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Tier I, II, and III reading intervention.

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Instruction for Students with Dyslexia

Wilson Reading System ® (WRS) is the flagship program of Wilson Language Training ®and the foundation of all other Wilson ® programs. The Tier 3 Structured Literacy (SL) program is based on phonological-coding research and Orton-Gillingham principles.

Everyone Deserves To Learn To Read

By providing intensive WRS instruction in small groups or individually with a highly skilled teacher, reading and spelling success is achievable.

Based on more than three decades of data, WRS is designed for students in grades 2-12 and adults with word-level deficits who are not making sufficient progress through their current intervention; have been unable to learn with other teaching strategies; or who require more intensive structured literacy instruction due to a language-based learning disability, such as dyslexia.

Student focus

All students in grades 2-12 and adults who are not making sufficient progress in intervention or who may require more intensive instruction due to a language-based learning disability/dyslexia

Group Size

Small group (ideally up to 4 students), one-to-one

Lesson Length

One full lesson consists of all 3 Blocks of instruction (approximately 30 minutes to complete each Block); minimum of two complete lessons per week

Setting

Special education classroom, resource room, literacy center, adult education

Instructor

WRS Level I Certified Wilson ® Dyslexia Practitioner (W.D.P.) or WRS Level II Certified Wilson ® Dyslexia Therapist (W.D.T.)

Professional learning & support

● Wilson Academy ®/WRS Learning Community (online)

● Program workshops and instructor-led courses

● In-person and online courses on intensive instruction

● Basic and advanced word study

● WRS Level I and II Certification with practicum observations and implementation seminars

● Sustainability plans

Overview of Wilson Reading System

WRS supports college- and career-readiness standards by providing students who have a language-based learning disability with the foundational and language skills that are necessary to access grade-level text. This comprehensive program can follow students from grade to grade, as needed.

The principles of instruction have been identified by research as effective teaching principles found to increase student achievement. WRS also aligns with the International Dyslexia Association's (IDA) guidelines for working with students with dyslexia (IDA, 2008). Success is achieved through greater intensity, duration, and smaller group sizes.

Unique characteristics set WRS apart from other programs:

A systematic, explicit, cumulative, intensive, and focused approach is used to teach the structure of the English language/total word structure for decoding and encoding.

A systematic and integrated approach to decoding, morphology and the study of word elements, encoding and orthography (internalizing the rules that govern English), high frequency word instruction, oral reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Orton-Gillingham principles make all instruction direct, multisensory, and interactive. Consistent links are made between visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile pathways to enhance memory and learning of written language.

Unique "sound-tapping system" attunes students to the separate phonemes in a word, develops the understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to make words, and facilitates segmentation and blending of sounds.

Material is presented in 12 Steps, not corresponding to school grade levels, that are further divided into 63 incremental substeps, each building upon the previous one. Mastery of each substep is required before progressing to the next one, making the demands of the subsequent substep manageable and achievable.

A ten-part lesson plan that addresses the following in a sensible and logical fashion: decoding, morphology and the study of word elements, encoding and orthography (internalizing the rules that govern English), high frequency word instruction, oral reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

A penciling technique for scooping sentences and passages into meaningful phrases facilitates reading with prosody.

Concepts are taught through the manipulation of sound, syllable, and word element (prefix, base element, and suffix) cards.

One of the most extensive collections of controlled and readable text (wordlists, sentences, stories) for students beyond the primary grades provided.

Three levels of vocabulary offered.

Criterion-based assessments are built into the program to measure student progress and success.

To learn more about our approach, please visit Our Approach to Program Design page.

After feeling frustrated and unprepared to help my struggling students, I was beyond fortunate to receive a Wilson Reading System kit from an assistant principal. This gift started my journey into Wilson training and ultimately led to phenomenal success for countless students. I have learned so much during my practicum opportunities, and through these experiences with Wilson materials, I became empowered to confidently support struggling readers and writers. My students and their parents will tell you: Wilson works!
Renee Bernhardt, M.Ed., President, International Dyslexia Association, GA, Wilson Dyslexia Practitioner (W.D.P.)

WRS Level I and Level II Certification Accredited by the International Dyslexia Association

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) focuses on the complex issues of dyslexia, promoting effective teacher preparation and intervention strategies for students with dyslexia as one of their goals. Following an independent review process, Wilson Language Training and Wilson® Accredited Partners received the AccreditationPlus designation by the IDA as an Independent Teacher Training Program, indicating our alignment to IDA's Knowledge and Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading (KPS). This recognition demonstrates that Wilson certified educators are well-qualified to provide instruction to students with dyslexia based on recognized best practices and standards in the field.

WRS Curriculum

Familiarize yourself with the skills and concepts of the Wilson Reading System ® (WRS).

WRS Implementation

Learn how to identify students appropriate for the WRS and how to implement it successfully in your classroom.

WRS Materials

WRS instructor and student materials make learning multisensory and explicit.

Implemented Across the Country

Wilson Reading System ® (WRS) effectively develops the reading skills of struggling readers, including individuals with a language-based learning disability.

See what states have recognized WRS

Wilson Reading System® Learning Community

With Wilson Reading System, you gain access to this membership-based companion site, which supports individuals teaching Wilson's programs. Gain access to reference and instructional materials, expert tips, and more.

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Wilson Reading System - Wilson Language Training Corporation

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Everyone Deserves To Learn To Read By providing intensive WRS instruction in small groups or individually with a highly skilled teacher, reading and spelling success is achievable.

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An explanation of why and how to create anchor charts with the students. “In our anchor classroom, evidence of student thinking was everywhere; anchor charts, student responses, and quotes adorned the walls and boards making thinking public and permanent.  The questions, quotes, ideas, and big understandings displayed throughout the room reflected the real voices of real kids.”
- Debbie Miller

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Example of Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop (G6-8)

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Example of Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop (G6-8)

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An example from New York School District.

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Developing a Year Long Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop

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Developing a Year Long Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop

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From Maggie Moon’s conference (2012). Super valuable Minilesson & Teaching Points,  Mini-Lesson Template, and Reading Conference Strategies included.

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Implementing Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop

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Implementing Reader’s and Writer’s Workshop

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A fairly comprehensive and straight forward ppt presentation from Rome County Schools in Georgia, US.

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Strategies and implementation approaches from Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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home >> Planning Instruction and Tracking Progress

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Article from the International Literary Association “Reading Fluently Does Not Mean Reading Fast”.

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Strategies and implementation approaches from Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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Resources | Florida Center for Reading Research

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This book by Jennifer Serravallo is worth every penny. It doesn't matter if your curriculum follows the DAILY 5, 6+1 Traits, Writer's Workshop, Step Up to Writing, etc. The teaching points, strategies and the implementation techniques are all transferrable to every classroom and curriculum.

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Introduction
A Very Brief Introduction to Principles, Research, and Theory, and How to Use This Book
The idea for a book of writing strategies exists many times over. This one is possible only because of the great books that have come before it. There are books suggesting writing strategies meant for professional writers and college students, such as those by Noah Lukeman, Roy Peter Clark, and Janet Burroway, among others. There are countless examples of excellent compilations of writing strategies in books written for teachers of writing, such as Fletcher and Portalupi's Craft Lessons Series, Barry Lane's After "The End" (1993), Carl Anderson's Strategic Writing Conferences series (2008-2009), Donald Graves' many books, Katie Wood Ray's Wondrous Words (1999) and other titles, Katherine Bomer's books, Georgia Heard's books, Nancie Atwell's In the Middle (2014) and other resources, Lucy Calkins' Units of Study series, and many more. My aim in this book is to offer my favorite, most useful collection of strategies that span all aspects of the writing process, all genres and modes of writing, and that will work well with students in grades K-8. I want to offer you a little bit of everything. I streamlined the language and examples, and I present the strategies in a format that is organized so that the busy teacher can find just the right strategy at just the right moment. Of course, you'll elaborate on the streamlined language and make it your own.

But wait-before you dive in, I'm so glad you're taking the time to spend a few moments with this "Getting Started" introduction. In this introduction, you'll gain a helpful overview of the thinking that undergirds this book's ideas as well as an overview of its organization. You'll learn about strategies and all the aspects that I chose to include to elaborate on them-mentor texts, prompts, lesson language, teaching tips, and more. You'll learn how to navigate the pages of the book so you can find what you're looking for quickly and easily, for this is not a read-every-single-page kind of book (unless you want it to be). You'll get a quick crash course on some important terminology and concepts that will help you use this book to its fullest- thoughts about writing as a process, and modes and genres of writing, for example. And finally, you'll learn how to adapt what's in the book to fit your students' writing time in the classroom, no matter what form that time takes.
Click here to download more of the introduction of this book.
Goal 1: Composing with Pictures

Strategy Go back to your picture(s). Point to the part or picture that teaches something important about your topic. Touch or turn to the next part. Tell what new fact about your topic this part of the picture or this page teaches.

Lesson Language If I wrote or drew to teach, then when I read my writing back I'm going to make it sound like a teaching book. I'm going to tell my reader the facts I wrote about. Let me show you. I drew a picture of a big T. rex. I know a lot about them so I added a lot of details in my picture. I'm going to touch one part and teach what that part says. "The T. rex had very large jaws with big sharp teeth." Now I'm going to touch a new part and teach what that part says. "The T. rex had very short arms. It would only run using its hind legs."

Goal 2: Engagement - Independence, Increasing Volume, and Developing a Writing Identity

Strategy First, identify the problem you're having. Then, check the spot in the room, a resource, or a friend that might help you solve the problem. Try a solution. If it doesn't work, try something else.

Teaching Tip This strategy, like "Use the Room" that appears earlier in this chapter, assumes that there are things in the room that can be helpful, and that you've taught children how to use them. For example, in a primary classroom a word wall may help a writer to spell high-frequency words. If you've introduced and used mentor texts, then having these available for children to reference on their own could help them. Sometimes the problem might be that they need to work in a new spot in the room because of the amount of distractions at their current spot. Brainstorm possible problems with your students, and come up with a list of resources and solutions. Or, this strategy can be like a culmination of past teaching from this and other chapters.

Goal 3: Generating and Collecting Ideas

Strategy Decide on a new place to visit. Go there with no more than a notebook and a set of listening ears and observing eyes. Let yourself pick up on conversation and details of the person. Jot down what you observe, and also what you imagine, about the people you see.

Teaching Tip This strategy will take you outside of the classroom, so it would work well as a whole-class lesson followed by a field trip, or as a suggestion to a student, group, or class for independent writing outside of the school day.

Goal 4: Focus/Meaning

Strategy Think about a memory and all the events that are part of that memory. Think about what's important about that memory, or the big idea the memory leaves you with. Identify the one part of the memory that feels the most important. Write some ideas about what's important about it, and why it's important. Try to write just that one smaller part of the larger moment. Tell it bit by bit.

Teaching Tip The amount a writer will be able to reflect on the overall significance of a small moment will depend on her maturity level and experience with writing. For younger children, you may want to suggest choosing a small moment that will make a good story, rather than one imbued with a deep or heavy significance, or simply encourage them to narrow down the window of time

Goal 5: Organization and Structure

Strategy Before beginning to draft, visualize the shape of what you're going to make. Create some sort of quick visual, in pictures or in words, to represent the overarching structure. As you write, check back to see where you are in your plan.

Teaching Tip This is going to be most helpful after students have learned a variety of ways to structure their pieces and have been introduced to a variety of graphic organizers that would help them to organize, or shape, the information into a structure.

Goal 6: Elaboration

Strategy Think about the subtopics for which you'll want to collect information. Write each of your subtopics as a heading on a notebook or booklet page. As you find new information for your topic, think, "What page in my notebook should this go on? Which subtopic does it provide details for?"

Lesson Language I just found this interesting fact: Ballerinas really wear out their shoes. Many go through as many as 2-3 pairs per week! I'm going to look across the pages of my booklet to see where this would best fit. Would it belong in the section called "Types of Ballet Positions?" No, that's not about the positions. Would it go in the section called "Famous Ballets?" No. "What Ballerinas Wear?" Well, I do talk about pointe shoes in this section, so it might be cool to add this fact about how many pairs of pointe shoes the average ballerina needs. I'll keep the fact here.

Goal 7: Word Choice

Strategy Find all the action verbs in your piece. Focus on any that you think aren't as clear, precise, or exact as they could be. List several options for what might replace that word (use a thesaurus if you need it!). Choose the word that best matches your meaning.

Teaching Tip For this strategy to work, children will need to understand what an action verb is, so identification of verbs is a first step in this strategy. Many teachers weave in some instruction during other balanced literacy components such as word study, read-aloud, and/or shared reading. You could also plan to teach direct minilessons to the class or small groups for those who do not understand parts of speech.

Goal 8: Conventions - Spelling and Letter Formation

Strategy When trying to spell a word, try to visualize where you've seen it written and how you've seen it written before. It may help to close your eyes. Then, in a margin or on a piece of scrap paper, write how you think it's spelled. Try it a second or maybe even third way. Look back at what you've written and ask yourself, "Which of these tries looks right to me?"

Prompts

Check off the parts that look right to you.

Write the word as you think you've seen it before.

Which parts look right? Which part looks off?

Do you think there are some letters missing?

What part of that word is tricky for you?

The part you're trying to spell is also in the word _______. Does that help?

Goal 9: Conventions - Grammar and Punctuation

Strategy Find two sentences that talk about the same topic. Think about the relationship between those sentences. Choose a connector word and try combining the sentences into one. Reread and decide if you like the combined way or original way better.

Lesson Language Here's one spot in my draft where I have two sentences that I
think go well together. I wrote: "A dog is something that can keep you company. A dog
can cheer you up." What's the relationship between those two sentences? They both have
to do with something that is positive about owning a dog, so I think they are related. I'm
adding more information on. I'll try using and to combine those sentences: "A dog can
keep you company and cheer you up." Here's another spot: "I would love to have a dog.
My mom won't let me have a dog." What's the relationship between those two sentences?
The second sentence gives more information that feels in contrast to the first. I'll combine
them with however: "I would like to have a dog, however my mom won't let me." The
new sentence I made seems clearer and more to the point.

Goal 10: Collaborating with Writing Partners and Clubs

Strategy Talk with your partner about your goals (for the writing period, for the week, and/or for writing work to take place at home, and so on). Discuss together how you might get that work done. Write the goal, and make the promise...then check in with your partner soon.

Teaching Tip Reflect on your own life and goals you've set out to accomplish. Now think about how successful you've been and whether or not you made your goals public ahead of time. I know that when I share my goals with my partner, my friends, my colleagues, my editor, I am more likely to get things done. The built-in accountability, the opportunity to celebrate together, the lifeline of support in case something does not go according to plan-these are invaluable.

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Writing Strategies Book by Jennifer Serravallo.

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Collection of strategies that span all aspects of the writing process, all genres and modes of writing, and that will work well with students in grades K-8. Organized so the busy teacher can find just the right strategy at just the right moment.

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West Virginia Reading First Explicit Phonics Lessons

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West Virginia Reading First Explicit Phonics Lessons

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Explicit Instruction for Phonics Intervention from West Virginia Phonics. Each scripted lesson about ~30-35 min & very easy to follow. Each skill comes with a week's worth of lessons and a story.

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Strategies from Reading Rockets.

“There are several possible reasons for these students’ fluency difficulties:

Receptive language weaknesses. Examples of these are autism spectrum disorder and receptive language disorder (aphasia). Assessment and intervention for this requires specialized training.

Low vocabulary and limited background knowledge

Executive functioning issues (including processing speed and ADHD)”

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Learn how to find your students 'fluency score, guidelines for instruction, strategies to improve fluency, assessment, intervention, and more.

How do I find my students' fluency score?

One-minute reading: Total words read (minus) errors made = words correct per minute.

1. Select a 100 word passage from a grade-level text.

2. Have individual students read each passage aloud for exactly one minute.

3. Count the total number of words the student read for each passage.

4. Count the number of errors the student made on each passage.

5. Subtract the number of errors read per minute from the total number of words read per minute. The result is the average number of words correct per minute (WCPM).

6. Repeat the procedure several times during the year. Graphing students' WCPM throughout the year easily captures their reading growth.

How many words per minute should my students be reading?

1. First grade: 60 words (read correctly by the end of the year)

2. Second grade: 90 words (read correctly by the end of the year)

3. Third grade: 115 words (read correctly by the end of the year)

Guidelines for instruction

Good fluency instruction:

Provides children with opportunities to read and reread a range of stories and informational texts by reading on their own, partner reading, or choral reading.

Introduces new or difficult words to children, and provide practice reading these words before they read on their own.

Includes opportunities for children to hear a range of texts read fluently and with expression.

Encourages periodically timing a child's oral reading and then recording information about the student's reading rate and accuracy, to help monitor the student's progress.

Model fluent reading, then have students reread the text on their own

By listening to good models of fluent reading, students learn how a reader's voice can help written text make sense. Read aloud daily to your students. By reading effortlessly and with expression, you are modeling for your students how a fluent reader sounds during reading.

After you model how to read the text, you must have the students reread it. By doing this, the students are engaging in repeated reading. Usually, having students read a text four times is sufficient to improve fluency. Remember, however, that instructional time is limited, and it is the actual time that students are actively engaged in reading that produces reading gains.

Have other adults read aloud to students. Encourage parents or other family members to read aloud to their children at home. The more models of fluent reading the children hear, the better. Of course, hearing a model of fluent reading is not the only benefit of reading aloud to children. Reading to children also increases their knowledge of the world, their vocabulary, their familiarity with written language, and their interest in reading.

Have students repeatedly read passages aloud with guidance

The best strategy for developing reading fluency is to provide your students with many opportunities to read the same passage orally several times. To do this, you should first know what to have your students read.

What students should read

Fluency develops as a result of many opportunities to practice reading with a high degree of success. Therefore, your students should practice rereading aloud texts that are reasonably easy for them - that is, texts containing mostly words that they know or can decode easily. In other words, the texts should be at the students' instructional or independent reading level.

The text your students practice rereading orally should also be relatively short &mdash; probably 50-200 words, depending on the age of the students. You should also use a variety of reading materials, including stories, nonfiction, plays, and poetry. Poetry is especially well suited to fluency practice because poems for children are often short and they contain rhythm, rhyme, and meaning, making practice easy, fun, and rewarding.

