accessions were acclimated in a greenhouse in Caxias do Sul, Brazil. Therefore, the differences in the phenolic compound profiles were likely not attributable to differences in climate, soil, incidence of light, altitude, latitude, planting method, fertilization or cultural practice. It is more probable that these accessions are different cultivars of L. alba. In fact, notable morphological differences (data not shown) between the leaves of the different accessions were observed, which corroborates this hypothesis.

3.2. Antioxidant Activity of the Different Accessions of Lippia alba

DPPH * scavenging ability is a widely used method for the evaluation of antioxidant activities in a relatively short time compared to other methods [ 30], and is very useful for the screening of a large number of samples [ 13]. Our study demonstrated that all accessions of L. alba exerted important antioxidant activity in this assay, with Harmonia being the most efficient. The antioxidant activity (DPPH * assay) of L. alba hydroalcoholic [ 20] and methanolic [ 19] extracts from the leaves and flowers of L. alba has been reported, and this corroborates the data in this work. All accessions of L. alba also demonstrated SOD- and CAT-like activities ( Table 3). Pinheira has the higher SOD-like activity, and Barra do Quaraí the higher CAT-like activity. SOD catalyzes the dismutation of a superoxide anion (O ₂−*) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide (H ₂O ₂), and CAT converts H ₂O ₂ to water and molecular oxygen [ 31]. The ability of the extracts to behave as antioxidant enzymes plays a pivotal role in maintenance of the physiological redox equilibrium, avoiding or decreasing the oxidative stress. Positive correlations between the phenolic compounds and the antioxidant activity of L. alba accessions were observed ( Table 4), which suggests that these compounds are at least partially responsible for the antioxidant activity observed in this study. Phenolic compounds scavenge superoxide and hydrogen peroxide reactive species [ 31], which corroborates our data.

Table 3. DPPH * radical scavenging, superoxide dismutase-like and catalase-like activities in different accessions of Lippia alba.

Table 4. Pearson correlations between phenolic compounds of Lippia alba accessions and DPPH *, superoxide dismutase-like and catalase-like assays.

3.3. Effects of Lippia alba Extract in Brain and Liver Tissue Homogenates

Santa Vitória do Palmar accession, which exhibited the highest naringin and total phenolic contents was also studied in tissue homogenates of Wistar rats. The cerebral cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus are the foremost integrative areas that are affected in various neurodegenerative disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases [ 32, 33]. Cerebral cortex and hippocampus are associated with cognition and feedback stress control, and the cerebellum controls motor function [ 34]. Free radicals are also associated with the occurrence of some liver diseases, primarily through lipid peroxidation [ 35].

In the present work, the treatment with L. alba extract alone did not induce oxidative damage to lipids or proteins or modulate the activities of SOD and CAT enzymes in any of the assayed tissues ( Table 5 and Table 6). On the other hand, L. alba pretreatments minimize H ₂O ₂-induced lipid (TBARS) and protein oxidative damage in CNS and liver tissues of Wistar rats ( Table 5). TBARS assay is one of the oldest and most frequently used tests for the measurement of the peroxidation of fatty acids and membranes. Malondialdehyde is the main product of lipid peroxidation, and this product is a powerful genotoxic and carcinogenic compound [ 31]. Proteins are also targets of oxidative modification by reactive oxygen species. These reactions often lead to the modification of certain amino acid residues and the formation of carbonyl derivates, which are linked to losses in physiological functions under pathological processes or during aging [ 36]. Pretreatment with L. alba extracts prevented the H ₂O ₂-induced increase in SOD and CAT activities in CNS and liver tissues ( Table 6). L. alba extracts contained high levels of phenolic compounds ( Table 2), which seems to be correlated with the antioxidant effects observed in this study. Polyphenols may act as hydrogen donators and/or reducing agents [ 37], and exert neuroprotective [ 14, 15, 16] and hepatoprotective [ 16] effects. It is known that these compounds can play an important role in delaying the onset of age-related health disorders [ 38, 39]. However, more research is needed to better understand the mechanisms through which polyphenols are able to act, mainly at physiological relevant levels. Therefore, the therapeutic potential of these natural compounds still remains to be confirmed in clinical conditions.

4. Conclusions

These data demonstrated that different L. alba accessions presented different phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities. It was showed, for the first time, that L. alba extracts possessed high levels of naringin and rutin, which are flavonoids with valuable biological properties. Therefore, the biological activities of the L. alba extracts is an important issue for further investigations in the ethnopharmacological sciences.

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Antioxidant Effect of Lippia alba (Miller) N. E. Brown

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Lippia alba is a shrub found in all regions of Brazil and other countries in South and Central America. L. alba exhibits variability among its different accessions, showing differences in morphology and in the composition of its essential oil. This study evaluated the phenolic profiles and the antioxidant activities of seven different accessions of L.

