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Evidence-based approach; statistics

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Sheer number of adverts means adverts must be memorable/shocking/innovative

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Advertising not limited to lucrative businesses

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Companies have access to a variety of communication tools

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In emails, some discourse features are automated

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People can operate as both author and audience

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Inward facing: promotes emergence of new words to describe itself
Outward facing: carries general language developments, an incubator for new language forms

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So did the earliest writing systems!

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Plasticity: texts can constantly be revised and updated

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Emerging conventions/netiquette

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Misunderstandings can arise due to lack of prosodic and paralinguistic features

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Less censorship

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More tolerance of non-standard varieties

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People are less inhibited than they may be in face-to-face interaction

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Helen Petrie (1999) coined the term emailism to refer to "stylistic features that are rare in handwriting and/or typed communication but which occur commonly in e-mails”. The most common were:
1. Ellipsis to trail off a sentence
2. Capitalisation
3. Punctuation as prosody
4. Quoting previous emails
5. Abbreviations
6. Minimalistic punctuation
7. Non-standard spelling
8. Emojis/emoticons

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Key binding: initialism of letter homophones in a key phrase, e.g. RUOK

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Dyadic communication: between two people, e.g. texting

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CMC: Computer-mediated communication

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Minimal punctuation

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Phonetic spelling

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vowel omission

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Texts are becoming increasingly marketised and self-promotional

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Intertextuality

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Phrasal verbs, e.g. pop-up, pack-down

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Corpus analysis by Tagliamonte et al (2004) revealed that 'must' is declining as a term of obligation, and is now used in speculative contexts, e.g. you must be exhausted

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Latinate and French lexis still carries some level of prestige, although may be considered pretentious in certain contexts

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Predominantly compound and simple sentences

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Use of passive voice in scientific inquiry and empirical contexts

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David Crystal believes that the future of English is bidialectism - code-switching between different dialects

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Others predict a global dialect levelling due to communication and literacy

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Some people predict that English will disintegrate into a series of mutually incomprehensible dialects

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The English spoken in a particular country will be influenced by the native language and the local requirements

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Ethnologue (2015, 18th edition): around 840 million native and non-native speakers combined

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David Crystal estimates that up to 1/3 of the world's population speaks English

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International language of business, politics, science and popular culture

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Recognition of the importance of literacy for upward mobility and employment prospects

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High-quality teaching until the age of 18; improved literacy

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Social class levelling; less classist

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Egalitarian; fight against discrimination

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Meriocratic society after wars; less deferential

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Standardisation of spelling means that English is spelled the same across the world; however, increases disparity between spoken and written English

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Emoticons/emojis enable pictoral representation of paralinguistic features

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Punctuation used to mark prosodic features

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Globalisation has led to the rise of global Englishes

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Fairclough: synthetic personalisation

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Minimalistic

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Hybrid modes

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Moral panic that 'textese' is corrupting general language usage

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Anyone can publish information online, unedited, in NSG, and not be judged for it

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Internet has provided platform for anyone and everyone to share their views

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Goodman and Fairclough: General informalisation; less strict boundaries between spoken/written, public/private modes.

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Diminutive suffixes for occupational titles fallen out of use

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More inclusive language reflects societal shift against sexism; people tend to use the third person plural 'their' instead of the masculine 'he' when talking about a generic person

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Object pronoun 'whom' replaced with 'who'

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Irregular verb forms, e.g. I could of wrote it, I shew him

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Changing use of prepositions, e.g. bored of

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Dialect levelling due to improved social and geographical mobility

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Language heavily influenced by American English due to entertainment industry

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Adjectives used as adverbs, e.g. you did great

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Rise of the 'get passive', e.g. I got fired, I got laid,

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Subject-verb-complement 'ing', e.g. they started walking, as opposed to 'they started to walk'

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Letter-number homophones

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Synchronous technological communication tends to be telegraphic

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More frequent use of expletives; swear words are dysphemistic

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Use of 'like' as a filled pause

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Use of non-standard 'proper' and 'well' as intensifiers

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Narrower range of intensifiers

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Jamaican Creole has been reimported into England via immigrants

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American English has preserved some OE terms that have fallen out of use, e.g. get sick, fall

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Estuary English (Rosewarne)

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Multicultural London English