Activities to increase fluency

There are several ways that your students can practice orally rereading text, including student-adult reading, choral (or unison) reading, tape-assisted reading, partner reading, and readers' theatre.

Student-adult reading

In student-adult reading, the student reads one-on-one with an adult. The adult can be you, a parent, a classroom aide, or a tutor. The adult reads the text first, providing the students with a model of fluent reading. Then the student reads the same passage to the adult with the adult providing assistance and encouragement. The student rereads the passage until the reading is quite fluent. This should take approximately three to four re-readings. Re-readings may occur across multiple instructional sessions or days.

Choral reading

In choral, or unison, reading, students read along as a group with you (or another fluent adult reader). Of course, to do so, students must be able to see the same text that you are reading. They might follow along as you read from a big book, or they might read from their own copy of the book you are reading. For choral reading, choose a book that is not too long and that you think is at the independent reading level of most students. Patterned or predictable books are particularly useful for choral reading, because their repetitious style invites students to join in. Begin by reading the book aloud as you model fluent reading.

Then reread the book and invite students to join in as they recognize the words you are reading. Continue rereading the book, encouraging students to read along as they are able. Students should read the book with you three to five times total (though not necessarily on the same day). At this time, students should be able to read the text independently.

Tape-assisted reading

In tape-assisted reading, students read along in their books as they hear a fluent reader read the book on an audiotape. For tape-assisted reading, you need a book at a student's independent reading level and a tape recording of the book read by a fluent reader at about 80-100 words per minute. The tape should not have sound effects or music. For the first reading, the student should follow along with the tape, pointing to each word in her or his book as the reader reads it. Next, the student should try to read aloud along with the tape. Reading along with the tape should continue until the student is able to read the book independently, without the support of the tape.

Partner reading

In partner reading, paired students take turns reading aloud to each other. For partner reading, more fluent readers can be paired with less fluent readers. The stronger reader reads a paragraph or page first, providing a model of fluent reading. Then the less fluent reader reads the same text aloud. The stronger student gives help with word recognition and provides feedback and encouragement to the less fluent partner. The less fluent partner rereads the passage until he or she can read it independently. Partner reading need not be done with a more and less fluent reader. In another form of partner reading, children who read at the same level are paired to reread a story that they have received instruction on during a teacher-guided part of the lesson. Two readers of equal ability can practice rereading after hearing the teacher read the passage.

Readers' theatre

In readers' theatre, students rehearse and perform a play for peers or others. They read from scripts that have been derived from books that are rich in dialogue. Students play characters who speak lines or a narrator who shares necessary background information. Costumes, props, and other aspects of performing a play do not necessarily have to be used. The point of readers' theatre is to provide children with a legitimate reason to reread text and to practice fluency. Readers' theatre also promotes cooperative interaction with peers and makes the reading task appealing.

Several variants of reader's theatre can also be useful. For example, in radio reading, children record their reading with sound effects, like an old-time radio show. In another variant, children perform a text for younger children. This variant can be especially useful for struggling readers. For example, a fourth-grade poor reader may still read much better than a typical first grader and may be able to read books at that level quite fluently to a younger child. The ability to read well to a younger student provides an opportunity for the older child to "shine" and may be very motivating.

What should I do about silent, independent reading in the classroom?

Reading fluency growth is greatest when students are working directly with you. Therefore, you should use most of your allocated reading instruction time for direct teaching of reading skills and strategies. Promoting silent, independent reading outside of school or as a free-time activity is also valuable, but this should not replace direct instruction in reading in school.

Direct instruction is especially important for readers who are struggling. Readers who have not yet attained fluency are not likely to make effective and efficient use of silent, independent reading time. For these students, independent reading takes time away from needed reading instruction

When should fluency instruction begin?

Fluency instruction is useful when students are not automatic at recognizing the words in the texts, but have a reasonable degree of accuracy in reading the words. All beginning readers need opportunities to develop fluency, especially from the second half of Grade 1 through about Grade 3, prime years for fluency development in typical readers. However, these opportunities will not be sufficient for some students, who will require additional intervention in the area of fluency. How can you tell when students may need fluency intervention? There is a strong indication that a student needs fluency intervention:

If you ask the student to read orally from a grade-appropriate text that he or she has not practiced, and the student's reading is notably slow or labored;

If the student cannot read orally in grade-appropriate text with good expression (prosody);

If the student makes many self-corrections of words (it's good when children can self-correct errors, but frequent self-corrections indicate a lack of automaticity in word reading and poor fluency in text reading); or

If the student cannot meet oral reading fluency benchmarks when reading at his or her instructional level (e.g. a third grader who reads instructionally at a Grade 2 level should be able to meet Grade 2, not necessarily Grade 3, fluency benchmarks; see Carnine et al., 2004).

Is increasing word recognition skills sufficient for developing fluency?

Accurate word recognition is a necessary but not sufficient condition for fluent reading. Throughout much of the twentieth century, it was widely assumed that fluency was the result of word recognition proficiency. Instruction, therefore, focused primarily on the development of word recognition. In recent years, however, research has shown that fluency is a separate component of reading that can be developed through instruction.

Having students review and rehearse word lists (for example, by using flash cards) may improve their ability to recognize the words in isolation, but this ability may not transfer to words presented in actual texts. Developing reading fluency in texts must be developed systematically.

Fluency intervention

Barriers to fluency

When students can read (decode) words accurately and the words are part of their vocabulary, then most students will be able to read fluently given sufficient opportunities for practice. However, some students' fluency difficulties involve factors other than problems in word reading. There are several possible reasons for these students' fluency difficulties:

Receptive language weaknesses. Examples of these are autism spectrum disorder and receptive language disorder (aphasia). Assessment and intervention for this requires specialized training.

Low vocabulary and limited background knowledge

Executive functioning issues (including processing speed and ADHD)

Teachers can support students with low vocabulary and limited background knowledge by pre-teaching key vocabulary words and background knowledge before reading. To build relevant background knowledge, read stories aloud, show pictures and videos, and bring examples into the classroom. During background knowledge development, interweave explicit vocabulary instruction [see Vocabulary module: In Practice].

For example, when teaching a unit on insects, show pictures of different insects. Lead the class through labeling the animal's body parts. This will likely include the word 'antenna'. Teach explicit instruction in the word 'antenna.' Read aloud short passages about insects and lead discussions that require students to use the word 'antenna' orally. These activities precede reading about insects.

Comprehension, the construction of meaning from text, also requires strong executive functioning. That is, it requires the ability to attend, infer, visualize, reason, distinguish, organize, synthesize, and hold all that in working memory during the actual process of reading. Good executive function also helps students recognize what is important and what is not important in a text. Students with poor executive function may have difficulty with reading comprehension because they fail to recognize key points or are overwhelmed by unimportant details. Reading fluency may suffer because of the student's inability to understand what he or she is reading.

Students with these kinds of difficulties should not be pushed to read faster, because doing so may further impair comprehension. Developing underlying comprehension abilities - such as vocabulary, background knowledge, and the ability to recognize key points - will likely be more beneficial to these students' fluency development (as well as their overall reading development). Prosodic approaches to reading fluency that emphasize expressiveness of oral reading rather than rate of reading (e.g., readers' theatre) may also be especially useful for these students.

References

Feifer, S. (2007). Know how executive function skills affect reading comprehension. Today's School Psychologist, July 8.

Kaufman, C. (2010). Executive function in the classroom: Practical strategies for improving performance and enhancing skills for all students. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Should I assess fluency? If so, how?

You should formally and informally assess fluency regularly to ensure that your students are making appropriate progress. The most informal assessment is simply listening to students read aloud and making a judgment about their progress in fluency. You should, however, also include more formal measures of fluency.

Probably the easiest way to formally assess fluency is to take timed samples of students' reading and to compare their performance (number of words read correctly per minute) with published oral reading fluency norms or standards, such as the widely referenced Hasbrouck & Tindal fluency norms (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006). In these timed assessments, students should be told to do their best reading (as opposed to being told to read fast).

Monitoring your students' progress in reading fluency will help you determine the effectiveness of your instruction and set instructional goals. Also, seeing their fluency growth reflected in the graphs you keep can motivate students.
Adapted from: Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read Kindergarten Through Grade 3, a publication of The Partnership for Reading.
References

Carnine, D. W., Silbert, J., Kame'enui, E. J., & Tarver, S. G. (2004). Direct instruction reading (4th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Chard, D. J., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B .J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 386-406.

Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher, 59, 636-644.

O'Connor, R.E., White, A., & Swanson, H.L. (2007). Repeated reading versus continuous reading: Influences on reading fluency and comprehension. Exceptional Children, 74, 31-46.

Stahl, S. A. (2004). What do we know about fluency? Findings of the National Reading Panel. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 187-211). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co.

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Learn how to find your students 'fluency score, guidelines for instruction, strategies to improve fluency, assessment, intervention, and more. One-minute reading: Total words read (minus) errors made = words correct per minute. Select a 100 word passage from a grade-level text. Have individual students read each passage aloud for exactly one minute.

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Strategies from the Council for Learning Disabilities.
https://council-for-learning-disabilities.org/effective-vocabulary-instruction-for-kindergarten-to-12th-grade-students-experiencing-learning-disabilities

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Disrupting Thinking: Why How We Read Matters

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Disrupting Thinking: Why How We Read Matters

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“They explain that all too often, no matter the strategy shared with students, too many students remain disengaged and reluctant readers. The problem, they suggest, is that we have misrepresented to students why we read and how we ought to approach any text - fiction or nonfiction.”

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Disrupting Thinking has 352 ratings and 62 reviews. A. said: This is a must read for anyone who teaches reading or language arts, or anyone who assigns r...

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http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/classroom_qa_with_larry_ferlazzo/2017/09/disrupting_thinking_an_interview_with_kylene_beers_robert_e_probst.html

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(See video #1.)
John Hattie speaks about introducing Inquiry based learning too early. Surface learning vs Learning Content.

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Are you a teacher and surprised by some of the evidence found in the Visible Learning research? Wouldn't it be great to discuss your questions directly with Professor Hattie? In 2016, Corwin, a partner of John Hattie's professional development program Visible Learning Plus, has organized an online Q&A. (Corwin has also published Visible Learning for Literacy, the latest addition to John Hattie's VL series). Here are the questions that teachers and school leaders submitted to Professor John Hattie. We provide an excerpt of each answer as a quick take-away. But you should definitely take the time to listen to the full answers. And read the the books.

1. Why does inquiry-based learning only have an effect size of 0.31 when it is an approach to learning that seems to engage students and teachers so readily in the process of learning?
-Question submitted by a school improvement resource team leader from Canada
Professor John Hattie: "It turns out that if you are learning surface-level information, the content, as contrasted with deep learning which is the relationships between the content, then problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning is pretty useless. But if you don't teach the surface and the content, you've got nothing to inquire about. [...] The reason it comes out very low on the chart is because most teachers introduce it far too early."

2. Why are we striving for an "assessment-capable learner" and not a "self-regulated learner"?
-Question submitted by a Principal from Southern California
Professor John Hattie: "If we teach the students how to evaluate their own learning, that's what the key of formative assessment is. And of course, if you're going to teach the students that, the teachers have to know it to teach the students that. So you get this double virtuous circle without all that language that goes with formative vs. summative."

3. What are the three most important things I can do in my classes to improve learning?
-Question submitted by a Teacher leader from Texas
Professor John Hattie: "Know thy impact!" Having an understanding...

what impact means,

about the magnitude, how big the impact you want,

about the equity question, whether all kids get that impact."

4. What methods have been successfully used to effect a paradigm shift at the campus and district level?
-Question submitted by a Curriculum instructional specialist from Texas
Professor John Hattie: "It's about how we think about what we do. Do we have a mind frame that we actually can collectively make a difference to these kids?"

5. Is there a correlation between calculating effect size and percentile rating? If so, how do you compare scores and effect size?
-Question by Ainsley Rose, Corwin Author and Certified Visible Learning Plus Trainer
Professor John Hattie: "Yes, there is a way to do it. Unfortunately, you have to use something that is not easy and not obvious. But I'd express a lot of caution. Percentiles have some major problems. The whole point of percentiles is to compare students to other students. And yes, there is a place for that, I suppose, but what I'm much more interested in with the effect size notion is the learning for each individual student, and when you look at the averages of the effect size, you've in sense got a comparison."

6. What is the effect size for the cultural competence of the teacher?
-Question submitted by an education consultant from Seattle, WA
Professor John Hattie: "Teachers, they do understand what kids bring to the classroom. Certainly the effect size of that is extremely high. [... ] It's how the kids think: Are these kids prepared to take challenges? Are they prepared to be risk takers? Do they study learning because they want to perform well in front of their peers. Or do they do it because they want to reinvest in learning and really want to master what they do. These are critical dimensions to make connections with these kids, to help them on this learning journey."

7. How can we prioritize which influences to focus on during the school year?
-Question submitted by a Principal from Michigan
Professor John Hattie: "Having a collective understanding of the actual problems we need to work on is critical. But at all times, we need to be very careful not to make changes to things that are really working. So that's where the prioritization starts. Then, what I'd love schools and districts to do is to map that with what are the high-probability effects from the research side of things [...] and from that then we do our interventions."

8. How does communicating the learning target impact student learning?
-Question submitted by an Instructional coach from Arizona
Professor John Hattie: "You need learning intentions and success criteria. It's those two things that go together. It is giving the kids a sense of what is the purpose of what we are learning here today. [...] Like think of kids playing video games. They know what it means to be successful: Get to the next level. And they're prepared to invest an incredible number of hours to get to that next level. And they get very many cues and understandings of what that next level is."

9. Why does ability grouping or tracking have a negative effect size?
-Question submitted by a Supervisor of math and science from New Jersey
Professor John Hattie: "It has a very close to zero effect size. And in many ways that means it doesn't matter whether you track or you don't track. [...] But the biggest problem with tracking - by a million miles - is the equity issue. For instance if you look at this country here. There is a higher probability for African Americans and Hispanics being in the lower track groups. How can you possibly defend that apartheid in that schools?!"

10. What RTI models did you investigate? What critical attributes were included in the models that you looked at?
-Question submitted by an Assessment coordinator from Iowa
Professor John Hattie: "I'm not weighted to one particular way of implementing the RTI model. What I like about the RTI model again it comes back to how we think. The RTI is always looking at the Response - To - Intervention. And then making adaptations and changes in light of that. And that's exactly what the Visible Learning notions are."

11. How does recess, art and music impact student achievement?
-Question submitted by a Principal from Michigan
Professor John Hattie: "Many years ago when I was a real teacher I was a music teacher. And so this question is very passionate to me. The answer is it's very very small but I wished it was zero. Because understanding music is worthwhile in itself. Why do we have to justify a subject just because it relates to a narrow excellence of teaching maths, literacy and numeracy? [...] Recess, art and music are worthwhile things! Kids need to have multiple ways of learning. I think the most important outcome of our schooling is kids who want to reinvest in learning. Not reinvest in a narrow excellence. There are multiple ways to be excellent in schools."

Video source: www.corwin.com/visiblelearning

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11 Questions to Professor John Hattie, asked by teachers (VIDEO)

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Are you a teacher and surprised by some of the evidence found in the Visible Learning research? Wouldn't it be great to discuss your questions directly with Professor Hattie? In 2016, Corwin, a partner of John Hattie's professional development program Visible Learning Plus, has organized...Read more ›

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Strategies and implementation approaches from Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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Screening and Progress Monitoring (DIBELS & easy CBM) 

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Screening and Progress Monitoring (DIBELS & easy CBM) 

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Reading screeners offered by University of Oregon for FREE.

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Professor Daniel Willingham explains how to support and develop childrens’ love for reading using explanations rooted in cognitive psychology.

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How should American teens spend their leisure time? I recently asked* American adults this question, after explaining that the typical teen enjoys approximately five hours of leisure time each weekday. ¹ The activity with the highest response, irrespective of race, education, and other demographic factors, was reading. Adults thought teens ought to spend about an hour and 15 minutes reading for pleasure each day.

How much time do teens actually spend reading? On average, six minutes. ²

What prompts a teen to choose reading over a different activity during her leisure time? Several factors would contribute, surely. Reading will hold little appeal if a student has trouble decoding or has problems with comprehension.

But what if a student is a fluent decoder and generally understands texts that she tackles? What if she just doesn't often choose to read? What might be done to motivate her, both at school and at home?

The Science of Rewards

In a nutshell, the problem of motivation is this: we want the student to do something we think is important, but she chooses not to do it. That is, of course, not an unusual problem in classrooms, and a potential motivator is some kind of negative consequence. A student who doesn't do the required work will receive low grades, or perhaps feel guilty for disappointing the teacher, or feel embarrassed should the failure become public. But by the time a student is in middle school, these blades have long lost their edge. Most unmotivated readers have the self-assurance to persuade themselves that reading is not all that important. Teachers and schools are not enthusiastic about punishment in any event, so many turn to rewards as motivators.

We want the student to read, and surely we want reading to be a positive experience. What if I offered a reward? Say I told a fourth-grader, "If you read that book, I'll give you an ice cream sundae!" The student might take me up on the deal, and he'd probably have a positive experience. So won't he then be motivated to read? It sounds so simple that it might be too good to be true.

Rewards do work, at least in the short term. If you find a reward that the student cares about, he will read in order to get it. But what we're really concerned about is his attitude toward reading; we want the student to read even if we're not around to dole out sundaes. Will the reward boost the reading attitude? Research indicates that the answer is probably no. In fact, the reward is likely to make the attitude less positive.

The classic experiment on this phenomenon was conducted in a preschool. ³ A set of attractive markers appeared during free play, and the researchers affirmed that children chose the markers from among many activities. Then the markers disappeared from the classroom. A few weeks later, researchers took children, one at a time, into a separate room. They offered some children a fancy "good player" certificate if they would draw with the markers. Other children were given the opportunity to draw with the markers but were not offered the certificate. After a few more weeks, the markers reappeared during free play in the classroom. The children who got the certificate showed notably less interest in the markers than the children who didn't get the certificate. The reward had backfired: it had made children like the markers less.

The interpretation of the study rests on how children think about their own behavior. The rewarded children likely thought, "I drew with the markers because I was offered a reward to do so. Now here are the markers but no reward. So why would I draw with them?" There have been many studies of rewards in school contexts, and they often backfire in this way. ⁴

We can imagine that rewarding children for reading could work as intended in certain circumstances. What if the child has such a positive experience while reading that it overwhelms his thinking that he's reading only for the reward? In other words, the child thinks, "Gosh, I started this book only to get that ice cream sundae, but actually it's awesome. My teacher was a sucker to offer me a sundae as a reward!" That's great when it does happen-and I think it can-but it means that rewards represent a risk. We're gambling that the book is going to be a big hit.

What about praise instead of a reward? Generally, praise is motivating to children: they will do more of whatever was praised. But praise can go wrong if it's overly controlling ("I'm so glad to see you reading. You really should do that every day.") or if the child thinks it's dishonest ("You are the best reader at school."). But if the praise seems like sincere appreciation, it's motivating. And one of the advantages of praise is that it lacks the downside of rewards. Rewards are usually set up in a bargain before the action: if you read, you'll get ice cream. Praise is generally spontaneous; you don't promise praise contingent on good behavior. That means that the praised child won't think, "I did that only to get the praise," the way the rewarded child thinks, "I did that only to get the reward." The praised child engages in the desired behavior of her own accord, and then the praise comes spontaneously. The problem is that the child must choose to read on her own before you get a chance to praise her.

Rewards in Practice

As I'm sure is clear by now, I'm not a big fan of school-based rewards for reading. That includes classroom displays of reading achievement-for example, posting on a bulletin board the number of books each student has read, or adding a segment of a class bookworm for each book. To my thinking, it puts too much emphasis on having read rather than on reading. Some students (I was one) will pick easy books to boost their "score." And as a way to recognize student achievement, it doesn't account for student differences; for some, getting through a book in a month may be a real accomplishment, yet they will feel inadequate compared with their peers. Some more formal programs, like Accelerated Reader and Pizza Hut's Book It, try to make up for some of the problems inherent in a reward system. Books are allocated different points based on difficulty, for example, or each student is assigned a personal, teacher-set reading target.

All in all, I think it's a mistake to be absolutist and say that rewards should never be used. Instead, I suggest they not be the first thing teachers try, and I want educators to be aware of the research literature on potential drawbacks. I know that some districts adapt Accelerated Reader or another program for their own use, ignoring the point system, for example. The research literature on Accelerated Reader in particular is, in fact, mixed. ⁵ Much appears to depend on how it is implemented.

Such programs bring to mind a conversation I had with a district administrator. Students in her schools come from very poor homes, and she told me that they do not grow up seeing their parents read. A benefactor started a program whereby children earn cash for reading books, and the administrator felt that it was helpful. Children had not been reading, the rewards got them started, and they discovered they really liked to read. I think it would be highhanded and naive to suggest that the district stop the program. In fact, this seems exactly the situation in which to try rewards: when you can't otherwise get a toehold, rewards offer a way to get children to at least try pleasure reading. Children may then discover that they like it, and even when the rewards stop, they keep going.

But if rewards are to be a last resort, what ought to be tried first?

Academic versus Pleasure Reading

Our goal is to encourage children to read so they can feel the pleasure of reading; rewards are meant to be a temporary incentive to start the process.

What if children don't need rewards? What if they already feel the pleasure of reading, but that feeling gets lost in less positive feelings-feelings created by the other demands of schoolwork? We expect students to feel the joy of reading when they get lost in a narrative or feel the pleasure of discovery when reading nonfiction. But as they move through elementary school and on to middle school, we add other purposes to reading. One purpose is learning: the student is expected to read a text and study it so that he can reproduce the information (e.g., on a quiz). A second purpose is to help complete a task-a project, say-which usually entails gathering information. A third purpose is to analyze how a text works-that is, how the author writes to make the reader laugh or cry. I'll use the umbrella term "academic reading" to contrast these purposes with pleasure reading.

My concern is that children might confuse academic reading with reading for pleasure. ⁶ If they do, they will come to think of reading as work, plain and simple. Sure, we'd like to think that academic reading is pleasurable, but in most schools, "pleasure" is not a litmus test. The student who tells the teacher, "I tried reading that photosynthesis stuff, but it was too boring," will not be told to find something else she'd prefer. Academic reading feels like work because it is work. But pleasure ought to be the litmus test for reading for pleasure.

I think it's a good idea for teachers to communicate these distinctions to students-not that "most of the reading we're doing is academic and therefore not fun," but that reading serves different purposes and that there is a distinction between academic reading and pleasure reading.

In some classrooms, pleasure reading is segregated from academic reading: we read because we love reading, and then we also learn how to work with texts. But the way pleasure reading is handled can still send a silent message to students that reading is work. Coercion sends that message. If a teacher makes pleasure reading a requirement (10 minutes per night, say) or demands accountability (by keeping a reading log, for example), she risks sending the message that reading is nothing students would do of their own accord.

Pleasure Reading in Class

Drawing a distinction between academic reading and pleasure reading will probably not be enough to get children actually reading. What else might be tried? Schools and teachers can strive to make reading expected and normal by devoting some proportion of class time to silent pleasure reading. Research shows that many reading programs don't actually allocate much time to reading. ⁷ Successful programs for silent classroom reading tend to have certain elements in common: ⁸

Students have adequate time set aside for reading; they need at least a 20-minute reading period to get into their books. Teachers set the duration dependent on their students' reading stamina (i.e., how long they can sustain attention).

Students freely choose what they read. Choice is enormously important for motivation,⁹ but there must be teacher guidance and teacher-set limits. Given the chance, some students will pick books that entail no reading at all. (As researcher Nell Duke ruefully noted, "independent reading time" too often turns into "independent find Waldo time.")¹⁰ Teachers must not only monitor text difficulty, but also ensure that students are exposed to a variety of genres.

Students have ready access to a good number of books.

Students have some opportunity to feel a sense of community through reading with book discussions, recommendations, and other sorts of activities that avid adult readers practice.

The teacher actively teaches during this time: fielding questions, helping students select books, and conferring with students. The alternative is that the teacher reads her own book at the same time as the students, with the idea that she's modeling what a good reader does. But students can't necessarily appreciate what she's doing. Teachers actually teaching during in-class reading time seems to be essential to student success. Some of the most careful experiments indicate that without this feature, students don't benefit from silent reading time in class.¹¹

Setting aside class time for silent pleasure reading seems to me the best way to engage a student who has no interest in reading. It offers the gentlest pressure that is still likely to work. Everyone else is reading, there's not much else to do, and a sharp-eyed teacher will notice those who are faking it. Freedom of choice also allows the greatest possibility that when the reluctant reader does give a book a try, he'll hit on something that he likes.

Given that I'm recommending this practice, you probably think there must be good research evidence that it's effective. In truth, I'd say the latest data indicate that it probably improves attitudes, vocabulary, and comprehension. ¹² Some studies show a positive effect, but some don't.

I think the squishiness of the findings is attributable to the difficulty of the teaching method. I'm sure classroom pleasure reading is easy to implement poorly: stick some books in the room, allocate some class time, and you're done. But the teacher's responsibilities when it's done well are heavy indeed. She must help students select books that they are likely to enjoy. That means really knowing each child, and a middle school teacher likely has more than 100 students. If a teacher is going to be able to confer with students about what they have read, she needs to have read the book herself. Hence, she needs comprehensive knowledge of the literature appropriate to the grade level. And although I've said that silent pleasure reading is a good way to gently persuade reluctant students to give reading a try, let's not pretend this is easy. A sixth-grader who believes that reading is boring has a pretty firm sense of herself as decidedly not a reader; a teacher must be a skilled psychologist to work around that attitude and help the student be open to reading.

Reading at Home

I've mentioned that students' reading responsibilities change at school in later elementary years. An important change at home is their greater access to and use of digital technologies. What impact do these have on how much children read and their attitudes toward reading?

Most of the parents I talk to are convinced that digital devices are having a profound and mostly negative impact on reading. The research on this issue is more limited than you might guess. We're predicting a long-term consequence of the use of digital technologies, but these technologies haven't been available all that long. That said, I think the digital age is having a negative effect on motivation, but not through the mechanism that most parents fear.

Concentration Lost

Teachers may think that students today are easily bored because of digital devices. ¹³ Why? Some observers-including prominent reading researcher Maryanne Wolf-have suggested that habitual web reading, characterized by bouncing from one topic to another and skimming rather than reading, changes the ability to read deeply. ¹⁴ Nick Carr popularized this sinister possibility with the question: "Is Google Making Us Stupid?" ¹⁵ In that article (and in a follow-up book, The Shallows), Carr argued that something had happened to his brain. ¹⁶ Years of quick pivots in his thinking prompted by web surfing had left him unable to read a serious novel or long article. That does sound similar to the mental change many teachers believe they have seen in their students in the last decade or two; students can't pay attention, and teachers feel they must do a song and dance to engage them.

I doubt that reading on the web renders us unable to concentrate, and although a formal poll has not been taken, I suspect most cognitive psychologists agree. ¹⁷ Yes, video games and surfing the web change the brain. So does reading this article, singing a song, or seeing a stranger smile. The brain is adaptive, so it's always changing.

If the brain is adaptive, couldn't that mean that it would adapt to the need for constant shifts in attention and so maybe lose the ability to sustain attention to one thing? I don't think so, because the basic architecture of the mind probably can't be completely reshaped. Cognitive systems (vision, attention, memory, problem solving) are too interdependent for that. If one system changed in a fundamental way-such as losing the ability to stay focused on one thing-that change would cascade through the entire cognitive system, affecting most or all aspects of thought. A shorter attention span would not only affect reading, it would affect our ability to reason or solve problems, for example. The brain is probably too conservative in its adaptability for that to happen.

More important, I don't know of any good evidence that young people are worse at sustaining attention than their parents were at their age. Teens can sustain attention through a three-hour movie like The Hobbit. They are capable of reading a novel they enjoy, like The Perks of Being a Wallflower. So I doubt that they can't sustain attention. But being able to sustain attention is no guarantee that they'll do so. They must deem something worthy of their attention, and that is where digital technologies may have their impact: they change expectations.

"I'm Bored. Fix It."

Despite the diversity of activities that digital technologies afford, many share two characteristics. First, whatever experience the technology offers, you get it immediately. Second, producing this experience requires minimal effort. For example, if you don't like the YouTube video you're watching, you can switch to another. In fact, the website makes it simple by displaying a list of suggestions. If you get tired of videos, you can check Facebook. If that's boring, look for something funny on TheOnion.com.

Watching television offers the same feature: channels abound on cable, but if nothing appeals, pick something from Netflix. If you have a smartphone-and about 80 percent of teens do-then all these amusements are with you all the time. ¹⁸

The consequence of long-term experience with digital technologies is not an inability to sustain attention. It's impatience with boredom. It's an expectation that I should always have something interesting to watch, read, or listen to, and that creating an interesting experience should require little effort. The mind-boggling availability of experiences afforded by digital technologies means there is always something right at hand that one might do. Unless we're really engrossed, we have the continuous, nagging suspicion that "there must be a better way to spend my time than this." That's why, when a friend sends a link to a video titled "Dog goes crazy over sprinkler-FUNNY!" I find myself impatient if it's not funny within the first 10 seconds.

In other words, we're not distractible. We just have a very low threshold for boredom.

And this low threshold is not due to long-term changes in the brain. It's due to beliefs-beliefs about what is worthy of sustained attention and what brings rewarding experiences. Beliefs are difficult to change, but they can be changed.

The Displacements

There's no time for reading! This idea is not new. It's called the displacement hypothesis, and though it comes in several varieties, the basic idea is that when a new activity (like browsing the web) becomes available, it takes the place of something else we have typically done (like reading). Evaluating whether that's true is tricky because lots of factors go into our choices. For example, if you simply ask, "Does television displace reading?" you're expecting a negative correlation: people who watch more TV read less, and people who watch less TV read more. But research shows that the wealthier you are, the more leisure time you have. So even if television does bite into reading time, we may not see the data pattern we expect because both activities are facilitated by free time.

So has reading been displaced by digital technologies? On balance, the answer seems to be no, although most of the research in this country has focused on adults, not children. ¹⁹ Researchers have examined correlations between time spent on the Internet and time spent reading, statistically controlling for other variables like overall amount of leisure time. The correlation in most studies seems to be nil or slightly positive (in the direction opposite that predicted by the displacement hypothesis). Research on television viewing does indicate that heavy viewing (more than four hours each day) is associated with less reading. ²⁰

Given the enormous amount of time devoted to digital technologies, how is it possible that children don't shove reading aside? One answer is that most people read so little, there isn't much to be shoved aside. In 1999, when they had virtually no access to digital technologies (outside of gaming), children (ages 8 to 18) spent an average of just 21 minutes per day reading books. In 2009, when access was much greater, they averaged 25 minutes. ²¹ These data are a little deceptive, however, because they are averages. It's not that every child in 1999 read for about 21 minutes. Rather, some read quite a bit and some (about 50 percent) didn't read at all. So for half of kids, there was no chance for digital technologies to displace reading.

For the kids in 1999 who did read, it may be that reading provided a sort of pleasure that digital technologies didn't replace. They liked the fun that digital technologies provide, but it was a different sort of fun than they got from reading. Notably, magazine and newspaper reading did drop during the decade that followed, arguably because that sort of reading can be done on the Internet.

I'm offering a mixed message. Good news: I doubt digital activities are "changing children's brains" in a scary way, and I don't think they soak up reading time. Bad news: they are leading children to expect full-time amusement, and for some, reading time isn't soaked up only because there's little to soak up. It's already dry as a sun-bleached saltine.

Which leads to a rather glum conclusion: most children don't read, and even if digital devices aren't directly absorbing time that might otherwise be devoted to reading, they might be making children expect instant gratification from leisure activities. But don't despair. Parents and teachers can take positive steps that might even tempt a sulky teen to read.

How Parents Can Help

A lot of students mistakenly believe that reading means books written by dead people who have nothing to say that would be relevant to a teen's life. Nevertheless, students are expected to pore over these authors' words, study them, summarize them, analyze them for hidden meaning, and then write a five-page paper about them. To children, that's reading. It's not contemporary. It doesn't have characters a student can identify with. It's not nonfiction. It's not magazines or graphic novels.

If a student hates reading, what might tempt her to give it a try? One entry point is a book with a story she already knows, for example, a novelization of a movie she loved. Or perhaps a book of trivia and backstage gossip about a television show she enjoys. Or you might branch out by seeking a book with less familiar content but related to her interests. For example, my niece (along with millions of other teens) got interested in forensic science through the television show CSI.

Parents should consider books that look fun. A thick book with small print looks intimidating to less-than-confident readers. Go for books that have short chapters or go for graphic novels, which look easy because of the pictures. (But be advised, many are challenging.) Children in their mid-to-late elementary school years might appreciate a collection of a comic strip they enjoy. And older kids may be interested in manga (pronounced mayn-ga), a variety of comic from Japan. Manga are published in just about every genre you can think of: adventure, mystery, horror, fantasy, and comedy, but note that mature themes (sexuality, violence) are not rare.

Another source to consider: websites like Wattpad and Figment. These operate a bit like social networking sites in that users "follow" people who post content. Users can also upvote (or "like") content and comment on it. On these sites, the content is fiction. Amateur writers post stories, hoping to gain an audience. Much of the content is aimed at teens and preteens, and people often serialize their content; they don't post an entire novel, but rather post a chapter at a time. These bite-size portions might appeal to a reluctant reader-3,000 words can be read on your phone during a bus ride.

Parents may object that this sort of reading material is poorly written and glorifies aspects of popular culture that they find distasteful. That's a judgment call, of course. I would not let my children read material that is misogynistic, racist, or the like. But if my teen avoided all reading, I would be fine with him reading "junk." Before he can develop taste, he must experience hunger. The first step is to open his mind to the idea that printed material is worth his time. I believe parents will further their own goals by showing curiosity about their children's interests rather than disdain. Taking your child seriously as a reader-by, for example, taking a reading recommendation from him-might make him take himself more seriously as a reader.

Use social connections. How do students learn about movies they want to see or video games they want to play? Through media advertising and their friends. Save a few highly successful series, there is no advertising for print material. It's all word of mouth, and most kids don't read.

Parents can try to correct this knowledge deficit directly by telling their children about content they think they'd like, but it would likely be more effective for students to hear these things from peers. For adults, reading is often social. Part of the success of Oprah Winfrey's book club is the feeling of being part of a group. Teens are hypersocial, so reading ought to be social for them as well.

Technology can help. There are countless book groups on the web-boards where kids discuss books, trade recommendations, post fan fiction, and the like. Booksellers offer online book reviews and discussions that are heavily populated (see www.amazon.com/forum/book and www.barnesandnoble.com/bookclubs). Social cataloging sites, such as www.goodreads.com/genres/young-adult, www.shelfari.com, and www.librarything.com, allow users to comment on other people's posts, let others know what they read or plan to read, get recommendations, offer commentary, engage in discussions, and so on. Goodreads also allows the posting of pictures and animated GIFs, which teens do in abundance. And for serious readers, several websites offer reviews, blogs, author interviews, and other information that might provide a welcome home for teens who like reading but don't have friends who do. For example, see www.readergirlz.com, www.guyslitwire.com, and www.teenreads.com.

A child is not likely to dive into one of these communities. The most probable entry point would be through that rare book that does capture her imagination; that's the moment parents should make sure she knows that there are websites where other enthusiasts are discussing the book.

Make it easy to access books. Will an electronic reader help motivation? There are a few scattered studies on this question, showing mixed results. ²² Honestly, I'd be surprised if an e-reader made books appealing to a child who hates reading. Pleasure reading is just not that different on an e-reader, and when asked, students say they actually prefer paper; 80 percent who have experience with e-books say they still read print more often. ²³

Yet these same students say they think they would read more if they had access to e-books, and I tend to believe them. I don't think e-readers make reading more fun, once the device has lost its gee-whiz luster, but an e-reader improves access. Being able to download virtually any book you want as soon as you want it (barring cost considerations) is a great advantage. If a child has just finished book two of a trilogy and is eager to read the final book, or he has just heard from a friend about a fantastic new title, that's when he's most excited to get it. But if he has to wait a few days to get to a bookstore or library, his interest may have moved on to something new. Older students can download an e-reader for their phones. It's free, and that way they can always have a book with them.