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba:

Current studies show that natural products represent a rich potential source of new anti-dengue compounds. Among these plants is Lippia alba  

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba:

Current studies show that natural products represent a rich potential source of new anti-dengue compounds. Among these plants is Lippia alba  

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Potential anti-dengue medicinal plants: a review

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Dengue fever causes mortality and morbidity around the world, specifically in the Tropics and subtropic regions, which has been of major concern to governments and the World Health Organization...

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Euphorbia pulcherrima
In Colombia, trees are not used at Christmas. People buy plastic pine trees to decorate. However, some plants like the Poinsettias by their colors and shapes are commonly used on these dates to decorate homes at Christmas
https://www.agronegocios.co/agricultura/mas-de-400000-poinsettias-salen-al-mercado-para-la-temporada-de-navidad-2800122

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Aguardiente is perhaps the most representative alcoholic beverage for Colombians, so its production has been industrialized and does not follow craft processes like those of other liquors. It is a distilled of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) that is added anise, what gives it its characteristic flavor. It is a fairly strong drink with a high sugar content, so in addition to producing drunkenness produces strong hangovers. In Colombia, several departments stand out for the production of aguardiente, among them: Huila, Antioquia, Meta, Valle del Cauca, Tolima and Caldas.

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Chicha is an ancestral drink that is elaborated mainly with the fermentation of pineapple (Ananas comosus) or grain corn (Zea mays). Depending on the degree of fermentation, the beverage becomes stronger. It is usually a handmade drink, from mild to medium alcohol content. Its origin is attributed to the natives of the savannah of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, the two departments where its consumption is most common.

Corn chicha or chicha de jora, traditionally repared by chewing the corn to make the mixture and then let it ferment in a clay pot with spices and panela. At the moment the grains of the ear are ground with a mill.

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba:

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Studies about medicinal properties Lippia alba:

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Lippia alba is a medicinal plant known in Colombia as "prontoalivio" and it is used for the treatment of multiple gastrointestinal ailments. The essential oil, the aqueous and alcoholic extracts obtained from the plant have shown antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic and antifungal power.

In the present study, the in vitro antibacterial effect of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Lippia alba against three isolates of Helicobacter pylori was determined.

Additional studies are required to establish the potential clinical use of the aqueous extract in combination with antibiotic treatments.
http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0120-99572011000200002

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Sedative, diabetic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, for digestive and antispasmodic disorders, antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic and antifungal

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Shape: perennial grass, sometimes shrub up to 2 m tall, with a strong smell of lemon, lime or mint.
Leaves:  opposite or sometimes alternate and oblong sheet. Petioles up to 14 mm long, leaves 2 - 7 cm long, oblong, oblong lanceolate, oblong ovate, acute or obtuse, cuneate or attenuated at the base.
Flower: Inflorescence.  Zigomorphic flowers, hermaphrodites in axillary spikes, solitary or apparently at the beginning subglobose, about 6 mm in length,Corolla tube 3 - 5 mm long, corolla lilac pale to purple, or white to purple, 5 to 6 mm long and features a cylindrical tube
Fruit: The fruits are about 3 mm long, in drupe or dry capsule with a dark violet membranous exocarp, which is separated at the end in two little walnuts

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Studies about medicinal properties Bixa orellana:

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Studies about medicinal properties Bixa orellana:

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Annate extracts have different pharmacological properties including the antitumor, anti-inflammatory, astringent, emollient, antiseptic, antibacterial, antioxidant, cicatrizant among others and has been prescribed in wounds and burns cure.
This study seeks to make a review of the chemical composition, toxicology and pharmacological effects of interest for the potential treatment of disorders in the field of stomatology in order to validate from clinical practices the usefulness of the extraxtos of the plant:  http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-75152010000200012

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Medicinal [leaf, seed, fruit, root, stem].
Properties and actions: astringent, antiseptic, emollient, antibacterial, antioxidant, expectorant, healing, febrifuge, stomatologic and antidisenteric.
Leaf: diuretic and antigonorreic properties, erythema, Erysipelas, stomach, vomit of blood, hemorrhoids, headache and throat, purging, inflammation, hypoglycemic The use of the seed and the fruit is consider an effective antidote against poisoning for Jatropha curcas (abdominal pains, diarrhea, vomit, throat irritation, gastroenteritis) and Manihot esculenta (dyspneic manifestations and until death of the subject). Seed (ground): measles, smallpox, Stomachache, kidney diseases, dysentery and Febrifuge, astringent and light purgative. The oil of the seeds can be used successfully against leprosy. Pulp: burns and blisters. Root: digestive and antitussive Tea made with small stems and leaves. It is used as an antidisenteric, aphrodisiac, astringent and to treat skin infections, fevers and hepatitis.
Extracts in ethyl alcohol from fruits and leaves have shown to have in vitro activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus

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Flower: Colorful flowers, arranged in terminal corimbos, carrying the peduncles from 2 to 4 pink, reddish or white flowers, from 4 to 5.5 cm diameter; chalice of 5 sepals, chestnut green that will soon they fall; corolla with 5 petals, wide and rounded.
Fruit: The fruit is an ovoid to ovoid capsule globose, brown-reddish, 3 to 5 cm long by 3 to 4.5 cm in diameter, dehiscent by 2 valves, bristling small thin and soft stingers up to 6 mm; ontaining approximately 50 seeds.
Seeds: Red seeds almost triangular something compressed and small, from 5 to 5.5 mm long by 4 to 5 mm wide, with a pulpy red head and a fleshy albumen. The cotyledons are flat.
Sexuality: Hermaphrodite

