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Stress The pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope.

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Puthoopparambil et al (2015) - balance and support already there from police force

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Puthoopparambil et al (2015) - balance and support already there from police force

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staff have to balance informal and formal boundaries within the job to fit the situations. When deporting people who they thought have genuinely life threatening situations, they had to overcome the challenges by not thinking too much about the bigger picture.

This was reported to prevent them having emotional conflicts and stress. If conflicts occured they consoled themselves by blaming the organisation not themselves. Also believing in their organisation and thinking they have done the right thing, helped as a balancing act and to settle them.

This can be applied to the police, in that they can use the police force as a support system, just by being employed by them and knowing what they do is for the greater good, and to not think about the bigger picture when they are arresting someone for example Therefore, prevention systems don't need to be put into place, as they are already there just by them working in the police force, and their own thoughts.

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Nursing - Bakker & Heuven (2006)
Police - Bakker & Heuven (2006); Schaible & Gecas (2010)
emotional labour is the psychological efforts required to display emotions expected by the work role

emotive dissonance - difference between displayed and true emotion
- if maintained for long periods can cause alienation, cynicism, burnout

Deep acting is seen to be better with better health and job satisfaction (Zapf 2002), however, both surface and deep acting can cause negative consequences, so if they employ those who are seen to be able to manage them properly, or employ them in the right situations, there would be no need to provided prevention methods as they would already have their own in place.

if properly managed, emotional labour can cause increased job satisfaction, psychological well-being, security, decreased stress (Kruml & Geddes, 2000)

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Stress Debriefing and Patterns of Recovery
Following a Natural Disaster - Kenardy et al, 1996.

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Stress Debriefing and Patterns of Recovery
Following a Natural Disaster - Kenardy et al, 1996.

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On emergency service personnel - stress debriefing has been promoted as a means of preventing or reducing the psychological distress experienced by emergency service personnel and disaster workers following a severe trauma. However, this study found that there was no evidence of an improved rate of recovery among those helpers who were debriefed.

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Brom et al, 1993
"support failed to demonstrate any difference at one- and six month follow-up between a group of 68 road traffic accident victims who received a preventative counselling programme, and 83 who did not."
Therefore, if stress prevention programmes are ineffective for victims of trauma, then how can they help emergency service personnel who are even tougher due to their job demands.

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Brown and Cooper (1996): Scottish police officers not willing to consult professionals about occupational stress, would rather talk to colleagues.

http://cjr.sagepub.com/content/5/1/1.full.pdf+html

Webb and Smith (1980):
Reviews stress reducing strategies within the police and identifies if they are useful and effective at managing/preventing occupational stress in police.
Eliminating the stressor is impossible in police work. For example dealing with abused children or deaths are simply unavoidable in this work (Burgin, 1978). Therefore stress will always occur in the job. Instead of preventing stress from occurring in the first place, it would be more beneficial to intervene and manage the stress instead so it does not become a serious mental health problem.

Following on from this, avoidance of the stressful situation is also impossible for the police as they are relied upon to help and protect the public in all situations.

The articles evaluates the proactive strategies that are meant to prevent the development of stress in police officers such as training, educational programs and better selection procedures. The main weakness of these strategies are:
-Pre-employment education about the job would lead to job dissatisfaction and would only attract mature people to police work (Teten & Minderman, 1977)
-Boomerang effect. Reiser (1976) identifies that training can be counter-productive and may result in more negative attitudes than before.

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Due to the nature of the job, occupational stress in the police force is inevitable.

"Occupational stress among police is often viewed as an unlucky, but expected part of police work."
http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol19-issue10/Version-5/I0191053940.pdf

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The benefits of prevention program...
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00420-012-0748-6

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http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.ntu.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f433ea26-a866-4672-b643-6d2b4f1fe8ea%40sessionmgr107&vid=1&hid=128

Examination of the Subjective Well-Being of Australian Internet Child Exploitation Investigators
Tomyn et al. (2015)

Consistent with previous research, mean subjective well-being for Internet child exploitation officers was above the Australian adult normative range and comparable to the control group of non-child abuse police investigators.

Australian police officers who work in Internet child exploitation investigation have a higher-than-normal level of subjective well-being. These results attest to the resilience of these investigators in their ability to withstand the confronting nature of their work and handling potentially significant sources of negative workplace stress.

the average length of time investigators had been employed with the police force was almost 13 years.

