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A German confederation formed but it was inefficient at stopping the rivalry between Prussia and Austria . But unification still became stronger, festivals supporting unification started happening.

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He was one of the only people to create a unified Germany . He became the chancellor and stopped at nothing to achieve his goals. He also created a strong army.

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Table of Contents

1. Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

2. Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

3. Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

4. Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

Germany became a modern, unified nation under the leadership of the "Iron Chancellor" Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who between 1862 and 1890 effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany. A master strategist, Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership. Although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms-including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state-in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars.

Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was born April 1, 1815, at his family's estate in the Prussian heartland west of Berlin. His father was a fifth-generation Junker (a Prussian landowning noble), and his mother came from a family of successful academics and government ministers. Throughout his life Bismarck would emphasize his rural Junker roots, underplaying his considerable intellect and cosmopolitan outlook.

Did you know? Although German leader Otto von Bismarck wore a general's uniform in public for much of his later life (and successfully prosecuted three wars as chancellor), his only prior military service was a brief, unwilling stint in a reserve unit.

Bismarck was educated in Berlin and after university took a series of minor diplomatic posts before retiring, at age 24, to run his family's estate at Kneiphof. In 1847 he married and was sent to Berlin as a delegate to the new Prussian parliament, where he emerged as a reactionary voice against the liberal, anti-autocratic Revolutions of 1848.

From 1851 to 1862 Bismarck served a series of ambassadorships-at the German Confederation in Frankfurt, in St. Petersburg and in Paris-that gave him valuable insight into the vulnerabilities of Europe's great powers.

Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

William I became Prussia's king in 1861 and a year later appointed Bismarck as his chief minister. Though technically deferring to William, in reality Bismarck was in charge, manipulating the king with his intellect and the occasional tantrum while using royal decrees to circumvent the power of elected officials.

In 1864 Bismarck began the series of wars that would establish Prussian power in Europe. He attacked Denmark to gain the German-speaking territories of Schleswig-Holstein and two years later provoked Emperor Franz-Josef I into starting the Austro-Prussian War (1866), which ended in a swift defeat for the aging Austrian empire. At the time, Bismarck wisely declined to levy a war indemnity against the Austrians.

Bismarck was less circumspect in his conduct of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Seeing the opportunity to unify Germany's loose confederations against an outside enemy, Bismarck stirred political tensions between France and Prussia, famously editing a telegram from William I to make both countries feel insulted by the other. The French declared war, but the Prussians and their German allies won handily. Prussia levied an indemnity, annexed the French border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and crowned William emperor of a unified Germany (the Second Reich) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles-a tremendous insult to the French.

Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

With Germany unified, William I and Bismarck turned to entrenching their domestic power. For much of the 1870s Bismarck pursued a Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) against Catholics, who made up 36 percent of Germany's population, by placing parochial schools under state control and expelling the Jesuits. In 1878 Bismarck relented, allying with the Catholics against the growing socialist threat.

In the 1880s Bismarck set aside his conservative impulses to counter the socialists by creating Europe's first modern welfare state, establishing national healthcare (1883), accident insurance (1884) and old age pensions (1889). Bismarck also hosted the 1885 Berlin Conference that ended the "Scramble for Africa," dividing the continent between the European powers and establishing German colonies in Cameroon, Togoland and East and Southwest Africa.

Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

William I died in 1888 and was succeeded by his son Frederick III and then his grandson William II, both of whom Bismarck found difficult to control. In 1890 the new king forced Bismarck out. William II was left in control of a flourishing unified state but was ill-equipped to maintain Bismarck's carefully manipulated balance of international rivalries. Respected and honored by the time of his death eight years later, Bismarck quickly became a quasi-mythic figure invoked by political leaders calling for strong German leadership-or for war.

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Otto von Bismarck - Biography, World Wars & Facts

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Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)-also known as the "Iron Chancellor"-was Chancellor of the newly-united German Empire from 1862 to 1890. During his tenure he modernized the nation and helped set the stage for World War I.