What Teachers Can Do

A friend of mine works for a program that provides information and services to low-income parents. My friend told me of a young mother saying that she appreciated the books the group had provided for read-alouds and wondered if she could have more. My friend was pleased but surprised, as the mother had already received a large number of books. As they chatted, it became clear that the mother had been discarding each book after her child had heard it once. She didn't know it was permissible (let alone desirable) for her child to hear the same book more than once.

You may have students in your class who have parents like this mother: they want to do the right thing but need a lot of help, down to details of execution that others take for granted. Teachers also tell me of parents who are less open to the idea of a central place for reading in their homes. They did not grow up in reading homes, and they feel that they turned out just fine. Or they like the idea in principle but are not confident about their own reading. What can teachers do to promote reading in children with parents who don't know how to support it or perhaps aren't eager to do so? I can offer three suggestions.

Offer parent workshops. Research shows that telling parents about research-based practices in reading does lead to improvement in children's reading. ²⁴ A team of teachers might develop workshops that:

Offer information about the impact of parents' attitudes on children's success. Even though literacy is important to a child's success in school, reading at home should focus on pleasure. Teachers should teach; parents don't need to. Parents should support reading as a gateway to pleasure. Research shows that parents who view reading as fun actually have kids who read better than parents who view reading as an academic skill.²⁵

Offer information about how to read to a young child: how to fit it into one's day, what to do when the child is fidgety, how to find interesting books, and so on. For parents of older kids, provide information about how to support the emergent reader: when to offer support and of what sort, how long the child should read, and what sort of material he should read.

Offer information about how to include more reading in daily life-for example, encouraging the child to bring a book for the ride to school-and suggestions for ways to reduce television watching and video gaming.

If workshops are to have an impact, parents must attend, so organizers might consider ways to make it as easy as possible for parents to do so. In addition to good publicity, strategies might include providing childcare, holding the workshop on the first floor so parents with strollers aren't thwarted, and scheduling with sensitivity to working hours (or better, scheduling the same workshop at different times). Organizers might also consider an initial parent-child event that has nothing to do with reading at all but is meant only to establish the school as a welcoming place. I visited a school that held a mother-daughter nail-art night for this purpose.

Provide books. Suppose you simply gave kids free books? Would they read them, and would their reading improve? Research on the impact of free-book programs has typically focused on the summer months because that's when kids who don't read really fall behind those who do. ²⁶ It's a special problem for low-income kids, ²⁷ as they don't have the access to books (either at home or at libraries) that wealthier children do. ²⁸ Summer school programs meant to encourage kids to read at home are known to be effective, ²⁹ but they are expensive.

The less expensive alternative is to provide books and hope for the best, and there is some indication that doing so does prompt reading and, in turn, boosts reading skills. ³⁰ As you might guess, free-book programs seem to have a bigger impact on low-income kids than middle-income kids. ³¹

A number of organizations provide free books to children in need (see the "Resources" box on the right). A small team of teachers might take on the task of contacting these organizations to procure books that can be distributed directly to students.

Plant a seed. Even if parents won't come for a workshop, you can still use the brief snippets of time you have with them to try to plant a literacy seed: if they come for a parent-teacher conference, great, but if not, perhaps it's an opportune moment at pickup when the child is struggling into his jacket. What might such a seed be? If parents seem very reluctant to accord a larger role for literacy, a greater emphasis on conversation at home may lay the groundwork for literacy later.

Much has been written about the importance of talking to children, but the dictate "talk to your kids" says nothing about the quality of the speech. Child-directed talk composed mostly of directions (e.g., "Go get me the milk") or prohibitions (e.g., "Stop that") is not what we have in mind, but that may be what the child receives if a parent sees conversation with children as frivolous. A way around this is to suggest that parents share with their children stories of their own childhood. Stories provide structure for extended talk that is social, family-oriented, and not directive. From about age 5 until pubescence (and sometimes into the teen years), children often enjoy hearing stories that verify the remarkable fact that their parents were once young.

Another option is to suggest that parents ask their child questions. Hearing adult speech is a useful model, but the child also needs practice in formulating and expressing her ideas. In addition, asking questions sends an important implicit message about the nature of speech. The parent who uses speech mostly to tell his child what to do silently communicates to the child that the purpose of language is to make one's wishes known to others. The parent who asks questions shows that another purpose of language is to gain new information, to learn things from others. ³² It's a way to model curiosity.

A natural topic for questions is what happened during the school day. Teachers can help by letting parents know when a student was particularly excited about some work during the day, and suggesting that the parent ask about it. For willing parents, a teacher could even arrange to make such communications regular, for example, by sending a text message every few days that tells parents something about classroom life that they could ask their children about: which book was read aloud, for example, or what the writing prompt was that day.

* * *

What parents and teachers really want for children is to experience reading pleasure. What sort of reading pleasure? For me, reading affords a pleasure of understanding. Food writer Ruth Reichl, for example, can snare in words the elusive subtleties in the flavor of toro. Other writers make me understand things about myself, not always appealing things. After reading the memoir Clear Pictures, I remember reflecting on how lucky Reynolds Price was to have grown up among such wise and interesting people, only to realize that it was Price's acumen and sensitivity that made them so; had I known them, I would likely have missed their finest qualities. As an adult, I get great satisfaction from, at long last, coming to a better understanding of ideas that I've often encountered but only dimly comprehended; most recently, it's been the tensions among the founders of the United States.

An altogether different sort of pleasure comes from being carried to distant times and places when I read. How better to see the French Riviera during the 1920s than through the debauched, exhausted eyes of Dick Diver in Tender Is the Night? How could I enter the alternately solemn and boisterous world of New York's Hasidim if Chaim Potok did not take me there? And then too sometimes the pleasure lies not in the charms of a new world but in escape from my own. During graduate school, I read Herman Wouk's two-volume World War II epic The Winds of War and War and Remembrance nearly daily at lunch; I used it like worry beads to manage the anxiety consequent to my demanding academic program.

I maintain that these joys cannot be experienced through television or other media. Only reading elicits your contribution to the experience by demanding that you mentally create the world described. Only fiction demands that you live with the characters as long or as deeply. And with few exceptions, prose stylists show greater love of language than artists in other media.

I want my children-and yours-to experience those joys, or ones like them. And that's the goal you must keep in the forefront of your mind. As someone who has spent all of his professional life around 18- to 22-year-olds, I'll offer my impression as to what causes the greatest conflict between parents and teens: Parents are under the impression that they want their children to be happy. Children are under the impression that their parents want them to be happy the way their parents think they ought to be happy.

The danger lies in children feeling pressured and unhappy about reading. Remember that your goal is that they enjoy reading, not that they enjoy reading as you do.

Daniel T. Willingham is a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of Virginia. He is the author of When Can You Trust the Experts? How to Tell Good Science from Bad in Education and Why Don't Students Like School? For his articles on education, go to www.danielwillingham.com. This article is adapted with permission of the publisher from his most recent book, Raising Kids Who Read: What Parents and Teachers Can Do. Copyright 2015 Jossey-Bass/Wiley. All rights reserved.

*The survey was conducted on MTurk, a website where volunteers can perform brief computer tasks for pay. We paid each of our 313 participants (53.4 percent female, mean age = 35.2 years) 35 cents. All were Americans at least 18 years old. The instructions said, "The average American teenager between the ages of 15 and 19 has 5.1 hours of leisure time on a typical weekday. How would you hope that your child would allocate his or her 5.1 hours (that's 306 minutes) among the following activities? Enter the number of minutes in the box next to each activity." The wording varied so that respondents without a teenage child were asked to answer as if they did. ( back to the article)

†For more on the effectiveness of rewards, see " Should Learning Be Its Own Reward?" in the Winter 2007-2008 issue of American Educator. ( back to the article)

‡For more on the effects of praising students, see " How Praise Can Motivate-or Stifle" in the Winter 2005-2006 issue of American Educator. ( back to the article)

§For more about the word gap between low-income and more-affluent children, see " The Early Catastrophe" in the Spring 2003 issue of American Educator. ( back to the article)

Endnotes

1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, "American Time Use Survey-2013 Results," news release, June 18, 2014, www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/atus.pdf.

2. Bureau of Labor Statistics, "American Time Use Survey."

3. Mark R. Lepper, David Greene, and Richard E. Nisbett, "Undermining Children's Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward: A Test of the 'Overjustification Hypothesis,'" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28, no. 1 (1973): 129-137.

4. For a review, see Edward L. Deci, Richard Koestner, and Richard M. Ryan, "A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation," Psychological Bulletin 125 (1999): 627-668.

5. Laurie E. Hansen, Penny Collins, and Mark Warschauer, "Reading Management Programs: A Review of the Research," Journal of Literacy and Technology 10, no. 3 (2009): 55-80.

6. Kelly Gallagher, Readicide: How Schools Are Killing Reading and What You Can Do about It (Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 2009).

7. Devon Brenner, Elfrieda H. Hiebert, and Renarta Tompkins, "How Much and What Are Third Graders Reading?," in Reading More, Reading Better, ed. Elfrieda. H. Hiebert (New York: Guilford Press, 2009), 118-140.

8. Emily A. Swan, Cassandra S. Coddington, and John T. Guthrie, "Engaged Silent Reading," in Revisiting Silent Reading: New Directions for Teachers and Researchers, ed. Elfrieda H. Hiebert and D. Ray Reutzel (Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 2010), 95-111.

9. John T. Guthrie and Allan Wigfield, "Engagement and Motivation in Reading," in Handbook of Reading Research, ed. Michael L. Kamil, Peter B. Mosenthal, P. David Pearson, and Rebecca Barr, vol. 3 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000), 403-422; and Gay Ivey and Karen Broaddus, "'Just Plain Reading': A Survey of What Makes Students Want to Read in Middle School Classrooms," Reading Research Quarterly 36 (2001): 350-377.

10. Debbie Miller and Barbara Moss, No More Independent Reading without Support (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2013).

11. Michael L. Kamil, "How to Get Recreational Reading to Increase Reading Achievement," in 57th Yearbook of the National Reading Conference, ed. Youb Kim et al. (Oak Creek, WI: National Reading Conference, 2008), 31-40.

12. Maryann Manning and Marta Lewis, "Sustained Silent Reading: An Update of the Research," in Hiebert and Reutzel, Revisiting Silent Reading, 112-128; D. Ray Reutzel, Yaacov Petscher, and Alexandra N. Spichtig, "Exploring the Value Added of a Guided, Silent Reading Intervention: Effects on Struggling Third-Grade Readers' Achievement," Journal of Educational Research 105 (2012): 404-415; Jun-Chae Yoon, "Three Decades of Sustained Silent Reading: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of SSR on Attitude toward Reading," Reading Improvement 39, no. 4 (2002): 186-195; and National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction; Reports of the Subgroups (Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000).

13. Matt Richtel, "Technology Changing How Students Learn, Teachers Say," New York Times, November 1, 2012.

14. Michael S. Rosenwald, "Serious Reading Takes a Hit from Online Scanning and Skimming, Researchers Say," Washington Post, April 6, 2014.

15. Nicholas Carr, "Is Google Making Us Stupid?," Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education 107, no. 2 (2008): 89-94.

16. Nicholas Carr, The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011).

17. Kathryn L. Mills, "Effects of Internet Use on the Adolescent Brain: Despite Popular Claims, Experimental Evidence Remains Scarce," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 18 (2014): 385-387; Steven Pinker, "Mind over Mass Media," New York Times, June 10, 2010; and Roger Schank, "The Thinking Process Hasn't Changed in 50,000 Years," Edge.org, 2010, http://edge.org/responses/how-is-the-internet-changing-the-way-you-think.

18. "The Mobile Device Path to Purchase: Parents & Children," Communicus, accessed November 14, 2014, www.communicus.com/2014/08/22/mobile-device-path-purchase-parents-child....

19. Kouider Mokhtari, Carla A. Reichard, and Anne Gardner, "The Impact of Internet and Television Use on the Reading Habits and Practices of College Students," Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 52 (2009): 609-619; John P. Robinson, "Arts and Leisure Participation among IT Users: Further Evidence of Time Enhancement over Time Displacement," Social Science Computer Review 29 (2011): 470-480; John P. Robinson and Steven Martin, "IT and Activity Displacement: Behavioral Evidence from the U.S. General Social Survey (GSS)," Social Indicators Research 91 (2009): 115-139.

20. Cees M. Koolstra and Tom H. A. van der Voort, "Longitudinal Effects of Television on Children's Leisure-Time Reading: A Test of Three Explanatory Models," Human Communication Research 23 (1996): 4-35.

21. Victoria J. Rideout, Ulla G. Foehr, and Donald F. Roberts, Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds (Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010).

22. Tricia A. Zucker, Amelia K. Moody, and Michael C. McKenna, "The Effects of Electronic Books on Pre-Kindergarten-to-Grade 5 Students' Literacy and Language Outcomes: A Research Synthesis," Journal of Educational Computing Research 40 (2009): 47-87.

23. Scholastic, Kids & Family Reading Report, 4th ed. (New York: Scholastic, 2013).

24. Jennifer Sloan McCombs, Catherine H. Augustine, Heather L. Schwartz, Susan J. Bodilly, Brian McInnis, Dahlia S. Lichter, and Amanda Brown Cross, Making Summer Count: How Summer Programs Can Boost Children's Learning (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 2011).

25. Linda Baker, "The Role of Parents in Motivating Struggling Readers," Reading and Writing Quarterly 19 (2003): 87-106.

26. James S. Kim and Thomas G. White, "Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5: An Experimental Study," Scientific Studies of Reading 12 (2008): 1-23; and Joshua Fahey Lawrence, "Summer Reading: Predicting Adolescent Word Learning from Aptitude, Time Spent Reading, and Text Type," Reading Psychology 30 (2009): 445-465.

27. David T. Burkam, Douglas D. Ready, Valerie E. Lee, and Laura F. LoGerfo, "Social-Class Differences in Summer Learning Between Kindergarten and First Grade: Model Specification and Estimation," Sociology of Education 77 (2004): 1-31.

28. Susan B. Neuman and Donna Celano, "Access to Print in Low-Income and Middle-Income Communities: An Ecological Study of Four Neighborhoods," Reading Research Quarterly 36 (2001): 8-26.

29. Harris Cooper, Kelly Charlton, Jeff C. Valentine, and Laura Muhlenbruck, "Making the Most of Summer School: A Meta-Analytic and Narrative Review," Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 65, no. 1 (2000): 1-118.

30. Richard L. Allington, Anne McGill-Franzen, Gregory Camilli, Lunetta Williams, Jennifer Graff, Jacqueline Zeig, Courtney Zmach, and Rhonda Nowak, "Addressing Summer Reading Setback among Economically Disadvantaged Elementary Students," Reading Psychology 31 (2010): 411-427; James S. Kim, "Effects of a Voluntary Summer Reading Intervention on Reading Achievement: Results from a Randomized Field Trial," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 28 (2006): 335-355; and Susan B. Neuman, "Books Make a Difference: A Study of Access to Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly 34 (1999): 286-311.

31. James S. Kim and David M. Quinn, "The Effects of Summer Reading on Low-Income Children's Literacy Achievement from Kindergarten to Grade 8: A Meta-Analysis of Classroom and Home Interventions," Review of Educational Research 83 (2013): 386-431.

32. Barbara Tizard and Martin Hughes, Young Children Learning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).

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How should American teens spend their leisure time? I recently asked* American adults this question, after explaining that the typical teen enjoys approximately five hours of leisure time each weekday.1 The activity with the highest response, irrespective of race, education, and other demographic factors, was reading. Adults thought teens ought to spend about an hour and 15 minutes reading for pleasure each day. How much time do teens actually spend reading? On average, six minutes.2

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Parent involvement is key — here are a few ways to show how parents can help create a routine for reading.

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The basics of the alphabetic principle.

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Concepts and Research

What is the Alphabetic Principle?

The alphabetic principle is composed of two parts:

Alphabetic Understanding: Words are composed of letters that represent sounds.

Phonological Recoding: Using systematic relationships between letters and phonemes (letter-sound correspondence) to retrieve the pronunciation of an unknown printed string or to spell words. Phonological recoding consists of:

Regular Word Reading

A regular word is a word in which all the letters represent their most common sounds. Regular words are words that can be decoded (phonologically recoded).

Because our language is alphabetic, decoding is an essential and primary means of recognizing words. There are simply too many words in the English language to rely on memorization as a primary word identification strategy (Bay Area Reading Task Force, 1997, see References).

Beginning decoding ("phonological recoding") is the ability to:

read from left to right, simple, unfamiliar regular words.

generate the sounds for all letters.

blend sounds into recognizable words.

Beginning spelling is the ability to:

translate speech to print using phonemic awareness and knowledge of letter-sounds.

Progression of Regular Word Reading

Sounding Out
(saying each individual sound out loud)

Saying the Whole Word
(saying each individual sound and pronouncing the whole word)

Sight Word Reading
(sounding out the word in your head, if necessary, and saying the whole word)

Automatic Word Reading
(reading the word without sounding it out)

Simple Regular Words - Listed According to Difficulty

Word Type

Reason for Relative Ease/Difficulty

Examples

Irregular Word Reading

Although decoding is a highly reliable strategy for a majority of words, some irregular words in the English language do not conform to word-analysis instruction (e.g., the, was, night). Those words are referred to as irregular words.

Irregular Word: A word that cannot be decoded because either (a) the sounds of the letters are unique to that word or a few words, or (b) the student has not yet learned the letter-sound correspondences in the word (Carnine, Silbert & Kame'enui, 1997; see References).

Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 1998; see References

In beginning reading there will be passages that contain words that are "decodable" yet the letter sound correspondences in those words may not yet be familiar to students. In this case, we also teach these words as irregular words.

To strengthen students' reliance on the decoding strategy and communicate the utility of that strategy, we recommend not introducing irregular words until students can reliably decode words at a rate of one letter-sound per second. At this point, irregular words may be introduced, but on a limited scale.

The key to irregular word recognition is not how to teach them. The teaching procedure is simple. The critical design considerations are how many to introduce and how many to review.

Advanced Word Analysis

Advanced word analysis involves being skilled at phonological processing (recognizing and producing the speech sounds in words) and having an awareness of letter-sound correspondences in words.

Advanced word analysis skills include:

Knowledge of common letter combinations and the sounds they make

Identification of VCe pattern words and their derivatives

Knolwedge of prefixes, suffixes, and roots, and how to use them to "chunk" word parts within a larger word to gain access to meaning.

Knowledge of advanced word analysis skills is essential if students are to progress in their knowledge of the alphabetic writing system and gain the ability to read fluently and broadly.

Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 1998; see References
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Definitions of key Alphabetic Principle terminology:

Alphabetic Awareness: Knowledge of letters of the alphabet coupled with the understanding that the alphabet represents the sounds of spoken language and the correspondence of spoken sounds to written language.

Alphabetic Understanding: Understanding that the left-to-right spellings of printed words represent their phonemes from first to last.

Continuous Sound: A sound that can be prolonged (stretched out) without distortion (e.g., r, s, a, m).

Decodable Text: Text in which the majority of words can be identified using their most common sounds. Reading materials in which a high percentage of words are linked to phonics lessons using letter-sound correspondences children have been taught. Decodable text is an intermediate step between reading words in isolation and authentic literature. These texts are used to help students focus their attention on the sound-symbol relationships they are learning. Effective decodable texts contain some sight words that allow for the development of more interesting stories.

Decoding: The process of using letter-sound correspondences to recognize words.

Grapheme: The individual letter or sequence of written symbols (e.g., a, b, c) and the multiletter units (e.g., ch, sh, th) that are used to represent a single phoneme.

Irregular Word: A word that cannot be decoded because either (a) the sounds of the letters are unique to that word or a few words, or (b) the student has not yet learned the letter-sound correspondences in the word.

Letter Combination: A group of consecutive letters that represents a particular sound(s) in the majority of words in which it appears.

Letter-Sound Correspondence: A phoneme (sound) associated with a letter.

Most Common Sound: The sound a letter most frequently makes in a short, one syllable word, (e.g., red, blast). Click here to see a list of the most common sounds of single letters.

Nonsense or Pseudoword: A word in which the letters make their most common sounds but the word has no commonly recognized meaning (e.g., tist, lof).

Orthography: A system of symbols for spelling.

Phonological Recoding: Translation of letters to sounds to words to gain lexical access to the word.

Regular Word: A word in which all the letters represent their most common sound.

Sight Word Reading: The process of reading words at a regular rate without vocalizing the individual sounds in a word (i.e., reading words the fast way).

Sounding Out: The process of saying each sound that represents a letter in a word without stopping between sounds.

Stop Sound: A sound that cannot be prolonged (stretched out) without distortion. A short, plosive sound (e.g., p, t, k).

VCe Pattern Word: Word pattern in which a single vowel is followed by a consonant, which, in turn, is followed by a final e (i.e., lake, stripe, and smile).

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Alphabetic Principle Skills

To develop the alphabetic principle across grades K-3, students need to learn two essential skills:

Letter-sound correspondences: comprised initially of individual letter sounds and progresses to more complex letter combinations.

Word reading: comprised initially of reading simple CVC words and progresses to compound words, multisyllabic words, and sight words.

Kindergarten Skills

Letter-sound correspondence: identifies and produces the most common sound associated with individual letters.

Decoding: blends the sounds of individual letters to read one-syllable words.
When presented with the word fan the student will say "/fffaaannn/, fan."

Sight word reading: Recognizes and reads words by sight (e.g., I, was, the, of).

First Grade Skills

Letter-sound and letter-combination knowledge: produces the sounds of the most common letter sounds and combinations (e.g., th, sh, ch, ing).

Decoding: sounds out and reads words with increasing automaticity, including words with consonant blends (e.g., mask, slip, play), letter combinations (e.g., fish, chin, bath), monosyllabic words, and common word parts (e.g., ing, all, ike).

Sight words: Reads the most common sight words automatically (e.g., very, some, even, there).

2nd and 3rd Grade Skills

Letter-Sound Knowledge: produces the sounds that correspond to frequently used vowel diphthongs (e.g., ou, oy, ie) and digraphs (e.g., sh, th, ea).

Decoding and Word Recognition:

applies advanced phonic elements (digraphs and diphthongs), special vowel spellings, and word endings to read words.

Reads compound words, contractions, possessives, and words with inflectional word endings.

Uses word context and order to confirm or correct word reading efforts (e.g., does it make sense?).

Reads multisyllabic words using syllabication and word structure (e.g. base/root word, prefixes, and suffixes) in word reading.

Sight word reading: increasing number of words read accurately and automatically.

What Teachers Should Know

What Teachers Should Be Able to Do

Components and definition of alphabetic principle.

The relation of phonemic awareness & decoding.

The critical stages in learning to decode words.

Features that influence the difficulty of word recognition.

Critical differences between regular and irregular words.

Terminology (alphabetic principle, orthography, grapheme, phonological recoding)

Sequence letter-sound correspondences to enhance word recognition.

Assess & diagnose decoding skills.

Select examples according to complexity of word type and letter sounds.

Explicitly teach letter sounds, blending, sight word, and connected text reading.

Give corrective feedback.

Evaluate design of materials.

(modified from Moats, 1999; see References)

What Does the Lack of Alphabetic Understanding Look Like?

Children who lack alphabetic understanding cannot:

Understand that words are composed of letters.

Associate an alphabetic character (i.e., letter) with its corresponding phoneme or sound.

Identify a word based on a sequence of letter-sound correspondences (e.g., that "mat" is made up of three letter-sound correspondences /m/ /a/ /t/).

Blend letter-sound correspondences to identify decodable words.

Use knowledge of letter-sound correspondences to identify words in which letters represent their most common sound.

Identify and manipulate letter-sound correspondences within words.

Read pseudowords (e.g., "tup", with reasonable speed).

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Alphabetic Principle Research Says:

Letter-sound knowledge is prerequisite to effective word identification. A primary difference between good and poor readers is the ability to use letter-sound correspondence to identify words (Juel, 1991; see References).

Students who acquire and apply the alphabetic principle early in their reading careers reap long-term benefits (Stanovich, 1986; see References).

Teaching students to phonologically recode words is a difficult, demanding, yet achievable goal with long-lasting effects (Liberman & Liberman, 1990; see References).

The combination of instruction in phonological awareness and letter-sounds appears to be the most favorable for successful early reading (Haskell, Foorman, & Swank, 1992; see References).

Good readers must have a strategy to phonologically recode words (Ehri, 1991; NRP, 2000; see References).

During the alphabetic phase, reading must have lots of practice phonologically recoding the same words to become familiar with spelling patterns (Ehri, 1991; see References).

Awareness of the relation between sounds and the alphabet can be taught (Liberman & Liberman, 1990; see References).

Because our language is alphabetic, decoding is an essential and primary means of recognizing words. There are simply too many words in the English language to rely on memorization as a primary word identification strategy (Bay Area Reading Task Force, 1996; see References).

The table below illustrates the important correlation between the ability to decode words and reading comprehension.
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University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning

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Alphabetic Principle: Concepts and Research

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Concepts and Research The alphabetic principle is composed of two parts: Alphabetic Understanding: Words are composed of letters that represent sounds. Phonological Recoding: Using systematic relationships between letters and phonemes (letter-sound correspondence) to retrieve the pronunciation of an unknown printed string or to spell words.

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Strategies and activities from Florida Center of Reading Research.

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Resources | Florida Center for Reading Research

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Marzano’s Six Step Approach to Teaching Vocabulary. Article from ASCD (2009).

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Educational Leadership is pleased to announce a new column this year- The Art and Science of Teaching- and a new columnist-noted researcher Robert J. Marzano. Internationally known for his practical translations of current research into effective classroom strategies, Marzano is cofounder of Marzano Research Laboratory, which synthesizes teacher research into components that schools can use for gains in student learning. A well-known speaker and trainer as well as a prolific book author, he draws from 40 years of experience in education. Each month, Marzano will focus on one teacher-tested instructional strategy in education.

After examining for decades the research on instructional strategies and reflecting on my involvement in hundreds of studies, I can say one thing confidently: If you examine all the studies conducted on a given instructional strategy, you will find that some studies indicate the strategy improves student achievement whereas other studies indicate it doesn't.

Take, for example, the strategy of providing feedback. Researchers Avraham Kluger and Angelo DeNisi (1996) synthesized the findings from 607 studies on that strategy. They found that the average effect of providing feedback to students is a 16-percentile-point gain. However, more than one-third of the studies indicated that feedback has a negative effect on student achievement. Simply using a strategy does not guarantee positive results. Rather, it's how someone uses the strategy that determines whether it produces great results, mediocre results, or no results at all.

So what's a teacher, school, or district to do? Certainly, the answer is not to ignore the research. In fact, the research is the first place to start. You should scour studies to identify those strategies for which research shows positive effects on student achievement. Next, teachers, schools, and districts should conduct their own informal (and formal) studies on how well an instructional strategy works in their particular context-with their students, their grade level, or their subject matter. No strategy is foolproof. No strategy is proven. You have to see how it works in your particular setting.

They Won't Forget the Crocodile Teeth

1. Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term.

2. Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words.

3. Ask students to construct a picture, pictograph, or symbolic representation of the term.

4. Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms in their vocabulary notebooks.

5. Periodically ask students to discuss the terms with one another.

6. Involve students periodically in games that enable them to play with terms.

Teachers use the first three steps when introducing a term to students. For example, assume a teacher is introducing the term mutualism. Instead of offering a textbook definition, the teacher describes the term or tells an anecdote that illustrates its meaning (Step 1). The teacher might explain that the crocodile and a bird called the Egyptian plover have a relationship that exemplifies mutualism. The crocodile opens its mouth and invites the plover to stand inside. The plover picks things out of the crocodile's teeth. Both parties benefit: The plover gets fed; the croc gets its teeth cleaned. While explaining this relationship, the teacher might show students images found on the Internet.

In Steps 2 and 3, students try their hand at explaining the meaning of mutualism. They devise an explanation or an example from their own lives (Step 2). Next, they draw an image depicting what they think mutualism means (Step 3).

A few days later, the teacher reviews the new term using Steps 4, 5, and 6, which needn't be executed in sequence. The teacher might have students compare the meaning of mutualism with another previously studied term, such as symbiosis (Step 4). Students might pair up and compare their entries on the term in their vocabulary notebooks (Step 5), or the teacher might craft a game that students play using these terms (Step 6).

What Teacher Research Found

Over the last five years, I have been involved in more than 50 studies that involve this strategy. In all these studies, teachers used the strategy with one class but did not use it with another. Then they compared the results.

These studies have taught us several things about this six-step strategy. First, the strategy works at every grade level, from kindergarten to high school. Second, it works better if you use all the steps without leaving any out. In one middle school study, teachers found that the whole process enhanced students' achievement much more than the parts of the process in isolation did. Third, although the majority of studies indicate that the process enhances student achievement, some studies indicate that it doesn't.

For example, in one district in which 24 elementary teachers used the six-step process with one group of students but not with another, the average effect for using the strategy across all 24 elementary teachers was a 24-percentile-point gain. Six studies showed gains greater than 40 percentile points, but nine studies showed negative effects.

When students copy the teacher's explanation or description of a term instead of generating their own explanation, the results are not as strong. Ideally, student explanations should come from their own lives.

The third step in the process is crucial-having students represent their understanding of a new term by drawing a picture, pictograph, or symbolic representation. When students do this step well, achievement soars.

Games seem to engage students at a high level and have a powerful effect on students' recall of the terms. Games not only add a bit of fun to the teaching and learning process, but also provide an opportunity to review the terms in a nonthreatening way. After the class has played a vocabulary game, the teacher should invite students to identify difficult terms and go over the crucial aspects of those terms in a whole-class discussion.

Of course, we still have more to learn about this strategy. But for now, it's safe to conclude that it can be a powerful tool that teachers can use in classrooms at any grade level and in any subject area.

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The Art and Science of Teaching / Six Steps to Better Vocabulary Instruction - ASCD

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Educational Leadership is pleased to announce a new column this year-The Art and Science of Teaching-and a new columnist-noted researcher Robert J. Marzano. Internationally known for his practical translations of current research into effective classroom strategies, Marzano is cofounder of Marzano R

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From Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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The Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network (PMRN) is a free web-based data management system available to schools only in the State of Florida. Student data is a critical component in determining the type and amount of instruction a student should receive.

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Goodreads will recommend books based on your ratings and the books you have read.

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Find and read more books you'll love, and keep track of the books you want to read. Be part of the world's largest community of book lovers on Goodreads.

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Strategies and activities from Florida Center of Reading Research.

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Resources | Florida Center for Reading Research

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Cognitive Psychologist Daniel Willingham reports it’s not all about “reading strategies”, but also about deep content instruction, reading across genres, and content areas.

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Teaching Grammar in Context.

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PA and Extensive Vocabulary as strong indicators of future reading success. 

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PA and Extensive Vocabulary as strong indicators of future reading success. 

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An excellent article from ASCD about Readiness and Phonemic Awareness. Contains solid research and activities/strategies to support the research.

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PA from Center on Teaching and Learning (U of Oregon)

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PA from Center on Teaching and Learning (U of Oregon)

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A fantastic, easy to read “how to” sheet on Phonemic Awareness.

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An early intervention reading screener that helps identify areas of weakness.

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PreK-3 Resources for Phonological Awareness and Phonics from PALS, a part of Early Intervention Reading Initiative from the state of Virginia.

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Strategies from Reading Rockets.

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A spelling module for teachers (from Reading Rockets). A must read for those not specifically trained in literacy instruction.

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Many people think spelling consists of memorizing all the words in a dictionary and that spelling comes naturally to some and not to others. This is a misconception. Good spellers aren't born, they are taught! Nearly 90 percent of English words can be spelled if a student knows basic patterns, principles and rules of spelling.

If a child can spell a word, he or she can usually read the word. In fact, there is a strong relationship between spelling and word reading, because many of the same abilities - phonemic awareness, knowledge of letter patterns, an understanding of morphology and word meanings - underlie both reading and spelling. Good spellers make for better readers and writers.

Watch and learn

Dr. Louisa Moats, an expert in literacy instruction, says that spelling is a visible record of a child's language processing, and gives us a window into what a child understands about word structure, and speech sounds., and how we use letters to represent those sounds. Looking at a child's spelling is a wonderful diagnostic tool.

Putting spelling in perspective

There are about 400,000 words in a dictionary. In about 50% of the words, sound and letter associations map simply and perfectly. These words don't have to be memorized. Another 37% are easily learned through instruction of slightly more complex letter-sound correspondences. Only 13% of English language words are truly exceptional, in that they must be memorized by sight.

Spelling instruction should include:

Alphabetic principle: Knowledge of which individual letters match up to sounds, in a left to right sequence (In the word cup each sound is represented by a single letter).

Pattern information: Which groups of letters function as a pattern to represent sounds. Examples of patterns would include: CVC (Consonant/Vowel/Consonant) pattern to form short vowels (e.g. like the word cat) or CVCe/CVVC patterns to form long vowels (e.g. like the words same or meat).

Spelling variations based on word origins (e.g., 'ch' sounds like /ch/ in Anglo-Saxon words likecheck, /sh/ in French words like niche, and /k/ in Greek words like chaos).

Meaning (morphological or morphemic) information: Which groups of letters represent meaning (The prefix re- as in redo, means to do again). Instruction should include Greek combining forms and Latin roots.

Adapted from: Bear, D.R., M.A. Invernizzi, S. Templeton, F. Johnston (1996) Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary and Spelling Instruction.

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Many people think spelling consists of memorizing all the words in a dictionary and that spelling comes naturally to some and not to others. This is a misconception. Good spellers aren't born, they are taught! Nearly 90 percent of English words can be spelled if a student knows basic patterns, principles and rules of spelling.

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Word Study = Phonics + Spelling + Vocab Instruction

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Word Study = Phonics + Spelling + Vocab Instruction

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A brief introduction of Word Study from Words Their Way (Pearson).

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A fantastic online resource/activity for early readers! A mobile device requires an app download.

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Strategies and activities from Florida Center of Reading Research.

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Benefits of Brief Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction

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Benefits of Brief Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction

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Article from Cognitive Psychologist Daniel Willingham.

“Happily, students can learn them quickly and they are effective, but they appear to deliver a one-time boost. Acquiring a broad vocabulary and a rich base of background knowledge will yield more substantial and longer-term benefits, but doing so is more difficult and time consuming. This knowledge must be the product of years of systematic instruction as well as constant exposure to high quality books, films, conversations, and so on, which provide students with incidental exposure to a great deal of new vocabulary and knowledge.”

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This book by Jennifer Serravallo is worth every penny. It doesn't matter if your curriculum follows the DAILY 5, CAFE, Reader's Workshop, etc. The strategies, specific teaching points, reader's goals and the implementation techniques are all transferrable to every classroom and curriculum.

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Jen collects 300 strategies in support of thirteen reading goals with each strategy cross-linked to skills, genres, and reading levels. Ideal for use with

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Seven Strategies for Reading Comprehension 

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Seven Strategies for Reading Comprehension 

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Strategies from Reading Rockets.

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Adapted from Adler, C.R. (Ed). 2001. Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read, pp. 49-54. National Institute for Literacy. Retrieved Nov. 1, 2007, from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/reading_first1text.html.

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Seven Strategies to Teach Students Text Comprehension

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Comprehension strategies are conscious plans - sets of steps that good readers use to make sense of text. Comprehension strategy instruction helps students become purposeful, active readers who are in control of their own reading comprehension. These seven strategies have research-based evidence for improving text comprehension.

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Additional Strategies that Promote Comprehension

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Additional Strategies that Promote Comprehension

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Before, During, and After Reading from Reading Rockets.

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General instructional activities

To correspond with a typical reading lesson, comprehension strategy instruction can be organized into a three-part framework, with specific activities used before, during, and after reading.

Providing instruction such as the following example allows students to see, learn, and use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read. Note, however, that the framework is a general one and represents an array of strategies. All of the strategies in this framework do not have to be used with every text or in every reading situation.

Before Reading

Before reading, the teacher may:

Motivate students through activities that may increase their interest (book talks, dramatic readings, or displays of art related to the text), making the text relevant to students in some way.

Activate students' background knowledge important to the content of the text by discussing what students will read and what they already know about its topic and about the text organization.

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

Establish a purpose for reading.

Identify and discuss difficult words, phrases, and concepts in the text.

Preview the text (by surveying the title, illustrations, and unusual text structures) to make predictions about its content.

Think, talk, and write about the topic of the text.

During Reading

During reading, the teacher may:

Remind students to use comprehension strategies as they read and to monitor their understanding.

Ask questions that keep students on track and focus their attention on main ideas and important points in the text.

Focus attention on parts in a text that require students to make inferences.

Call on students to summarize key sections or events.

Encourage students to return to any predictions they have made before reading to see if they are confirmed by the text.

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

Determine and summarize important ideas and supportive details.

Make connections between and among important ideas in the text.

Integrate new ideas with existing background knowledge.

Ask themselves questions about the text.

Sequence events and ideas in the text.

Offer interpretations of and responses to the text.

Check understanding by paraphrasing or restating important and/or difficult sentences and paragraphs.

Visualize characters, settings, or events in a text.

After Reading

After reading, the teacher may:

Guide discussion of the reading.

Ask students to recall and tell in their own words important parts of the text.

Offer students opportunities to respond to the reading in various ways, including through writing, dramatic play, music, readers' theatre, videos, debate, or pantomime.

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

Evaluate and discuss the ideas encountered in the text.

Apply and extend these ideas to other texts and real life situations.

Summarize what was read by retelling the main ideas.

Discuss ideas for further reading.

Activities and procedures for use with narrative texts

The following are some examples of specific procedures that you can use to help students improve their comprehension of narrative texts.

Retelling

Retelling involves having students orally reconstruct a story that they have read.

Retelling requires students to activate their knowledge of how stories work and apply it to the new reading. As part of retelling, students engage in ordering and summarizing information and in making inferences. The teacher can use retelling as a way to assess how well students comprehend a story, then use this information to help students develop a deeper understanding of what they have read.

The teacher uses explicit instruction, explaining why retelling is useful, modeling the procedure, giving students opportunities to practice, and providing feedback. As the following chart shows, students' retellings should become more detailed as they become better readers.

Types of Retelling

Simple retelling
The student can:

identify and retell the beginning, middle, and end of a story in order.

describe the setting.

identify the problem and the resolution of a problem.

More complete retelling
The student can:

identify and retell events and facts in a sequence.

make inferences to fill in missing information.

identify and retell causes of actions or events and their effects.

Most complete retelling
The student can:

identify and retell a sequence of actions or events.

make inferences to account for events or actions.

offer an evaluation of the story.

Story Maps

Story maps are visual representations of the elements that make up a narrative. The purpose of a story map is to help students focus on the important elements of narratives-theme, characters, settings, problems, plot events, and resolution-and on the relationship among those elements.

Story maps to be used with younger students can be very simple-like the one that follows. These maps focus on a single element, such as the sequence of a simple plot.

With older students, the maps can be more complicated, focusing on several elements. As with retellings, the teacher uses explicit instruction to introduce the procedure, explaining why story maps are useful, then modeling the procedure, giving students opportunities to practice, and providing feedback.

Story Frames

Similar to story maps, story frames are visual representations that focus students' attention on the structure of a story and on how the content of the story fits its structure.

Students use story frames as a way to activate their background knowledge of the elements of story structure and thus to organize and learn new information from a story. Simple story frames require students to provide basic information about the sequence of events in a story:

The problem in the story is ______.
This is a problem because ______.
The problem is solved when ______.
In the end ______.

More complex frames might involve having students supply more detailed information by summarizing sequences of actions or events, or providing factual information to explain problems or motivations.

The procedure encourages students to interact with each other, asking questions, seeking clarifications, and sharing evaluations. Again, as with story maps, the procedure can be simplified for use with younger students - it has been used successfully with grade-one students *- or made more sophisticated for use with older students.

And again, as with the other procedures that have been described, the procedure is introduced through explicit instruction, with the teacher first explaining why story frames are useful, then modeling when and where to use them, guiding students through practice opportunities, and providing corrective feedback along the way.

Directed Reading and Thinking Activity (DRTA)

This procedure focuses on reading as a thinking process. Its intent is to teach children to make predictions throughout reading. Before reading, the teacher asks students to form a purpose for reading and to make predictions about the content of the story to be read.

During reading, the teacher stops students at strategic points in the story to ask students to make additional predictions and to verify, reject, or modify their purposes and predictions.

After reading, the teacher asks students to find and read aloud any part of the text that supports their predictions. Students must use the text to explain their reasoning and to prove the accuracy-or inaccuracy-of their predictions.

Often teachers have students use charts such as the following to record their predictions and information from the text that proves the prediction's accuracy:

Activities and procedures for use with expository text

The following are some procedures teachers use to help students improve their comprehension of expository texts.

K-W-L

The purpose of the K-W-L procedures is to help students become good readers by learning to do the things that good readers do. Specifically it helps students learn to activate their background knowledge and to set purposes for reading.

KWL stands for determining What I Know, What I Want to Learn, and reviewing What I Have Learned. The following chart shows the steps in each part of the procedure:

What I Know

What I Want To Learn

What I Learned

Students discuss what they already know about a topic in the text they will be reading. The teacher has students list ideas and concepts related to the topic, then has them organize their ideas into broad categories.

Students discuss what they want to learn from reading the text and write down specific questions that they think may be answered in the text.

After reading the text, students discuss what they learned from it. They next write what they learned and answer s t u d e n t - g e n e r a t e d questions about topics that were addressed in the text.

As they confirm the information in the Know column of the chart, students relate new information gained from their reading to knowledge they already have. As they generate questions for the Want column, they learn to set their own purposes for reading. Further, because they are reading to answer their own questions, students are more likely actively to monitor their comprehension. By putting information in their own words for the Learned column, students better understand what they know and what they do not know. Proceeding through these steps reinforces students' learning from text, involves them in doing what good readers do, and teaches them about their own reading processes.

Questioning the Author

The Questioning the Author procedure involves discussion, strategy instruction, and self-explanation. It encourages students to reflect on what the author of a selection is trying to say so as to build a mental representation from that information. Teacher and students work collaboratively, reading to resolve confusion and to understand the meaning of the text.

Focusing on a segment of text, the students respond to teacher questions such as the following:

What is the author trying to say?

What does the author mean by this?

o Why is the author saying this?

What is the author getting at?

Through modeling, the teacher helps students to understand that some parts of a text can cause confusion and hinder comprehension. The teacher then discusses with students what they can do when comprehension problems occur. Students learn to "grapple" with text by emulating the teacher's questioning techniques.

Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocal Teaching is the name for a teaching procedure that is best described as a dialogue between the teacher and students. "Reciprocal" means simply that each person involved in the dialogue acts in response to the others. The dialogue focuses on a segment of a text the group is reading and is structured by the use of four comprehension strategies:

asking questions,

clarifying difficult words and ideas,

summarizing what has been read, and

predicting what might come next.

The teacher first models and explains how to apply a comprehension strategy, then gradually turns over the activity to the students. As the students become more competent, the teacher requires their participation at increasingly more challenging levels.

Reciprocal Teaching provides students with opportunities to observe the value of applying strategies in their "real" reading. In addition, it allows the teacher to identify problems individual students might have in using strategies and to provide instruction that is geared to individual needs.

Transactional Strategy Instruction

Transactional Strategy Instruction (TSI) is a procedure that involves teaching students to construct meaning as they read by emulating good readers' use of comprehension strategies.

TSI helps students (1) set goals and plan for reading, (2) use background knowledge and text cues to construct meaning during reading, (3) monitor comprehension, (4) solve problems encountered during reading, and (5) evaluate progress. To accomplish these tasks, students are taught to use a set of reading strategies. The strategies typically include:

predicting based on prior-knowledge activation,

generating and asking questions,

clarifying,

visualizing,

relating background knowledge to text content, and

summarizing.

Instruction occurs in small-group settings, with the strategies used as vehicles to coordinate dialogue about text as students read aloud. In their groups, students are encouraged to relate a text to their background knowledge, to summarize text, to describe any mental images they make during reading, and to predict what might happen next in the text. As students read aloud, they engage in and exchange individual interpretations of and responses to the reading.

The I-Chart Procedure

The I-Chart Procedure is a technique that promotes critical thinking by encouraging students to apply reading strategies to learn from content-area texts.

The procedure is organized into three phases: Planning, Interacting, Integrating and Evaluating. Students begin the Planning phase by using content-area texts to identify a topic of study. They then generate questions they want to answer as they read. Next, they construct a large chart, similar to the following, on which to record information as they gather it. They complete the Planning phase by collecting materials about the topic.

Teacher Questions and Student Questions

In the Interacting phase, students record their background knowledge of the topic, as well as other information they might gather. In addition, the teacher elicits and records relevant student questions. Finally, the students read and discuss, with teacher guidance, the sources of information.

In the final phase, Integrating and Evaluating, students make summaries for each question on the chart, incorporating information they have gathered. Next, they compare their summaries with background knowledge, clarify statements as necessary, and discuss new knowledge they have acquired. Finally, they locate new information to address any unanswered questions and report their findings to the group.

In this procedure, the teacher directs and models the phases of the procedure. Gradually, however, the teacher releases responsibility for managing the procedure to students. The goal is for the reader to satisfactorily apply these comprehension strategies independently.

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To correspond with a typical reading lesson, comprehension strategy instruction can be organized into a three-part framework, with specific activities used before, during, and after reading. Providing instruction such as the following example allows students to see, learn, and use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read.

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Interrogate the Author: http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/question_the_author

Tableau:
http://www.theteachertoolkit.com/index.php/tool/tableau

Pantomime:
1. http://wonderteacher.com/increase-comprehension-with-pantomime/
2. http://drmarciatate.com/20-instructional-strategies-engage-brain-14-role-plays-drama-pantomimes-charades/

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Fun resources from Reading Rockets.

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Phonemic Activities for the Preschool or Elementary Classroom

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Activities that stimulate phonemic awareness in preschool and elementary school children are one sure way to get a child ready for reading! Here are eight of them from expert Marilyn Jager Adams.

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Building phonological awareness with Elkonin Boxes.

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Elkonin Boxes | Classroom Strategies | Reading Rockets

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Using Elkonin Boxes to work on Phonological Awareness.

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Choosing the Right Book (Reading Rockets)

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Choosing the Right Book (Reading Rockets)

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Reading Rockets will recommend books based on what you are looking for.

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Use our Book Finder tool to create your own customized list of fiction and nonfiction books. Search through more than 5,000 books on Reading Rockets - by author, illustrator, age, reading level, genre, format, and topic.

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Definitions from the Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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Strategies and implementation approaches from Florida Center of Reading Research (FCRR).

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Stanford Achievement Test (10)

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Stanford Achievement Test Series, Tenth Edition®

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The Standard Of Excellence in achievement testing for 80 years, the Stanford Achievement Test Series now offers a state-of-the-art Tenth Edition to measure student progress toward high academic standards. The Stanford 10 multiple-choice assessment will help educators find out what students know and are able to do.

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Instructional Reading Assessment (DRA 2)

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Instructional Reading Assessment (DRA 2)

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Purpose - Instruction

“Determine each student's independent (or instructional) level with an evaluation of three components of reading: reading engagement, oral reading fluency, and comprehension

Quickly determine student's instructional needs, to create a plan documenting what each student needs to learn next with the Focus for Instruction. Once the assessment is complete, teachers can used this information to differentiate instruction and create instructional groups.

As appropriate, a Teacher can obtain more in-depth information for an individual student with DRA Word Analysis. This diagnostic assessment provides educators with a systematic means to observe how struggling and emerging readers attend to and work with various components of spoken and written words.”

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Developmental Reading Assessment®, 2nd Edition PLUS

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The Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA2+) is a proven, research-based assessment that gives educators the right mix of tools to systemically observe, record, and evaluate changes in student reading performance.

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Purpose - Instruction
"identify each child’s instructional and independent reading levels according to the F&P Text Level Gradient™, A–Z and document their progress through one-on-one formative and summative assessments. The Fountas & Pinnell Benchmark Assessment Systemsprovide teachers with precise tools and texts to observe and quantify specific reading behaviors, and then interpret and use that data to plan meaningful instruction.”

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What is Benchmark Assessment System (BAS) and how is BAS used?

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Fountas and Pinnell Benchmark Assessment System (BAS)

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The basis for UDL. “The purpose and goal is to foster learners who are purposeful and motivated, resourceful and knowledgeable, strategic and goal-oriented.”

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Reenvisioning the UDL Guidelines

Because the UDL Guidelines are meant to be informed by feedback from the field as well as new research, they have been updated several times in the past. We are in the process of updating the Guidelines once again in our UDL Rising to Equity initiative.

This update will focus specifically on addressing systemic barriers that result in inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. CAST aims to develop a transparent, inclusive, and community-driven process. If you are interested in collaborating and staying updated on our progress, we invite you to complete a brief survey.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST.

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Instructional kit and intervention for K-12.

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K-12 online reading instruction.

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Lexia Learning Systems https://www.lexialearning.com/Assets/img/logo.svg 1984 978-405-6232 info@lexialearning.com 300 Baker Avenue, Suite 320 Concord MA 01742 USA

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Why Lexia

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All for Literacy. Because Literacy Can and Should Be for All. | Lexia

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Lexia is a leader in science of reading literacy solutions. | Lexia

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Intervention programs from Read Naturally.

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Reading Intervention Programs :: Read Naturally, Inc.

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Read Naturally reading intervention programs develop the essential components of reading-fluency, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, phonemic awareness.

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Reading intervention comparison chart from Reading Rockets.

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References

Click the "References" link above to hide these references.

Lyon, G. (2002). Reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction: Educational and public health issues. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 3-6.

Lyon, G., Fletcher, J., Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Torgesen, J., Wood, F., Shulte, A., & Olson, R. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In C.E. Finn, R.A.J. Rotherham, & C.R. Hokanson (Eds.), Rethinking special education for a new century (pp. 259-287), Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation & Progressive Policy Institute.

McCardle, P, & Chhabra, V. (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Brookes.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). National assessment of educational progress: The nation's report card. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York: Knopf.

Slavin, R., Lake, C., Chambers, B., Cheung, A., & Davis, S. (2010). Effective reading programs for the elementary grades: A best evidence synthesis. Retrieved from http://www.bestevidence.org/word/elem_read_Jan_22_2010.pdf

Stanovich, P., & Stanovich, K. (2003). Using research and reason in education. Washington, DC: Partnership for Reading. Lyon, G. (2002). Reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction: Educational and public health issues. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 3-6.

Torgesen, J. (2002). The prevention of reading difficulties. Journal of School Psychology, 40(1), 7-26.

What Works Clearinghouse. (2018). Literacy program evaluation. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/FWW/Results?filters=,Literacy

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Click the "References" link above to hide these references. Lyon, G. (2002). Reading development, reading difficulties, and reading instruction: Educational and public health issues. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 3-6. Lyon, G., Fletcher, J., Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Torgesen, J., Wood, F., Shulte, A., & Olson, R. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities.

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Hattie Ranking: RTI - Effect size of 1.29

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Hattie Ranking: RTI - Effect size of 1.29

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“Hattie Ranking: 252 Influences And Effect Sizes Related To Student Achievement

Response to Intervention: Effect size of 1.29
Subgroup: Strategies emphasizing feedback
Teaching: Focus on teaching/instructional strategies”

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John Hattie developed a way of synthesizing various influences in different meta-analyses according to their effect size (Cohen's d). In his ground-breaking study "Visible Learning" he ranked 138 influences that are related to learning outcomes from very positive effects to very negative effects. Hattie found that the average effect size of all the interventions he studied was 0.40. Therefore he decided to judge the success of influences relative to this 'hinge point', in order to find an answer to the question "What works best in education?"
Originally, Hattie studied six areas that contribute to learning: the student, the home, the school, the curricula, the teacher, and teaching and learning approaches. (The updated list also includes the classroom.) But Hattie did not only provide a list of the relative effects of different influences on student achievement. He also tells the story underlying the data. He found that the key to making a difference was making teaching and learning visible. He further explained this story in his book " Visible learning for teachers ".

John Hattie updated his list of 138 effects to 150 effects in Visible Learning for Teachers (2011), and more recently to a list of 195 effects in The Applicability of Visible Learning to Higher Education (2015). His research is now based on nearly 1200 meta-analyses - up from the 800 when Visible Learning came out in 2009. According to Hattie the story underlying the data has hardly changed over time even though some effect sizes were updated and we have some new entries at the top, at the middle, and at the end of the list.

Below you can find an updated version of our first, second and third visualization of effect sizes related to student achievement.
Order VL for Teachers!

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Hattie effect size list - 256 Influences Related To Achievement

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Hattie's updated effect size list of 256 influences across all areas related to student achievement.

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A Vocabulary 101 module for teachers from Reading Rockets.

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Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or comprehend in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we comprehend or use in print. In the Simple View of Reading, which describes reading as having two basic components - word recognition and comprehension - vocabulary falls under language comprehension.

Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Beginning readers must use the words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print.

Consider, for example, what happens when a beginning reader comes to the word dig in a book. As she begins to figure out the sounds represented by the letters d, i, and g, the reader recognizes that the sounds make up a very familiar word that she has heard and said many times. It is harder for a beginning reader to figure out words that are not already part of her speaking (oral) vocabulary.

Furthermore, as children advance to reading longer, more complex types of words, many English words have more than one plausible phonetic pronunciation. For example, canopy could be cuh-NOP-ee instead of CAN-up-ee; timid could be pronounced with a long i in the first syllable (like time - id) instead of with a short i. If children already have these words in their oral vocabularies, it will be easier for them to read the words correctly.

Vocabulary is also very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. As children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.

There are four types of vocabulary:

Listening vocabulary: the words we need to know to understand what we hear

Speaking vocabulary: the words we use when we speak

Reading vocabulary: the words we need to know to understand what we read

Writing vocabulary: the words we use in writing

In assessment of vocabulary in beginning or struggling readers, use of an oral measure (listening and/or speaking vocabulary) is very important. A written measure of vocabulary will confound vocabulary knowledge with reading skills.

For instance, if a poor decoder obtains a low score on a vocabulary measure that requires reading, it will be difficult to know whether the low score actually reflects vocabulary limitations or merely the fact that the child could not decode the words on the test.
Adapted from: Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read, Kindergarten Through Grade 3, a publication of The Partnership for Reading.

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Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or comprehend in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we comprehend or use in print. In the Simple View of Reading, which describes reading as having two basic components - word recognition and comprehension - vocabulary falls under language comprehension.

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Indirect and Direct Vocabulary Instruction

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Indirect and Direct Vocabulary Instruction

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Strategies and implementation from Reading Rockets.

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The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that most vocabulary is learned indirectly and that some vocabulary must be taught directly. Thus, research supports using a combination of both indirect and direct approaches.

Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language. Children learn word meanings indirectly in three ways:

Young children learn word meanings through conversations with other people, especially adults. As they engage in these conversations, children often hear adults repeat words several times. They also may hear adults use new and interesting words. The more oral language experiences children have, the more word meanings they learn.

Children learn word meanings from listening to adults read to them. Reading aloud is particularly helpful when the reader pauses during reading to define an unfamiliar word and, during and after reading, engages the child in a conversation about the book. Conversations about books help children to learn new words and concepts and to relate them to their prior knowledge and experience.

Children's books typically contain more unusual, sophisticated words - new vocabulary words - than does everyday conversation, even the everyday conversation of well-educated adults (Hayes & Ahrens, 1988). One reason why reading aloud to children is so important is that it increases children's exposure to new vocabulary.

Children learn many new words by reading extensively on their own. The more children read on their own, the more words they encounter and the more word meanings they learn.

Unfortunately, the children who often need vocabulary development the most - struggling readers - tend to be those who read the least, because of limitations in their skills or because they have had so many failure experiences with reading that they lack motivation to read. This is one reason why it's important to combine direct teaching methods with indirect vocabulary learning.

Direct vocabulary learning

Although a great deal of vocabulary is learned indirectly, some vocabulary should be taught directly.

Direct instruction helps students learn difficult words, such as words that represent complex concepts that are not part of the students' everyday experiences. Direct instruction of vocabulary relevant to a given text leads to better reading comprehension.
Direct instruction includes:

Providing students with instruction in specific words that are important to students' content learning or understanding of a particular text

Teaching students more general word-learning strategies that they can apply to a variety of words, such as analyzing parts of words (e.g., root words)

Teaching specific words before reading helps both vocabulary learning and reading comprehension.

Before students read a text, it is helpful to teach them specific words that they will see in the text and that are particularly important to understanding the text. Teaching important vocabulary before reading can help students both learn new words and comprehend the text.

Providing instruction over an extended period of time encourages students to use vocabulary in different contexts - both in spoken and written communication.

Children learn words best when they are provided with instruction over an extended period of time and when that instruction has them work actively with the words - for example, using new words in their writing. The more students use new words and the more they use them in different contexts, the more likely they are to learn the words.

Repeated exposure to vocabulary in many contexts aids word learning.

Students learn new words better when they encounter them often and in various contexts. The more children see, hear, and work with specific words, the better they seem to learn them.

When teachers provide extended instruction that promotes active engagement, they give students repeated exposure to new words. When the students read those same words in their texts, they increase their exposure to the new words.

Exposure to words in many contexts also gives students a deeper understanding of the meaning of a word and how it is likely to be used. For instance, miserly and thrifty are both adjectives that describe a person who avoids spending money, but thrifty has a much more positive connotation than miserly.
Adapted from: Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read Kindergarten Through Grade 3, a publication of The Partnership for Reading.

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The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that most vocabulary is learned indirectly and that some vocabulary must be taught directly. Thus, research supports using a combination of both indirect and direct approaches. Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language.

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Indicators from the National Writing Project highlighting the difference between “assigned” writing and “authentically taught” writing tasks.

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Supporting Good Writing Instruction - National Writing Project

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What should parents look for in a good school writing program? The chart below highlights differences that occur when writing is simply assigned and when writing is authentically taught. It has been adapted and excerpted from Because Writing Matters, a book the National Writing Project coauthored with journalist Carl Nagin on the status of writing instruction in America.

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Article from Reading Rockets

“Teachers and researchers understand that fluency is an important consideration in reading development (Rasinski, 2102) but sometimes neglect writing fluency. If students do not writing enough, they don't have anything to edit. Because writing is thinking, if students are not writing fluently, they probably aren't thinking fluently, at least about the topic of study...”

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Students have to be taught how to write. However, it's not as easy as assigning a prompt and telling students to get to writing. When teachers simply assign (or cause) writing, student achievement suffers (Fisher & Frey, 2007). In fact, there is evidence that student writing achievement has been stagnant for years.

Current expectations outlined in most state standards and the Common Core State Standards suggest that students need to write opinions and arguments with evidence, write informational pieces that include details, and write narratives that are highly descriptive. Writing is something that students should do routinely. As noted in Writing Anchor Standard 10, students should "Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audience" (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 18).

As part of the literacy block, teachers provide focused instruction on the composing process. This includes attention to genre, structure, mechanics, and voice. Teachers model the composing process for their students and provide students time to write during school. They also engage students in writing conferences and encourage peer reviews of written products (e.g., Nauman, Stirling, & Borthwick, 2011).

However, writing cannot be limited to the literacy block if students are to succeed. Writing to learn, in mathematics, science, social studies, and the arts, is an important consideration for elementary school teachers (Knipper & Duggan, 2006). Given the increased attention and focus on writing as a performance assessment tool, wise teachers frequently check for understanding through student writing, and they do so across the content areas. In this column, we focus on three instructional routines that teachers can use to facilitate student writing across the day.

Power writing: building fluency in composition

Teachers and researchers understand that fluency is an important consideration in reading development (Rasinski, 2102) but sometimes neglect writing fluency. If students do not writing enough, they don't have anything to edit. Because writing is thinking, if students are not writing fluently, they probably aren't thinking fluently, at least about the topic of study. That's not to say that writing fluency makes for a comprehensive curriculum. As with reading, fluency is one aspect that needs to be considered.

Power writing is a method for building writing fluency through brief, timed writing events (Fearn & Farnan, 2001). The purpose is to get students to put ideas down on paper quickly and accurately. During content area instruction, teachers can integrate a simple daily routine of three one-minute rounds of fluency-building experiences. This will ensure that students have daily practice with writing, which addresses part of the requirements of Writing Anchor Standard 10, the part focused on shorter time frames.

A content area word or phrase is posted on the board, and students are asked to use it somewhere in their writing. Students are reminded to "write as much as you can, as well as you can" (Fearn & Farnan, 2001, p. 196). The timer is set, and writing begins until it rings a minute later. When time is up, students reread what they have written, circling any errors they notice, then count and record the number of words in the margin.

This routine is repeated two more times, until students have three one-minute writing samples in their journals. They then record the highest number of words written (often it is the third sample) on a sheet of graph paper kept in their notebook.

This accomplishes several things for teachers and students. First, and perhaps most obviously, student writing fluency improves with practice. For example, the fourth graders who focused on fluency writing in the Kasper-Ferguson and Moxley (2002) study averaged 10 words per minute, and with graphing their fluency writing activities, they increased to 25 words written per minute, with one student consistently writing 60 words per minute. Interestingly, the authors noted, "Ceiling effects in writing rate did not appear" (p. 249), meaning that the rate was still increasing when the study ended.

Second, students think about the content while they are writing. In fact, students often report that they understand the content a bit better once they have written about it. We have had more than one student tell us, "I didn't know what I thought until I wrote it down." This also makes for good assessment of content knowledge, as it provides teachers a glimpse into students' brains. For example, the students in Mr. Morton's (all names are pseudonyms) fifth-grade class were focused on the human body and organ systems when they were asked to write about the kidney, lungs, and heart. Mutawali wrote the following: "The kidneys is the part of the body that clean the blood. We got two of them. The shape is like our reading table. They is 5 inches." It is clear that Mutawali was thinking about this organ as he was writing. Mr. Morton could tell that Mutawali remembered key details.

Third, power writing provides teachers with information about student error patterns. When pressed for speed, all writers will make errors. When students reread their written responses and notice errors, teachers don't need to worry. When students fail to notice the errors they've made, teachers should take note and design additional instruction to address those errors.

For example, in Mutawali's writing, Mr. Morton noticed the incorrect "to be" verbs and the need for the word clean to be cleans. Taking note of this allows Mr. Morton to plan subsequent instruction, likely as part of the literacy block, to help Mutawali produce academic writing. In doing so, Mr. Morton will help his students master part of Writing Anchor Standard 4, namely, to "Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience" (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 18).

Shared writing: making the composing process visible

Shared writing is a term that is used to describe collaborative writing experiences between teacher and students. Teachers using Language Experience Approach (Ashton-Warner, 1965) transcribe natural student language into the printed word so that students can begin to learn that print carries a message. Grammatical errors may be left intact because they are early attempts by students to formulate messages. Interactive writing (McCarrier, Pinnell, & Fountas, 2000; Williams, Sherry, Robinson, & Hungler, 2012) differs in that the students are the ones writing, and the accuracy of the message is deliberated and refined before it is written. Both emphasize the importance of oral language development within the lesson. A summary of the key elements of shared writing can be found in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Key Elements of Shared and Interactive Writing

Although it is true that interactive writing instruction was initially designed for emergent writers, teachers of older students have found success using this technique in their classes (Wall, 2008). Struggling writers and English language learners can profit from lessons on specific aspects of writing, such as composition, punctuation, and word choice (Patterson, Schaller, & Clemens, 2008). This will allow for the systematic instruction of writing development, organization, and style, all components of Writing Anchor Standard 4.

Ms. Harper, a fourth-grade teacher, used interactive writing as part of her students' mathematical studies. The 32 students in the class had read How Much Is a Million? (Schwartz, 1993). The facts illustrated in the book amazed them. For instance, a goldfish bowl large enough to hold one million goldfish could also hold a whale.

Ms. Harper used an interactive writing approach for students to formulate a similar algebraic problem. She was particularly interested in focusing on students' use of accurate technical vocabulary in describing how they will solve the problem.

Ms. Harper began by explaining the purpose of the lesson and the importance of creating a mathematical investigation plan to guide their work. She reread some of How Much Is a Million? and invited discussion about other things they would like to know about.

She asked, "I've learned so much from this book about what a million of something might look like. What are some examples of things here in the school that we could multiply to a million?"

Several students offered their suggestions, and Ms. Harper kept track of them on a small note pad so she would not forget their ideas. They discussed the merits of investigating a million rulers, erasers, books, tennis balls, and lunch tickets. The teacher continued to ask questions to prompt further conversation about the possibilities and challenges of each. Over the course of several minutes, the class gradually came to consensus that they would use tennis balls in their problem.

"Let's turn that into an algebra question," she said, reminding them of their task. After some negotiation, they agreed that the precise text would read, "How much space is needed to hold one million tennis balls?" She had her students repeat the question several times so they would remember the exact wording of their guiding question. When Denny misspelled million, she used the white correction tape to cover it and directed his attention to the algebra word wall for the correct spelling. "Remember to use the word wall when you get stuck. It's there to help you."

"Now we need to create a plan," she reminded them. "We can't count a million tennis balls. Could this shoebox help?"

The class buzzed with the possibility. "Before we talk about it, turn to your partner and talk with him or her about how the shoebox might help solve our mathematical dilemma." After giving them a minute or so to talk, she brought the class discussion back to her again. "Let's hear those good ideas."

Several students offered their thoughts about filling the shoebox with tennis balls, then figuring out how many boxes they would need to hold 1,000,000 of them. Eventually, she brings the conversation back to the investigation plan. "Let's write this up as a plan. What exactly will we need to do to solve this problem? Let's be sure to use the correct vocabulary so our computations will be accurate."

Guided by Ms. Harper, the students formulated the exact wording of the investigation plan. Prompting them as needed on word choice, spelling, and punctuation, she invited students up to the front of the class to write each word of the plan. Their final version can be found in Figure 2. This interactive writing experience facilitated students thinking about the content and built their composing skills.

Figure 2. Language Chart for Interactive Writing Lesson

Writing from sources to inform and explain

Writing from sources is an important aspect of content area learning. Students must use their writing skills to produce pieces that are informative or explanatory. This is especially important in learning science and social studies. As noted in Writing Anchor Standard 7, students should "Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused questions, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation" (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Offices, 2010, p. 18).

In addition to argument and narrative writing, students should "Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content" (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 18). It is important to note that this standard focuses on a specific text type that students must learn to produce. The development of students' understanding of this text type is also influenced by their reading and speaking and listening tasks. Figure 3 includes a list of standards related to this text type across reading, writing, and speaking and listening.

Figure 3. Intersection of Standards for Informing and Explaining

To write from sources, students need to be taught to carefully read texts and collect evidence from those texts. Thus, as part of their content area writing instruction, students should learn annotation skills. In their seminal text, How to Read a Book (1940/1972), Adler and Van Doren suggested that annotation is critical for deep understanding:

Why is marking a book indispensable to reading it? First, it keeps you awake - not merely conscious, but wide awake. Second, reading, if active, is thinking, and thinking tends to express itself in words, spoken or written. The person who says he knows what he thinks but cannot express it usually does not know what he thinks. Third, writing your reactions down helps you remember the thoughts of the author. (p. 49)

They next described the most common annotation marks:

When students annotate a text, they have sources that they can use to support their claims. For example, as part of their investigation about the Code of Hammurabi, sixth-grade students in George Martin's social studies class studied the list of 282 written laws. For his students to understand the ramifications of these laws, Mr. Martin used text-dependent questions to guide his students' annotations. He posed questions and asked for rulings:

Students worked with sections of the code to arrive at decisions, citing specific laws. In each of these cases, several laws were involved, and students needed to cite them in their work. "The annotations were essential for this task, because they had to cite the correct laws to build their case for a legal decision. Just like judges of the time, they had to apply formal reasoning to support their claims," he said. "It's good for them to see that even though the laws have changed, the work of logic and reasoning governs legal decisions."

Conclusion

If students are to meet the writing demands stated in the core standards, they need regular opportunities across the learning day to engage in a range of writing tasks. These should reflect a variety of purposes and audiences and should be designed to build knowledge. It isn't fair to expect that students can get by with an occasional extended writing task and little in the way of instruction and practice. Effective writing teachers know that building stamina, discussion, and knowledge are integral for developing stronger writers.

Biographies

The department editors welcome reader comments. Douglas Fisher is a professor at San Diego State University, California, USA; dfisher@mail.sdsu.edu

Nancy Frey is a professor at San Diego State University; nfrey@mail.sdsu.edu

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A Range of Writing Across the Content Areas

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Students have to be taught how to write. However, it's not as easy as assigning a prompt and telling students to get to writing. When teachers simply assign (or cause) writing, student achievement suffers (Fisher & Frey, 2007). In fact, there is evidence that student writing achievement has been stagnant for years.

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Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum

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Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum

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Stephanie Harvey talks about the importance of Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum.

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Read, Write, and Think Across the Curriculum | Scholastic

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Stephanie Harvey talks about content literacy and the importance of making sure you are reading, writing, and thinking across the curriculum and across the school year. F

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It is a website that has non-fiction news articles. There are many different topics and the content is accessible to students in the classroom with varying reading levels.

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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A website from Rochester County Schools. A great resource that offers Visible Thinking routines, implementation, strategies in Middle School classrooms.

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Staff members met with their book groups and used the Save the Last Word protocol to discuss the assigned chapters.

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Teaching Vocabulary Across the Curriculum

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Teaching Vocabulary Across the Curriculum

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An article by Professor Bintz. He offers a few strategies and examples.

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An explanation from RTI Network

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Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tier approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behavior needs. The RTI process begins with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom. Struggling learners are provided with interventions at increasing levels of intensity to accelerate their rate of learning. These services may be provided by a variety of personnel, including general education teachers, special educators, and specialists. Progress is closely monitored to assess both the learning rate and level of performance of individual students. Educational decisions about the intensity and duration of interventions are based on individual student response to instruction. RTI is designed for use when making decisions in both general education and special education, creating a well-integrated system of instruction and intervention guided by child outcome data.

For RTI implementation to work well, the following essential components must be implemented with fidelity and in a rigorous manner:

High-quality, scientifically based classroom instruction. All students receive high-quality, research-based instruction in the general education classroom.

Ongoing student assessment. Universal screening and progress monitoring provide information about a student's learning rate and level of achievement, both individually and in comparison with the peer group. These data are then used when determining which students need closer monitoring or intervention. Throughout the RTI process, student progress is monitored frequently to examine student achievement and gauge the effectiveness of the curriculum. Decisions made regarding students' instructional needs are based on multiple data points taken in context over time.

Tiered instruction. A multi-tier approach is used to efficiently differentiate instruction for all students. The model incorporates increasing intensities of instruction offering specific, research-based interventions matched to student needs.

Parent involvement. Schools implementing RTI provide parents information about their child's progress, the instruction and interventions used, the staff who are delivering the instruction, and the academic or behavioral goals for their child.

Each of these essential components is addressed in the "Include Essential Components" section of this Web site.

Though there is no single, thoroughly researched and widely practiced "model" of the RTI process, it is generally defined as a three-tier (or three-step) model of school supports that uses research-based academic and/or behavioral interventions. The Three-Tier Model is described below.

Tier 1: High-Quality Classroom Instruction, Screening, and Group Interventions

Within Tier 1, all students receive high-quality, scientifically based instruction provided by qualified personnel to ensure that their difficulties are not due to inadequate instruction. All students are screened on a periodic basis to establish an academic and behavioral baseline and to identify struggling learners who need additional support. Students identified as being "at risk" through universal screenings and/or results on state- or districtwide tests receive supplemental instruction during the school day in the regular classroom. The length of time for this step can vary, but it generally should not exceed 8 weeks. During that time, student progress is closely monitored using a validated screening system such as curriculum-based measurement. At the end of this period, students showing significant progress are generally returned to the regular classroom program. Students not showing adequate progress are moved to Tier 2.

The online drug ordering system provides for checking the availability of a prescription, this is done so that teenagers cannot buy cheap generic Viagra and abuse the dosage of the drug.

Tier 2: Targeted Interventions

Students not making adequate progress in the regular classroom in Tier 1 are provided with increasingly intensive instruction matched to their needs on the basis of levels of performance and rates of progress. Intensity varies across group size, frequency and duration of intervention, and level of training of the professionals providing instruction or intervention. These services and interventions are provided in small-group settings in addition to instruction in the general curriculum. In the early grades (kindergarten through 3rd grade), interventions are usually in the areas of reading and math. A longer period of time may be required for this tier, but it should generally not exceed a grading period. Students who continue to show too little progress at this level of intervention are then considered for more intensive interventions as part of Tier 3.

Tier 3: Intensive Interventions and Comprehensive Evaluation

At this level, students receive individualized, intensive interventions that target the students' skill deficits. Students who do not achieve the desired level of progress in response to these targeted interventions are then referred for a comprehensive evaluation and considered for eligibility for special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004). The data collected during Tiers 1, 2, and 3 are included and used to make the eligibility decision.

It should be noted that at any point in an RTI process, IDEA 2004 allows parents to request a formal evaluation to determine eligibility for special education. An RTI process cannot be used to deny or delay a formal evaluation for special education.

In addition to variations in the tiers used to deliver RTI services, schools use different approaches in implementation, such as problem-solving, functional assessment, standard protocol, and hybrid approaches. Although there are many formats for how a school might implement RTI to best serve the needs of its students, in every case RTI can be a school-wide framework for efficiently allocating resources to improve student outcomes.

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Learn more about how Response to Intervention (RTI) helps students succeed.

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K-12 writing and grammar activities. .

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Free online website you can practice and improve your vocabulary!

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Freerice.com | Not Your Average Online Trivia Game

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Play online, learn online and feed the hungry | Freerice.com

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For every correct answer you choose, 10 grains of rice are raised to help end world hunger through the World Food Programme.

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This is a guided reading leveling chart. It has the relevant levels from the DRA, Lexile, Scholastic with the typical Grade level band.

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Scholastic Guided Reading Level Chart - Scholastic Teacher Store

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Use our Scholastic guided reading level chart to shop for books across Guided Reading, Developmental Reading Assessment, and Lexile levels.

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Project Alexandria - Helping you find your next favorite book

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Project Alexandria lets you explore over a million books using a dynamic interface to help you find your next page-turner

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A kid-friendly site like Goodreads but for kids! The website offers book recommendations and reviews for a community of young readers.

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Bookopolis is a safe online community for young readers to share their favorite books and discover new ones

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Search engine to find books based on genre, subject, grade and Lexile level.

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Book Wizard: Find and Level Books for Your Classroom | Scholastic

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Level your classroom library, create book lists, and find the right book at just the right reading level for students with Book Wizard.

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The National Center of Intensive Intervention outlines the levels of intervention and the appropriate intervention for each tier.

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It is important that the instructional practices and interventions delivered within a school's multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) be grounded in evidence. However, the "practice" that happens within each tier is different; therefore, the type of evidence that is required for each tier also must be different. A useful way to think about evidence-based practices in MTSS is to think about levels of evidence that vary and correspond to the different levels of intervention intensity at each tier.

In the tables below, find resources to support the selection and evaluation of Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 or intensive interventions.

Tier 1

Comprehensive, research-based curriculum, delivered class-wide to all students. "Evidence-based" at Tier 1 means that the curriculum includes comprehensive coverage of core content that is aligned to grade-level standards and that the instructional strategies and practices used to deliver the curriculum have evidence of efficacy.

Tier 2 (Validated Intervention Program)

Standardized, targeted small-group instruction using a validated intervention program. "Evidence-based" at Tier 2 means that the intervention program has been demonstrated through rigorous research to have a positive impact on target outcomes for students at risk, when delivered with fidelity.

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Levels of Intervention & Evidence: Implementation Tools | NCII

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Table with resources to support the selection of a school's multi-tiered system of support and corresponding levels of evidence of intervention intensity.

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A chart from WrightsLaw.org regarding the various reading assessments and what they measure.

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Ideas to teach visual literacy from International Society of Technology Education. (excerpt)

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List of Graphic Novels from Reading Rockets.

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Similar to comic books, graphic novels weave rich, lively visuals with a limited amount of text to drive the narrative. They can be especially appealing to young readers who are reluctant to pick up a more traditional book. Graphic novels are a great way to help struggling readers strengthen vocabulary, build reading confidence and stamina, and develop a deeper appreciation of storytelling.

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How to Videos from the Balanced Literacy Diet!

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ReadWriteThink's lesson on THIEVES to preview nonfiction texts.
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/using-thieves-preview-nonfiction-112.html?tab=3#tabs

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KWL Chart

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List - Group - Label
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/list_group_label

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Directions: Sort the following words into groups. You will want to label each group with a specific title. You may create as many groups as you wish, as long as the group has a label or title and contains at least two words from the list.

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Anticipation Guide
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/anticipation_guide

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Concept Mapping
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/concept_maps

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T Chart

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Jigsaw Strategy

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Jigsaw | Classroom Strategy | Reading Rockets

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Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy that enables each student of a "home" group to specialize in one aspect of a topic (for example, one group studies habitats of rainforest animals, another group studies predators of rainforest animals).

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Paragraph Shrinking
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/paragraph_shrinking

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Double Sided Journals are a great way to make connections analyze, interact, and think deeply about with the text.
http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/InstrucStrat14.html

http://www.adlit.org/strategies/22091/

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Providing Reading Guides help students focus on the important messages and concepts in the text.

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It can be developed for a variety of reading material and reading levels.

It helps guide students through what they are about to read, and helps students monitor their comprehension while reading.

It helps students to follow the main points of the reading and understand the organization of a text.

It helps readers to think actively as they read and have a purpose for reading.

How to use reading guides

1. The teacher determines the major ideas from a book or an assigned reading and considers each student's knowledge related to the concepts.

2. Teachers then write questions or statements designed to guide readers through the major ideas and supporting details of the text. Guides may be phrased as statements or as questions.

3. Teachers begin the procedure by introducing the assigned book, discussing the main ideas, and new vocabulary.

4. Teachers then discuss the statements or ask the questions on the Reading Guide.

5. Teachers may read the selection aloud or students read the assigned text as teachers monitor reading.

6. Teachers and students work together to respond to statements or questions on the reading guides during the reading process. Teachers should monitor and support students as they work.

Note: As students gain proficiency at completing reading guides, they may design their own guides and provide support for one another.

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Reading Guide | Classroom Strategy | Reading Rockets

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Reading guides can assist with developing students' comprehension. They help students navigate reading material, especially difficult chapters or nonfiction reading. Students respond to a teacher-created written guide of prompts as they read an assigned text. Reading Guides help students to comprehend the main points of the reading and understand the organizational structure of a text.

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Close Reading Strategy is a great way to really dig into the text. Students will need guiding questions on 3 different levels. Teacher guided questions may be best in the beginning when students are learning how to use this strategy on their own.
http://www.readwritethink.org/resources/resource-print.html?id=31012

example: http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson-docs/SampleQuestions.pdf

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Summarizing is a great way to synthesize what has been covered/taught.
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/summarizing

http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org/VisibleThinking_html_files/03_ThinkingRoutines/03d_UnderstandingRoutines/Headlines/Headlines_Routine.html

http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/gist-summarizing-strategy-content-290.html?tab=3#tabs

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Exit Slips
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/exit_slips

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Questions from the Q Matrix for Reading Comprehension.

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Teaching prefixes and suffixes can help with spelling and vocabulary.
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/improve-comprehension-word-game-1042.html

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A great article from Reading Rockets about the ways we can incorporate how to teach content area vocabulary in the various subject areas.

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Baumann, J.F., Edwards, E., & Boland, E.M. (2003). Vocabulary Tricks: Effects of Instruction in Morphology and Context on Fifth-Grade Students' Ability to Derive and Infer Word Meanings. American Educational Research Journal, 40(2), 447-494.

Baumann, J.F., Kame'enui, E.J., & Ash, G.E. (2003). Research on vocabulary instruction: Voltaire redux. In J. Flood, D. Lapp,J.R. Squire, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts (2nd ed., pp. 752-785).Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2007). Increasing Young Low-Income Children's Oral Vocabulary Repertoires through Rich and Focused Instruction. Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251-271.

Brusnighan, S., & Folk, J. (2012). Combining Contextual and Morphemic Cues Is Beneficial During Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition: Semantic Transparency in Novel Compound Word Processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 47(2), 172-190.

Evans, L. (2011). Moon power. New York: Scholastic.

Fisher, D., Flood, J., Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Interactive read-alouds: Is there a common set of implementation practices? The Reading Teacher, 58(1), 8-17.

Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2008). Shared readings, modeling comprehension, vocabulary, text structures, and text features for older readers. The Reading Teacher, 61(7), 548-556.

Graves, M.F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning & instruction. New York: Teachers College.

Graves, M.F., & Watts-Taffe, S. (2008). For the Love of Words: Fostering Word Consciousness in Young Readers. The Reading Teacher, 62(3), 185-193.

Hiebert, E. H., & Kamil, M. L. (Eds.). (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Lennox, S. (2013). Interactive Read-Alouds-An Avenue for Enhancing Children's Language for Thinking and Understanding: A Review of Recent Research. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(5), 381-389.

Mason, J.M., Stahl, S.A., Au, K.H., & Herman, P.A. (2003). Reading: Children's developing knowledge of words. In J. Flood, D. Lapp,J.R. Squire, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (2nd ed., pp. 914-930). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Michaels, S., O'Connor, M. C., Hall, M. W., & Resnick, L. B. (2010). Accountable Talk® Sourcebook: For Classroom Conversation That Works (v.3.1). University of Pittsburgh Institute for Learning. Retrieved from http://ifl.lrdc.pitt.edu

Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Nagy, W. E., & Anderson, R. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19(3),304-330.

National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.

Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities.Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117-175.

Sanden, S. (2012). Independent reading: Perspectives and practices of highly effective teachers. The Reading Teacher, 66(3),222-231.

Scott, J.A., Jamieson-Noel, D., & Asselin, M. (2003). Vocabulary Instruction throughout the Day in Twenty-Three Canadian Upper-Elementary Classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 269-286.

Stahl, S., & Fairbanks, M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 72-110.

Thorndike, E.L. (1917). Reading as reasoning: A study of mistakes in paragraph reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(6),323-332.

Wasik, B., & Iannone-Campbell, C. (2012). Developing vocabulary through purposeful, strategic conversations. The Reading Teacher,66(4), 321-332.

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Vocabulary lies at the heart of content learning. To support the development of vocabulary in the content areas, teachers need to give their students time to read widely, intentionally select words worthy of instruction, model their own word solving strategies, and provide students with opportunities to engage in collaborative conversations.

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An article from Scholastic.com about teaching Tier I, II, and III academic vocabulary words.

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Content Area Literacy: Focusing on Vocabulary | Scholastic

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Support students' literacy skills across disciplines with these strategies and ideas to teach content-specific vocabulary.

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http://www.dictionary.com/
https://www.merriam-webster.com/
http://www.wordcentral.com/

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Context Clues are a great way to develop good reading and vocabulary skills.

https://powerupwhatworks.org/strategy-guide/context-clues-teach-tech

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Using Context Clues to Understand Word Meanings

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It is also helpful to provide students with frequent reminders and examples of the different types of context clues. Using online tools, you can post the list of context clues (and some corresponding examples) on your class wiki, website, or blog.

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A very fun way to see a web of words associated with a word

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January 18th is celebrated as Thesaurus Day to honor the birthday of the author of the first thesaurus, Peter Mark Roget. Get into the spirit by reading our two-part interview with Roget biographer Joshua Kendall here and here. Also check out an ode to the thesaurus penned by Franklin P. Adams here and Johnny Carson's hilarious "Funeral for a Thesaurus Editor" sketch here.

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Thinkmap Visual Thesaurus - An online thesaurus and dictionary of over 145,000 words that you explore using an interactive map.

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An online thesaurus and dictionary of over 145,000 words that you explore using an interactive map. It's a tool for people who think visually. The most fun you've ever had with words. The Visual Thesaurus was built using Thinkmap, a data visualization technology.

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A developmental approach to teachinf spelling patterns, word structures, etc.

Ranges from: Emergent Stage, the Letter Name-Alphabetic Stage, the Within Word Pattern Stage, the Syllables and Affixes Stage, and the Derivational Relations Stage

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Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction, 6th Edition

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Building on its best-selling approach, this edition of Words Their Way continues the phenomenon that has helped thousands of children improve their literacy skills. The keys to this successful, research-based approach are to know your students' literacy progress, organize for instruction, and implement word study.

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Word Sorts are a great strategy to improve and solidify concepts and academic
vocabulary.

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Definition
​A Word Sort is a simple individual or small group activity. Students list key words from a reading selection. (Alternatively, the teacher may provide a list of terms prior to the reading activity.) Students identify the meaning and properties of each word and then "sort" the list into collections of words with similar features. This "sorting" process links students' prior knowledge to the basic vocabulary of a reading selection (Reading Educator, 2015).

There are two common forms of Word Sorts:

Closed Word Sort-The teacher provides the categories (and the specific features of each) to the students. The students then match the words with the features to create the word collections. (i.e. letter sounds, meanings)

Open Word Sort-The teacher provides only the list of words. Students work together to discern the common features and to describe the categories for collect

Small Group Word Sort Video

In this video above, students are participating in a Word Sort. They have been working on blending at beginning and end of words. Here in particular the kids are practicing with consonants that are silent. Showing that two consonants at the begging of the word don't always have their own sound so the first letter is silent. For example, knot. First the students pull the patterns of the words out on their own. After that with the teacher they talk about what patterns they saw and what sounds each pattern made.

Steps To a Word Sort:

1. List between 10 and 20 key vocabulary words from a reading selection on the smartboard or on index cards.

2. Divide the class into small groups of 4 or 5 students. (Distribute the index cards if this method is used.)

3. For a Closed Word Sort, provide students with the categories into which they will sort the vocabulary words. For an Open Word Sort, instruct the student teams to suggest categories for organizing the words.

4. Allow 10 to 15 minutes for the student teams to assign the words to the appropriate categories.

5. Conduct a class discussion with each group presenting their word list for one of the categories. Require the students to defend their sorting of terms by asking about the common features of the categories and how each specific word meets these criteria (Readstrong, 2011).

Four Content Areas

​Math-
When working with math vocabulary, especially in the younger grades word sorts can be a great tool. The example "word sort math lesson" below shows that you can use a sort to place terms in rows or columns according to the meaning of each term. For example, if you had two list titles "addition" and "subtraction, " students could sort a list of math terms into the category they see best fit.
Science-
A science word sort can be similar to math because again words can be separated into groups they belong. The science lesson plan below also deals with language arts because they are working with specific vocabulary words. In this lesson the words are being sorted into solid, liquid, and gas. Reading rockets also gives an example of a plant word sort. First students make a list of plant words and then place them into groups such as types of plants, parts of plants, where plants grow, and what plants need to grow (Reading Rockets, 2015).

Social Studies-
Social Studies can also can be a sorting area because of the numerous terms that are used. Things such as past, future, present are areas where students could sort terms into when important events had happened. This would be more common for higher level grades but could be modified to help younger students. Putting areas of transportation into groups or simply creating lists of transportation words would be a great example (Reading Rockets, 2015).

​Reading-
Reading is going to be the most common form of word sorts you will see because this is the area they were first created for. Students can place specific words into different categories based on each word's meaning. Categories can be defined by the teacher or by the students. When used before reading, concept sorts provide an opportunity for a teacher to see what his or her students already know about the given content. When used after reading, teachers can assess their students' understanding of the concepts presented (Reading Rockets, 2015).

Purpose/Justification

Word Sorts can be used for a variety of different topics and can be helpful for all students. "Some benefits of word sorting are that it's interactive, it promotes higher level thinking skills, and it provides oral language development opportunities that build on students' prior knowledge (Pearson Education, 2010). The video to the left stated that before starting word sort the students were given a spelling inventory to decide groups they should be placed in and to decide which spelling patterns they need to work on. Teachers can tailor word sorts for individual children, depending on student needs or the activity can be completely student-centered. For example, if a child has difficulty distinguishing between long and short vowel sounds, an adult may assemble a group of words that the child already knows and ask him or her to sort them into categories. For extra support, the cards could include a picture that goes along with the word (pictures could be helpful for English Language Learners). The same group of words could later be used to sort by initial consonants, number of syllables, or any other relevant word characteristics (Readstrong, 2011).

Example of a Word Sort

Different forms of Word Sorts

This video shows the different ways word sorts can be completed using the same list of words. For example you sort, speed sort, pattern sort, and more. Take a look in the video below.

Differentiated Instruction
For second language learners, varying reading skills, and students with learning disabilities

Teachers may wish to have students write the completed sorts to help solidify learning.

Have students work in pairs or in small groups.

Provide students with the category headers and ask students to sort only the examples.

Provide extra blank blocks for students to fill in their own examples.

Use pictures along with the words. For example, a picture could be provided for each of the words in the Math example above.

Be aware of cognitive and cultural diversity as you evaluate how students sort the cards.

Words on the card should be printed clearly so they are easily readable by all students. Large letters and contrast between the letters and the background are helpful (Reading Rockets, 2015).

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Definition ​A Word Sort is a simple individual or small group activity. Students list key words from a reading selection. (Alternatively, the teacher may provide a list of terms prior to the...

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Reading and Writing Strategies Book Community (FB)

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Reading and Writing Strategies Book Community (FB)

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Jennifer Serravallo, the author of the books Reading Strategies and Writing Strategies, has a Facebook Group where she posts videos of how to teach the strategies. She offers other suggestions and tips. It is also a great community of educators who share resources and other strategies.

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The Reading and Writing Strategies Community | Facebook

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Deepen your expertise in literacy instruction by engaging with Jennifer Serravallo and her colleagues. Using all of Jen's resources, you'll extend the ideas in her books to increase the...

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West Virginia Reading First Explicit Phonics Lessons

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West Virginia Reading First Explicit Phonics Lessons

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Explicit Instruction for Phonics Intervention from West Virginia Phonics. Each scripted lesson about ~30-35 min & very easy to follow. Each skill comes with a week's worth of lessons and a story.