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Bokelberg (n.d.) also reported that ICE investigators from the US could describe negative reactions to ICE material while not considering the material to be particularly distressing. It is also possible that the current participants had been investigating ICE long enough to have acquired a functional level of desensitisation (for ICE investigation). For example, Bokelberg’s (n.d.) participants reported an initial adjustment period to ICE material lasting up to a few months, after which they were sufficiently desensitised and able to work in the ICE area without being overly disturbed by images of child exploitation. The least experienced participant in the current study had been an ICE investigator for one year (M = 5.02 years), which according to Bokelberg (n.d.) is sufficient time to  have adjusted and become desensitised to ICE images.

(ICE = Internet Child Exploitation).

http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30065188/powell-policeofficers-2015.pdf

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12.8 billion was spent in 2014- 15 by all 43 police forces in England and wales.

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the number police officers off with stress has risen by 58% in 2 years (The Mirror, June 2016)

its a vicious cycle if they loose officers from stress.

1 in 15 officers affected by stress in Britain.

8652 officers took time off for stress in April 2015 to march 2016 38% increase form last year. Average of 96 days off each, amounts to 830, 000 sick days taken off by officers.

Least time off came from London police officers, why?

Federations Survey of 17,000 officers in May this year showed that 62% of officers, never or rarely felt optimistic, 16% said they never or rarely felt relaxed.
29% of that 60% who'd been off work sick in the previous year, said that one or more of those days were due to stress, depression or anxiety.

The police federation survey 38% of officers said they found their job very, or extremely stressful, compared 16% of the rest of the population.

Over 80% spent on policing on it's people.

they've cut down unnecessary targets - to relieve stress, but this could cause an increase in stress as they have less targets to aim for in their career

Oct 2014, allocated 10 million to help support emergency services to help support mental health.

They're doing all they can to make policing easier, but the more they are trying to help, the more people are taking sick leave.

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- makes you work harder/ function/ organise their life

Ashok (2014)
in small doses - varying for each person - stress can indeed be good and keep you performing well but continued doses of high stress can be bad

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they should not complain that 10 hour shifts are too stressful etc. if they knew that when they chose to apply.

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Pogrebin & Poole (1991) - Police Culture

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Pogrebin & Poole (1991) - Police Culture

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Because of the norm to refrain from displays of emotions, officers find few opportunities to deal directly with the pent-up feelings engendered by tragic events; consequently, the aftermaths of tragedies are rarely discussed in terms of the impact on the officers involved. The police find themselves unable to reveal their feelings to fellow officers, much less discuss them, for fear of being viewed as inadequate—as not having what it takes to be a solid, dependable police officer. As a result, interpersonal barriers against seeking common solutions to problems of “emotion work” are created and maintained.

The expression of personal feelings is severely limited within the police culture. Professional conduct norms dictate that officers must remain calm and in control. constantly guarding their emotions. They learn that emotions such as anger. disgust. and sadness must not be displayed, if they are to maintain a professional image for the pubiic and their fellow officers. Their ability to deal directly with emotional stress, strain, and anxiety is. therefore, highly circumscribed.

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Prevention of teams, unnecessary to send out a team every time they go on a job – especially if it is a one-man job. This could cause there to be more people hired and on shift than needed, so they may have to make cuts elsewhere.

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Know what they are signing up to - be prepared themselves

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Know what they are signing up to - be prepared themselves

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They should understand that the occupational demands are high and therefore only prepared candidates should apply.

Role and society changing over time

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No need to prevent stress as many police officers refuse emotional and psychological help, because they view themselves as problem solvers

About 300 officers seek help through POST each year, most of them have family-related problems.

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Definition: 'willingness to do things that bring advantages to others, even if it results in disadvantage for yourself.'

- We argue that... research has shown that one must be a

- changed to sensation seeking

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Suggests resilience results from having previously encountered serious life challenges and having coped successfully.

When individuals have successfully coped with events in the past, the develop a belief that they will be able to overcome new challenges (Lazarus, 1966).

In police, the longer they've worked for, the more resilient they should be.

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What types of people are immune to occupational stress?

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What types of people are immune to occupational stress?

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Positive psychology

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The physiological and physical effects of negative activity in the workplace as a result many factors including external events, internal events, job demands and colleague behaviour.

Stress differs from pressure but is often used interchangeably. Pressure refers to surmountable demands in the workplace and only turns to stress when the emotional, mental and physical demands of a given situation are greater than the individual’s coping skills.

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Increased workloads, downsizing, overtime, hostile work environments, and shiftwork are a few examples of what causes stressful working conditions/stress.

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- the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness.
- Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress — such as family and relationship problems, serious health problems or workplace and financial stressors. It means "bouncing back" from difficult experiences.

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We argue that stress prevention is not an issue for the emergency
services to attend to: they should be toughened to the job demands

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We argue that stress prevention is not an issue for the emergency
services to attend to: they should be toughened to the job demands