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Started off by trying to unify the Italian states on the peninsula into one country. Count Camillo was dedicated to the unification of the northern Italian peninsula, and eventually accomplished that. As well as Garibaldi helping unify Italy.

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Giuseppe Mazzini, he established a group called Young Italy who believed a spark needed to be ignited for people to rise up and unite.

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Let's find out more about The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy!

The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were part of the widespread revolutionary wave that swept across Europe. With the rise of new ideas that influenced the reforms in the Papal States, the organised revolts broke out in other parts of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily.

A few small victories were achieved during the revolutions in Italy, but these were outweighed by the general failure to gain independence from foreign rule and drive out the Austrians. Nevertheless, the revolutions paved the way for an Italian unification that would materialise in the succeeding decades.

Overview of the Revolutions of 1848

In 1848 and early 1849, Europe witnessed its most widespread revolutionary wave now often referred to as the Springtime of Nations or the Year of Revolution. The increasingly radical widespread protests affected more than fifty countries with France, the states of the German Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire having the most important revolutions. Whilst the uprisings had no significant coordination among their respective revolutionaries, they were brought about by similar contributing factors such as dissatisfaction with the poor governance and the negligence of the European monarchs towards the people, the emergence of new ideas such as nationalism, liberalism, and socialism in Europe, and the shared desire for reform of the middle and working classes. Most of the revolutions of 1848 generally failed and led to the conservatives regaining power. Nevertheless, they effectively catalysed significant reforms in various European states.

Features of the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy

At the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848, Italy had separate kingdoms, duchies and states and was fragmented under foreign dominance: the Austrians in the north and the Bourbons in the south. In central Italy, the Pope personally controlled the Papal States. Like the rest of Europe, Italy suffered from economic depression brought about by crop failures and widespread unemployment. The desire to unify Italy was fueled by new ideas that emerged during the period. These conditions led to the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy.

Aims of the revolutions in Italy

Break away from the conservative leadership of the Austrians

Create a united and independent state

Significant figures of the revolutions

Giuseppe Mazzini: A native of Genoa, he was a key supporter of the Italian unification. He was a writer who founded a republican group known as the Young Italy that helped spread liberalism.

Pope Pius IX: He replaced his conservative predecessor in 1846. He declared amnesty to political prisoners and exiles of the Papal States and presented himself as a liberal pope.

Charles Albert: He was the liberal monarch of Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia, Nice and Savoy. He had the potential and resources to build a strong army to stand up to the Austrians.

Klemens von Metternich: He was the Austrian foreign minister who saw Italian nationalism and liberalism as a threat to the Austrian Empire.

Joseph Radetzky von Radetz: He was the Austrian general commissioned to lead the army against the revolutionaries in Italy.

The upsurge of uprisings in Italy

Inspired by the liberal changes effected in Rome with the election of the new pope, the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy began in Sicily and affected other parts of Italy, particularly the Lombardy-Venetia, Piedmont, Tuscany and the Papal States.

On 12 January 1848, the people in Sicily demanded for a provisional government that was independent of the mainland.

The nobles called for the restoration of the constitution of 1812 including the principle of representative democracy and the centrality of Parliament in the government of the state. These changes were initially resisted by Ferdinand II of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies but were instituted eventually when revolts erupted in Salerno and Naples.

The king unwillingly granted a constitution that provided for an elected chamber of deputies, but placed no limits on the king's power and authority. Whilst the idea of creating a confederation of all the states of Italy was put forward by the Sicilian Parliament, it did not come to fruition that year.

Meanwhile, in the Lombardy city of Milan, an anti-Austrian campaign was launched in early January but was successfully dispersed by Austrian troops led by General Radetzky. With harsher taxes in effect in the region, the protests resurfaced on 18 March when news of the uprising in Vienna and the fall of Klemens von Metternich reached the city.

This became known as the Five Days of Milan. Backed by the clergymen, the people in the city took to the streets, raised barricades and urged the participation of the rural population. With the demonstration of Italian unity, a provisional government of Milan was formed.

Prior to the revolts in Milan, the other rulers in Italy followed in the footsteps of Ferdinand II in granting a constitution. Leopold II of Tuscany promulgated the Tuscan Constitution of 1848 on 17 February, Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia proclaimed the Statuto Albertino on 4 March, and Pope Pius IX conceded The Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church on 14 March.

On the contrary, the Austrian Empire refused to give in to popular pressure and instead, suppressed the opposition in Venice and Milan, as well as the student demonstrations in the university cities of Padua and Pavia. However, the Radetzky-led Austrian army lost nearly all of Lombardy-Venetia a few days after the Five Days of Milan and retreated into the Quadrilateral fortress.

Charles Albert grew popular as many regarded him as the liberal monarch willing to sacrifice power for the good of the people.

Although it was a risky decision, Albert declared war on Austria on 23 March. With many people on his side, he led the attack on Quadrilateral fortress from all sides. He gained more support from his fellow princes who pledged to send reinforcements.

Leopold II, Pope Pius IX and Ferdinand II sent troops to aid the Piedmontese army. This was instrumental in the Austrian defeat and the capture of Peschiera at the Battle of Goito. A few victories were won by the Piedmontese until the tide turned in favour of the Austrians.

Fearing a religious schism between Austria and Rome, the Pope withdrew his troops from the warfront. Tuscany and Naples followed suit. These damaged the position of the revolutionaries of Piedmont and Lombardy, as well as the popularity of Pope in the Papal States. On 9 August, Albert was forced to sign a truce with Austria known as the Salasco armistice. His army abandoned Lombardy, allowing the return of the Austrians to the region.

In the Papal States, Count Pellegrino Rossi was appointed by the Pope in September to oversee the government. His biased reforms cost him his life in November. His death was celebrated by the people in Rome. The Pope managed to flee to Gaeta in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Without a local government in Rome, the leaders called for an Assembly to be elected on universal manhood suffrage. One of the elected people, Giuseppe Mazzini seized upon the opportunity to help create a new Roman Republic and took the office that was offered him in February 1849.

Under Mazzini's influence, taxes were abolished throughout the Papal States, freedom of religion was established and a large contingent of troops were sent to aid Albert in his fight against the Austrian Empire. However, these actions turned out to be counterintuitive for the state: the major source of income was eliminated and Rome was left extremely vulnerable to attack with the lack of sufficient troops at home.

On 12 March 1849, Albert denouncedthe truce with Austria. Although supported by Roman troops, he failed to defend Piedmont against the Austrian army at the Battle of Novara. He abdicated in favour of his eldest son, but the Statuto was preserved.

Following Novara, the Austrians requested the Venetians to surrender. Venice refused and initially attempted to resist the attacks. On 22 August, the city surrendered after suffering from damages and famine. A couple of months before that, the Papal States fell under the power of the French who aimed to restore the Pope, effectively ending the Roman Republic.
Image sources:

1. https://www.kollectium.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/0010116-600x471.jpg

2. https://www.italyonthisday.com/2017/03/the-five-days-of-milan-Risorgimento.html

3. https://alchetron.com/cdn/battle-of-novara-1849-6b545e47-4fa7-479a-9cd2-e8eb04df218-resize-750.jpeg

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The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy Facts, Worksheets & Features

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The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were part of the widespread revolutionary wave that swept across Europe. With the rise of new ideas that influenced the reforms in the Papal States, the organised revolts broke out in other parts of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily.

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Porfirio Diaz had ruled for many years than suddenly fell causing chaos. Such as, Crop Failure and economic issues. This caused Mexicans to revolt.

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Francisco Madero ran against former president Diez but did not fulfill his promises. Than Victoriano Huerta used his knowledge of politics to make a change