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Shape: Shrub or small tree, evergreen up to 9 meters high.
Cup / Leaves: Rounded and dense cup. Leaves simple, alternate, large and glossy, ovate, long tip at the apex, on thin and long petioles, heart-shaped at the base, remarkable points of color brown on the underside, 9 to 19 cm long by 6 to 11 cm wide.
Trunk / Branches: Cylindrical trunk. Young branches light brown, thin; the green tips.
Cortex. External clear coffee, somewhat fissured, easily detaches in long strips. Yellow inner or yellow-orange, with orange, sticky sap, slightly bitter.
Root: Pivotal and very long radical system.

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The threat of climate change and the knowledge that it is related to CO2 emissions from fossil fuels has led scientists to look for alternatives for our energy needs, that is in the cultivation of biofuel crops. However, Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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THEME 4: Plants as source for the future

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THEME 4: Plants as source for the future

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In south America, tree species are ‘on the run’, trying to move to ground of higher altitude this is due to:
Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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Alexander von Humboldt an intrepid explorer of nature made great contributions in disciplines such as geology, mineralogy, astronomy, biology and humanism. He sought with his book Cosmos to make an essay on all the knowledge of his time, especially the material world, gathering everything that exists in the sky and the Earth, a scientific but also philosophical knowledge. Humboldt wanted the universality of knowledge, to give recognition to different cultures, to the rights and freedoms of man.
He was a great influence for other naturalists, writers and politicians such as Darwin, Goethe and Simón Bolívar in topics such as revolution, evolution, ecology, conservation, art and literature

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The location of Colombia in the world and all the abiotic factors that converge in this region, allows it to have a large number of ecosystems with a high variability of fauna and flora. Besides being one of the countries with the greatest diversity of plant species in the world http://antonelli-lab.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Antonelli-Sanmartin_2011-Taxon.pdf

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The Neotropics extends from Mexico, the Caribbean and South America.
It is characterized by the high presence of tropical forests, great animal and plant riches; seasons of precipitations and droughts well marked throughout the year.
Some mountainous or forested territories with temperate characteristics, such as the Patagonian or Valdivian forest, are included within the neotropics.

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THEME 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

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THEME 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

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The Amazon is the most extensive humid forest on Earth. In Colombia, it presents an unparalleled biological diversity with more than 6300 different plants (WWF citation). It is estimated that throughout the Amazon there are more than 390,000 million trees and 10% of the world's biodiversity. In Colombia, the region covers almost a third of the country.
The amazonian region of Colombia has eight national parks, two natural national reserves and one sanctuary of flora of medicinal plants

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Impenetrable jungles, fast flowing rivers, the most extensive mangroves in South America, great diversity of endemic species, endless beaches of black sand, coral reefs, an incredible abundance of fish and a unique cultural mosaic. The richness of the Colombian Pacific is impressive and it is also a hotspot of biodiversity.
The Colombian Pacific is part of the Chocó Biogeographic region, it is located in the departments of Antioquia, Chocó, Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nariño. In its extension it has seven national natural parks, a sanctuary of flora and fauna and two districts of integral management.

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The Andes has a diversity of climates and exceptional ecosystems, ranging from the perpetual snow to the foothills of the Amazon, through the páramos, the cloud forests or the wetlands. It is one of the areas with the greatest biodiversity on the planet, with a number of species of fauna and flora equivalent to those of the Amazon, due to the large number of thermal floors that occur in the coordilleras. The Colombian Andes have fourteen national natural parks, five sanctuaries and a unique natural area.

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Bixa orellana Classification:

Kingdom: Plantae
Subreino: Tracheobionta
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Subclass: Rosidae
Order: Malvales
Family: Bixaceae
Genre: Bixa
Species: Bixa orellana

Etimology: The word "achiote" comes from the axiotl voice meaning "grain" or "seed". The name of the genus Bixa derives from the common name (bixa or bija) given by the natives of the Antilles, the epithet orellana was given in honor of the Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana, a companion of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru and discoverer of the Amazon. Bija was the name given to the red wine dye obtained from this plant, in the Pijaos communities of Colombia.

Common names: achiote, achote, urucú, rocú, onoto, bija or benis.

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Lippia alba:
Classification:
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Lamiales
Family: Verbenaceae
Genre: Lippia
Species: Lippia alba

Etimology: Genre Lippia, in honor of the French physician and naturalist Augusto Lippi. Epiteto alba, from the Latin album = whiteness.

Common names: pronto alivio​, candó, lipia arbustiva, cidrón,  quita dolor, orégano de cerro, curalotodo, juanilama, hierba negra, pitiona y salvia morada in Argentina.
Studies about medicinal properties Bixa orellana: