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Families served as the police themselves. If someone committed a crime, the community would force them to pay the punishment. Juries were made up of men who knew the perpetrator and the victim. (MB)

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The medieval marketplace

"Ribs of beef and many a pie!" you hear someone call over your shoulder. Turning, you see a young lad walking through the crowd bearing a tray laden with wooden bowls of cooked meats from a local shop.

All around him people are moving, gesturing, talking. So many have come in from the surrounding villages that this town of about 3,000 inhabitants is today thronged with twice as many. Here are men in knee-length brown tunics driving their cattle before them. Here are their wives in long kirtles with wimples around their heads and necks. Those men in short tunics and hoods are valets in a knight's household. Those in long gowns with high collars and beaver-fur hats are wealthy merchants. Across the marketplace more peasants are leading in their flocks of sheep, or packhorses and carts loaded with crates of chickens.

Crowds are noisy. People are talking so much that chatter could almost be the whole purpose of the market - and in many ways it is. This is the one open public area in the town where people can meet and exchange information. When a company performs a mystery play, it is to the marketplace that they will drag the cart containing their stage, set and costumes. When the town crier rings his bell to address the people of the town, it is in the marketplace that the crowd will gather to hear him. The marketplace is the heart of any town: indeed, the very definition of a town is that it has a market.

More like this

Crowds are noisy. People are talking so much that chatter could almost be the whole purpose of the market

What can you buy? Let's start at the fishmongers' stalls. You may have heard that many sorts of freshwater and sea fish are eaten in medieval England. Indeed, more than 150 species are consumed by the nobility and churchmen, drawn from their own fishponds as well as the rivers and seas.

But in most markets it is the popular varieties which you see glistening in the wet hay-filled crates. Mackerel, herring, lampreys, cod, eels, Aberdeen fish (cured salmon and herring), and stockfish (salt cod) are the most common varieties. Crabs and lobsters are transported live, in barrels. In season you will see fresh salmon - attracting the hefty price of four or five shillings each. A fresh turbot can cost even more, up to seven shillings.

Next we come to an area set aside for corn: sacks of wheat, barley, oats and rye are piled up, ready for sale to the townsmen. Then the space given over to livestock: goats, sheep, pigs and cows. A corner is devoted to garden produce - apples, pears, vegetables, garlic and herbs - yet the emphasis of a medieval diet is on meat, cheese and cereal crops. In a large town you will find spicerers selling such exotic commodities as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, liquorice, and many different types of sugar.

These are only for the wealthy. When your average skilled workman earns only two shillings (2s) in a week, he can hardly afford to spend four shillings (4s) on a pound of cloves or 20 pence (20d) on a pound of ginger.

The rest of the marketplace performs two functions. Producers come to sell fleeces, sacks of wool, tanned hides, furs, iron, steel and tin for resale further afield. The other function is to sell manufactured commodities to local people: brass and bronze cooking vessels, candlesticks and spurs, pewterware, woollen cloth, silk, linen, canvas, carts, rushes (for hall floors), glass, faggots, coal, nails, horse shoes and planks of wood.

Planks, you ask? Consider the difficulties of transporting a tree trunk to a saw pit, and then getting two men to saw it into planks with only a handsaw between them.

Everyone in medieval societ y is heavily dependent on each other for such supplies, and the marketplace is where all these interdependencies meet.

Haggling

Essential items such as ale and bread have their prices fixed by law. Yet for almost everything that's been manufactured you will have to negotiate. Caxton's 15th-century dialogue book is based on a 14th-century language guide, and gives the following lesson in how to haggle with a cloth vendor:
"Dame, what hold ye the ell (45 inches) of this
cloth? Or what is worth the cloth whole?
In short, so to speak, how much the ell?"
"Sire, reason; ye shall have it good and cheap."
"Yea, truly, for cattle. Dame, ye must me win.
Take heed what I shall pay."
"Four shillings for the ell, if it please you."Dr Ian Mortimer is best known as the author of The Time Traveller's Guides, namely Medieval England (2008), Elizabethan England (2012) and Restoration Britain (2017) This article was first published in the October 2008 issue of BBC History Magazine
"For so much would I have good scarlet."
"But I have some which is not of the best
which I would not give for seven shillings."
"But this is no such cloth, of so much money,
that know ye well!"
"Sire, what is it worth?"
"Dame, it were worth to me well three shillings."
"That is evil-boden."
"But say certainly how shall I have it without
a part to leave?"
"I shall give it ye at one word: ye shall pay five
shillings, certainly if ye have them for so many
ells, for I will abate nothing."
And so you open your purse, which hangs from the cords attached to your belt and find five shillings. Except that there is no shilling coin in the late 14th century. The smallest gold coins are the half-noble (3s 4d) and the quarter-noble (1s 8d), so if you have one each of these, you can make up the sum. Alternatively you will have to make it up from the silver coins: groats (4d), half-groats, pennies, halfpence and farthings (¼d).

Ale, ordinary: ¾d-1d per gallon

Bacon: 15d per side

Chicken: 2d each

Cod, fresh: 20d each

Apples: 7d per hundred

Eggs: 33d for 425

A furred gown: 5s 4d

Carpenter: 4¼d per day

Thatcher: 4¼d per day

Labourer: 3¼d per day

Regulations

A well-run market is crucial to the standing of a town. Thus it is heavily regulated. The actual policing tends to be undertaken by the town's bedels or bailiffs, who enforce regulations like "no horses may be left standing in the marketplace on market days" and "every man is to keep the street in front of his tenement clean". Most towns have between 40 and 70 regulations, and those breaking them are taken to the borough court and fined.

There are reasons to be grateful for the supervision of trade. Short measures are a notorious problem, and turners normally have to swear to make wooden measures of the appropriate size. Clerks in borough courts will tell you of cooking pots being made out of soft metal and coated with brass, and loaves of bread baked with stones in them to make them up to the legally required weight.

Wool is stretched before it is woven, to make it go further (but then it shrinks). Pepper is sold damp, making it swell, weigh more, and rot sooner. Meat is sometimes sold even though it is putrid, wine even though it has turned sour, and bread when it has gone green.

If you are the victim of malpractice, go straight to the authorities. The perpetrator will be pilloried - literally. The pillory is the wooden board which clasps the guilty man's head and hands, and shamefully exposes him to the insults of the crowd.

A butcher selling bad meat can expect to be dragged through the streets of the town on a hurdle and then placed in the pillory with the rotten meat burnt under him. A vintner caught selling foul wine is dragged to the pillory on a hurdle, forced to drink a draught of the offending liquor, and then set in the pillory where the remainder is poured over his head. The sweetness of the revenge makes up for the sourness of the wine.

Shopping in the 14th century will often remind you of how much we have in common with our medieval forebears. It will likewise alert you to the huge differences between us. We are not the same as our ancestors. Look at how young they are - the median age is just 21 - and look at the meagre diet of the poor, their rotten teeth as they smile, their resilience in the face of death.

Shopping in the 14th century will often remind you of how much we have in common with our medieval forebears

Consider how rough and smelly the streets are, and how small the sheep and cattle are in the marketplace. When a fight breaks out over some stolen goods, and the bedels rush to intervene, you may see how the spirit of the people is so similar to our own and yet how much the process of managing that spirit has changed. For if the stolen goods are of sufficient value, the thieves will be summarily tried and hanged the same day. This is what makes history so interesting - the differences between us across the centuries, as well as the similarities.

At dusk - just before the great gates of the city are closed for the night, and you see everyone leaving the adjacent taverns - you may begin to think that Auden was on to something. To understand ourselves, we must first see society differently - and to remember that history is the study of the living, not the dead.

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The medieval marketplace: a time traveller's guide to shopping in the Middle Ages

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How much did average items cost in a medieval market? And what was for sale? Ian Mortimer, author of The Time Traveller's Guide to Medieval England, takes us on a shopping trip in a 14th-century marketplace, from the sights and smells to how to avoid being conned out of your wages...

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Mid-Late Medieval Tuning Practices (Musical)

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Mid-Late Medieval Tuning Practices (Musical)

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Throughout the Medieval ages, the broader musical landscape of Europe was beginning to negotiate with the ideas of tuning practices. Compared to the equally tempered system that is standardized within Western/western influenced regions, alternatives to this system such as meantone, common tone, and just intonations were considered superior and more colorful in melodic contexts.

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The diatonic scale can also be formed using the tones of a harmonic series. A pure fifth can be found between the 2 nd and the 3 rd harmonic (a ratio of 2:3 or 3:2, depending on which harmonic is mentioned first), while a pure fourth can be found between the 3 rd and the 4 th harmonic (a ratio of 4:3). The resulting fourth and fifth tone of the major scale ( fa and so, see diagram) are identical to the fourth and fifth tone of the Pythagorean scale. The third tone of the scale, the major third, however, deviates from the Pythagorean tuning considerably. The ratio of the Pythagorean third is (3/2) ⁴, or 81/65 (approximately 1.2656...), while the pure third would be 5:4 (1.25).

There are several ways to express the relationships between different tuning systems. The following diagram uses integers instead of ratios. The pitch names (C, D, E...) have been replaced by the relative solféges, because both the just intonation and the Pythagorean tuning are key specific. The octave ratio remains the same: the low do is 24, while the high do is 48. Only integer values are used in a just tempering, as the system is based on simple numeric ratios. In Pythagorean tuning, more decimals start to appear as one proceeds along the series of fifths ( FA-DO-SO-RE...); the previous tone position is always at a ratio of 2/3 or 4/3 to the next tone position. For comparison, the bottom line features the approximate values in an equal temperament.

Each tone of the chord can be assigned a numeric value that results in simple mathematical proportions:

The diagram is an adaptation of Donkin's 1870 artificial scale. The proportions between the tones of the major tritone are 4:5:6 – directly from the harmonic series.

The successive tones of the longer numeric series have simple numeric proportions, but A (20) and D (54) do not. By transferring A to the "same octave range" with D (i.e. by multiplying the number by four), a proportion of 54:80 is established for the fifth. The difference to the pure fifth is now the syntonic comma (a ratio of 81:80, or 21.5 C), because 54:81 = 2:3 (both numbers are divisible by 27).

The following notation example illustrates the differences between the tuning levels of the various scales by placing the highest tones on the right. The pitch of the third tone, for example, is very different in each of the scales mentioned. The bottom set of lines features a "uniform" equal-tempered scale.

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acoustics, music, sound, acoustics of music

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Africa recorded its first continent wide wealth boom during the medieval times.

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Often, the music sung in medieval times was for religious purposes, such as connecting the singer to god, under the phrase "Benedicamus Domino" (Let us praise the lord).

As well, a significant amount of songs had reused melodies with new lyrics. This kept it easier for masses to learn and sing during church.

JH

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"Nuns Convent of the Sacred Heart in Rome," painted by Karl Bryullov. Credit: Wikiart

Medieval religious music is often perceived as being simple, and not particularly flashy or lavish. It often had a function that goes beyond simply being pleasant to listen to, says a University of Oslo researcher.

"In the Middle Ages music wasn't necessarily supposed to be something beautiful and complex. It had other practical purposes," says Manon Louviot, a musicologist at the University of Oslo, Norway.

As part of the research project "BENEDICAMUS: Musical and Poetic Creativity for a Unique Moment in the Western Christian Liturgy c.1000-1500" she has investigated the vocal exclamation "Benedicamus Domino" and its importance to the creation of music in female religious environments. The academic article was recently published in the journal Early Music.

"Benedicamus Domino" means "Let us praise the Lord," and in the Middle Ages and still today it is an exhortation used to conclude sacred rituals.

Through examination of the way women and men in the religious movement of the "Devotio moderna" created music for the "Benedicamus Domino" in masses and rituals, Louviot found that it had a very special function: to unite the singer with God.

"The aim of the music was to evoke the right emotions in the singers, so they would personally connect to the divine," says Louviot.

Same melody to different texts

It was when Louviot was searching for the Christmas carol "Puer nobis nascitur" in 15th-century German, Belgian and Dutch music manuscripts that she found it used a well-known plainchant melody associated with the exclamation "Benedicamus Domino."

She thinks the "Benedicamus Domino" melody was reused for the carol "Puer nobis nascitur" because it was easier to set a new text to a melody that was simple and that many people already knew.

At the same time she discovered that the tune of the Christmas carol was not only sung with a text in Latin but also in other languages.

One of the versions included the instruction that it should be sung in Latin, while in another version it was to be sung in Dutch.

"Most texts were written in Latin at this time, but in this case we've found vocal texts in Dutch," she says.

Men and women sang in Latin and other languages

The religious movements Louviot has investigated were divided into female and male communities. Most of the manuscripts Louviot found came from female communities, and thus there seemed to be a link between the texts translated from Latin and the women who sang them.

It was also more common for women to sing in languages other than Latin, because they had less access to education.

So it surprised her that women in the religious movement also sang the Christmas carol "Puer nobis nascitur."

She thinks that in some cases they chose not to sing in Latin.

"In any of the manuscripts where the vocal text is in Dutch it's fairly clear that they chose not to sing in Latin, but there are a few lines in Latin from the original text," she says.

Manuscripts from male communities with vocal texts in a language other than Latin have also been found.

"It gives us a more nuanced picture than women singing only in Dutch and men singing only in Latin. Men sang in other languages too, and women also sang in Latin," she explains.

Women wrote new texts and poems

The vocal texts were not simply translated from Latin into Dutch, but completely new texts and poems were also created.

"They created new texts with rhymes and an equal number of syllables for each line.

This challenges the notion that women were illiterate, because writing a new poem calls for a certain degree of literacy," she explains.

In the new texts there seemed to be a big emphasis on emotions and on how to bring about the appropriate feelings.

One of the emotions the melody was supposed to arouse was joy.

"Some of the texts contain a series of vowels, the aim being to express joy that is greater than can be expressed in words," she explains.

New texts should evoke the 'correct' feelings

Louviot compared the Dutch texts in the male and female communities.

In one of the texts the women sang about the Virgin Mary during the birth of Jesus Christ, they described her as a mother and a devoted person.

They shifted their focus from her to a collective "we." In some cases, even to an "I."

"It's as if the Virgin Mary and the women singing about her become one person throughout the text, and the singers identify with her," says Louviot.

In the male environments the text didn't mention the Virgin Mary, but rather highlighted the poor conditions under which Jesus was born, on bare earth and in a lowly stable.

"The texts from the different communities emphasize different aspects of the same event and are intended to arouse different emotions. While one text leads to joy, the other leads to shame."

Manon has written the article "Benedicamus Domino as an expression of joy in Christmas songs of the Devotio moderna." It is part of a special issue of the journal Early Music, edited by Catherine A. Bradley, titled "Benedicamus Domino as Female Devotion."

In the article, Manon's investigation-of the particular ways in which "Benedicamus Domino" was sung in the low countries in the 1400s-is placed in a broader geographical and chronological context.

Other articles in the issue investigate the moment of the "Benedicamus Domino" in Czechia, Poland, Spain, Sweden within communities of religious women, showing how this sacred exclamation offered a space for female music-making and creativity.

More information: Manon Louviot, Benedicamus Domino as an expression of joy in Christmas songs of the Devotio moderna, Early Music (2023). DOI: 10.1093/em/caac050

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Medieval music wasn't only supposed to be beautiful to listen to, suggests study

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Medieval religious music is often perceived as being simple, and not particularly flashy or lavish. It often had a function that goes beyond simply being pleasant to listen to, says a University of Oslo researcher.

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RB- In the Middle Ages, not many were going around singing classically and flaunting their soprano range. Singing was practiced mainly in churches through catholic mass, but secular chants did begin to become popular.

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Page ID

169117

1. Vocal Music in the Medieval Era (476-1400)

1. Catholic Chant.

2. Dies Irae: The Catholic Hymn.

2. Medieval Polyphony: Guillaume de Machaut and the Secular Song.

Vocal Music in the Medieval Era (476-1400)

The Medieval Period covers the time in Western Europe from the Fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD) to about 1400 AD. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church gained significant power over both religion and politics over all of Europe. Because of its huge influence, much of the music that survives to this day from this time period is sacred music. This is not to say that all music written during this period was religious, but because the Catholic Church had so much money and resources, they were able to pay for scribes to write down their music, which is why so much if it has survived to the modern day.

Common genres of music in the Medieval Era are chant, the Catholic mass, and secular song.

Read through this unit, and when you're done, watch the video presentatio n, which will provide more clarity on some of the more difficult concepts.

Catholic Chant.

The Catholic church services followed the religious traditions of prior times, and included chant. Chant is unaccompanied liturgical song used in religious services; throughout all of the Medieval Era, everything done during a Catholic mass (the religious ceremony) was sung in chant-style. This eventually became known as plainchant, or Gregorian Chant (named after Pope Gregory II who codified the structure of the Catholic mass during the 8th century AD).

Chant is monophonic (a single melodic line with no accompaniment), sacred (sung in religious services), and is melisamatic-that is, it contains many melismata (the plural of melisma). Melismata occur when you sing a single syllable of text on many long-held notes. Listen to this "Alleluia" and you'll hear the word sung over about 20 seconds of "ahhhhh"-this is a single melisma, and is a defining characteristic of chant. As you listen, try to keep a steady beat, and you'll notice that you're unable to keep one! This is another defining characteristic of the chant -- they are completely rhythmically free. The chant is part of the prayer and dialogue between the priest and the congregation; the music is just as important as the words to which they are attached.

In the Medieval era, even up until the 1960s, the entire mass during the Catholic service was chanted. This video shows a historical re-enactment of a Catholic Mass. Notice how everything is chanted by either the Priest or the rest of the congregation.

You'll likely notice that there is great reverberation in the sound -- remember that these chants were traditionally sung in large cathedrals, which create a very live and vibrant sound.

Dies Irae: The Catholic Hymn.

Within the church service, the congregation and the priest would often sing a hymn together. This is a tradition that continues to this day, and predates that Catholic church. A hymn is a religious song of praise to God, and is very different when compared to the chant. They are rhythmically much more stable; you'll be able to keep a beat very easily. They are often written in a strophic (or verse) form. There is often a rhyme-scheme to them like modern songs.

Dies Irae is a Medieval-Era poem about the Day of Wrath, or the Day of Judgement, which depicts the time where God comes down to Earth to judge all of creation. The image to the left is a famous depiction of this day: a painting attbributed to Flemish painter Hans Memling.

The hymn Dies Irae is one of the most famous and melodies in the Western canon, and was composed around the 13th century AD, likely by some Benedictine Monk employed by the church. Like much of the music that was written for the church, we do not know who composed it, because the monks who wrote the music did not sign their names to the music (they were not seeking fame for their work). The text for the poem is provided below ( taken from the Wikipedia page). The original Latin text is on the left, and as you can see, it follows a specific rhyme scheme as one would expect to hear in a song. The "Approved adaptation" is an English translation that tries to keep the same amount of syllables per line, while maintaining the rhyme scheme. The "Fomal Equivalence" is a more literal translation, but as you can see, it doesn't conform to any specific rhythm or rhythm.

Take a listen to this famous hymn, and follow along with the text provided below and follow along with the "Original" text on the left side of the column. Though it is sung by a choir, notice that they are all singing the same exact melody -- this is a monophonic texture -- a single melody with no accompaniment. When you're done, view the video presentation for this piece for more discussion on this famous melody.

"Day of Judgement," by Hans Memling. Public Domain.

Text of "Dies Irae." (left): original Latin; (middle): adaptation; (right): literal translation. Screenshot taken from Wikipedia.

Medieval Polyphony: Guillaume de Machaut and the Secular Song.

Picture of a Parisian manuscript from the 1350s depicting Machaut (right). Public Domain

Over time, composers and monks who wrote music in the church began to experiment with playing multiple notes at the same time in an independent manner. You may be thinking to yourself "why are we spending so much time looking at early Catholic music?" The answer is because modern harmony and polyphony developed within the Catholic church. Up until around 900 AD, music was mostly monophonic. If instruments accompanied a singer, it often would play the same melody that the singer would sing, or provide some single "drone" note. But again, most music in the Medieval Period was purely sung.

Around 900 AD, composers within the Catholic church (mostly monks and other religious people working for the church) began experimenting with combining independent lines and layers of music. This developed into a polyphonic texture. Both Sacred and Secular music embraced this style: combining multiple independent melodies at once. In some instances, composers would combine 3, 4, 5, or more independent melodies at the same time.

Keep in mind, that this is very difficult to do. Not only do the melodies need to sound good on their own, but they need to sound good when they're played together!

Composer Guillaume de Machaut (~1300-~1377) was a French poet and composer, who wrote both sacred and secular music. He was the first composer to ever set the Catholic Mass -- the part of the service that celebrates Communion and the Eucharist that was always chanted in a monophonic setting --- to a polyphonic setting. This was incredibly important in the development of Western polyphony and the development of the musical settings of the Catholic mass.

Take a listen to this recording of "Je puis trop bien ma dame comparer," which translates to "I can all too well compare my lady..." You'll notice that there are multiple melodic lines happening at the same time, which all line up to create harmony. This polypohonic texture is something that Machaut was well-known for. In this song, he compares his love of a woman to the the Greek myth of Pygmalion, who as legend had it, sculpted a statue and loved it so deeply, that the goddess Aphrodite took pity on him and turned the statue into a real person. When you're done listening to this, watch the video presentation on this piece for a more thorough discussion of how to listen to the independent melodies within this piece.

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Page ID 169117 Vocal Music in the Medieval Era (476-1400) Catholic Chant. Dies Irae: The Catholic Hymn. Medieval Polyphony: Guillaume de Machaut and the Secular Song. The Medieval Period covers the time in Western Europe from the Fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD) to about 1400 AD.

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Medieval women did not simply lay around and wait for a man to decide to marry them. Women enjoyed many past times, from shopping to falconry! Although some hobbies, such as archery, were afforded only by the middle class, most women enjoyed such activities as flower picking, board games, embroidery, and reading.

-CF

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Rosalie’s Medieval Woman - Medieval Recreation

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Pythagorean Tuning in the Middle Ages (Ugly/Musical)

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Pythagorean Tuning in the Middle Ages (Ugly/Musical)

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Pythagorean Tuning is one of the systems used to tune instruments during the Middle Ages. Fifths were perfectly in tune, but intervals like thirds and sixths are noticeably sharp. This system generally worked well enough as long as only a single melody line is being performed, but as soon as harmony is used it tends to fall apart.

- ERC

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Table of Contents Ask the Chatbot a Question

Of the two ancient Greek systems that were used chiefly in the Middle Ages, one, Pythagorean tuning, makes all the fifths perfectly consonant. As a result, all the major thirds and major sixths are sharp (too wide) by 22 cents (a cent is 1/1200 of an octave) or by the ratio of 81:80. This amount is called a comma of Didymus, and it makes intervals severely dissonant when their notes are sounded simultaneously. Within the gamut, the pitch range in use during the Middle Ages, a major third or sixth mistuned by a comma beats between 6 and 32 times a second. Melodically, the Pythagorean system is satisfactory. ( Click Here to see full-size table Table 1 compares whole tone and semitone sizes in the four main tuning systems.) Pythagorean tuning makes all five whole tones (the larger steps in the diatonic scale) equal at 9:8 (204 cents), and the two semitones (the smaller steps) equal at 256:243 (90 cents). The semitones are considerably less than half the whole tones in size, but this is not particularly objectionable in a melody.

Ptolemaic tuning, often misleadingly named just intonation, sacrifices one of the fifths (D-A), which is altered to 40:27 from the simpler ratio 3:2, making it flat (too narrow) by a comma. The advantage of this system is that all the major thirds are true, or "in tune," as are all the major sixths except F-D, which is tuned to the ratio 27:16, as in the Pythagorean tuning (instead of to 5:3). The triad D-F-A is quite unusable, although the other triads used are perfectly in tune. (A triad is a chord built of two thirds.) For melody the system has the drawback of employing two different sizes of whole tones: C-D, F-G, and A-B are major tones (9:8, or 204 cents), and D-E and G-A are minor tones (10:9, or 182 cents). The difference is noticeable without being great enough to suggest that they are two purposely distinct intervals. To sing the first phrase of "Three Blind Mice" with the middle note perceptibly too high can hardly have seemed satisfactory at any period.

Although just intonation occupied the attention of many theorists, its disadvantages are so great that it is doubtful whether the system was ever strictly applied to harmonized music. Some kind of temperament may have been practiced empirically long before it was described in writing. The addition over several centuries of the five chromatic notes (the black notes of the piano), giving the full chromatic scale, certainly does nothing to improve either the Pythagorean or the Ptolemaic tuning (see Click Here to see full-size table Table 2, which shows the deviation of the four main tuning systems from the ideal tuning of the principal intervals). To either system the use of the chromatic notes adds more true fifths but also more untrue thirds and sixths. The advantages of just intonation over Pythagorean tuning are experienced only in chords made up of white notes. With the development of harmony and the increased use of chromatic notes, both tuning systems became increasingly unsatisfactory.

Temperament

The first mention of temperament is found in 1496 in the treatise Practica musica by the Italian theorist Franchino Gafori, who stated that organists flatten fifths by a small, indefinite amount. This practice tends to spread out the mistuning of the fifth D-A over several fifths, so that all are tolerable although none is perfect. This principle was systematized as mean-tone temperament, first described in 1523. Under this scheme, all the major thirds of the scale are made perfect ( i.e., are tuned in the simple ratio 5:4); it results in an imperfection in the tuning of fifths that is spread out evenly over the entire cycle. Specifically, the interval of two octaves and a major third is tuned perfectly and divided into four fifths (C-G-d-a-e′), each of which has the ratio ⁴√ 5 :1 (compared to 3:2 for a perfectly tuned fifth). The fifths are flat by a quarter of a comma, which is much less dissonant than a comma: it gives a beat rate of 0.9 to 4 per second for fifths that fall within the compass of the medieval gamut. All major sixths are sharp by the same amount. Melodically, the scale resulting from mean-tone temperament is superior to the Ptolemaic (just intonation) scale, for all the whole tones are equal in size, being exactly half a true major third, or 193 cents. This is the source of the system's name: the mean, or average, whole tone. The semitones of the diatonic scale are relatively large, at 117 cents.

Mean-tone temperament, which was specifically designed for keyboard instruments, was an acceptable compromise so long as the black notes used in a composition did not extend beyond E♭ and G♯. As soon as D♯ was needed as well as E♭, the system collapsed. The keyboard provided only one key for E♭ and D♯. This key was tuned as E♭ and with no reference to the G♯ below it. The enharmonic fifth G♯-E♭ (in which E♭ is treated as equal to D♯) is nearly two commas out of tune in the mean-tone system. Worse even than the mistuned fifth of just intonation, it was often given the name "the wolf." Organs were occasionally built with split black keys so that E♭ and D♯ could be differently tuned and also A♭ and G♯. This expedient slightly extended the range of usable harmonies, but a more drastic remedy was soon needed. By spreading out the mistuning of the "wolf" fifth among its neighbours, in the same way that their predecessors had spread out the mistuning of the fifth D-A, musicians of the 17th century moved imperceptibly away from mean-tone temperament, in which the fifths are tuned unequally, toward the system of equal temperament, in which all fifths are equally flat.

In equal temperament, all intervals are made up of semitone units, each of which is set exactly at a 12th of an octave, or 100 cents. A fifth is built of seven semitones; in relation to a pure fifth, it is 2 cents flat. A major third is four semitones and is 14 cents sharp; a major sixth is nine semitones and is 16 cents sharp. Because in equal temperament the intervals are identical in all parts of the chromatic scale, the system is the only one that can accommodate the expanded range of harmonies of 19th- and 20th-century music. Melodically, it fulfills the ideal of equal steps. The price for these great advantages is the total disappearance of perfectly tuned intervals, save only the octave. For the piano and the harpsichord this is scarcely a drawback: the characteristic tone of these instruments is, in any case, rich in dissonant components. Indeed, it has been found that piano tuners systematically set octaves and even unison strings out of tune. But on the organ, with its purer and more sustained tone, the disadvantages of equal temperament are considered by many to outweigh its blessings. In England such musicians as the organist and composer Samuel Sebastian Wesley continued to oppose it even as late as the mid-19th century.

On fretted instruments-such as lutes, guitars, and viols-the frets extend across the fingerboard, producing at any one point divisions of equal lengths on strings of different pitch. Unless equal temperament is used, the positioning of the frets results in mistuned octaves and unisons when the same note is played on different strings. For this reason equal temperament was applied at least as early as the 16th century in the construction of fretted instruments.

It has often been stated that singers and players on instruments of undetermined tuning, such as violins and trombones, naturally use just intonation when performing together. Experimental evidence does not support this theory. In such circumstances musicians tend either to play in equal temperament, or, if anything, to distort intervals away from perfect consonance. Most probably this is the result of generations of conditioning. Moreover, it has been found that few musicians can distinguish melodically between just intonation and equal temperament and that those who can do so prefer the latter.

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Tuning and temperament - Classic Systems, Pitch, Intervals

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Tuning and temperament - Classic Systems, Pitch, Intervals: Of the two ancient Greek systems that were used chiefly in the Middle Ages, one, Pythagorean tuning, makes all the fifths perfectly consonant. As a result, all the major thirds and major sixths are sharp (too wide) by 22 cents (a cent is 1/1200 of an octave) or by the ratio of 81:80.

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Some of the first hospitals were created during this time to treat people with disabilities. LB

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musicians were given roles like police officers and first responders, because society thought those skill sets went hand in hand.

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You can tell a lot about a city just by counting up its essential workers, all those police officers and fire fighters and other specialized personnel it keeps on the payroll. But six hundred years ago, cities hired lots of street musicians-and it happened all over Europe. Any sizable municipal government recognized the need for musicians as part of what we today call first responders.

Consider the peculiar law in London in the late medieval period, that required each entry gate into the city to keep a musician on duty. This could be a dangerous job-city gates were where attackers and other threatening outsiders first appeared. It's like border patrol nowadays, but they gave the job to musicians.

In Germany, a minstrel was expected "to acquit himself well as a swordsman." Surviving illustrations tend to emphasize the bulky, formidable aspect of these street performers. But why?

As strange as it sounds, musicians took charge of many essential services back then. These hired municipal minstrels started showing up everywhere in Europe around the year 1370. In Italy they were called piffari, in Germany they were known as stadtpfeifer, in Holland they were stadspijpers, and in England they were known as waits. They typically played wind instruments-including trumpets, trombones, fifes, bagpipes, and recorders-as well as percussion and sometimes viols.

To the modern mind, musical skills and police responsibilities have little in common, but in an earlier age the two roles often overlapped. Musicians not only helped defend the city gate, but might also be required to patrol streets at night. In Norwich in 1440 a tax was instituted to pay the waits for their watch-and these musicians were required to take an oath of office. In Germany, a minstrel was expected "to acquit himself well as a swordsman." Surviving illustrations tend to emphasize the bulky, formidable aspect of these street performers.

But why?

The most obvious answer is that musicians were ideal first responders because they could sound the alarm in case of a major disturbance. Certainly a loud horn or drum helps in that regard. (I'm less confident in the fife and viol-but I guess you take what you can get.) This signaling capacity of musical instruments also explains their longstanding use in military operations.

But this explanation doesn't capture the much deeper reasons why cities needed musicians on the payroll. If you study the surviving documents-hard to find, and mostly ignored-you will see that guarding gates and streets was only a small part of their responsibilities. In fact, these medieval musicians were at the center of all important events. You might even say that civic pride was centered on these performers.

They are sadly written out of the historical accounts. In J.R. Green's book Town Life in the Fifteenth Century, for example, these musicians are ignored except for a single sentence. But even that one sentence is more than what you will find in many books on medieval society-including music history books, which seem to operate on the principle that only music notated and preserved in archives deserves our attention.

Towns even had their special music and their own tune-a kind of theme song, much like TV shows and consumer brands nowadays. No self-respecting city would operate without its own distinctive soundtrack. It's a fascinating subject, rich with psychological implication, but who has written its history or probed its meaning?

Above all, the street musicians gave the city a sense of pomp and ceremony-turning the everyday into something special. Municipalities placed them at the city gate not just to make a loud noise during an attack but also to greet noble visitors with suitable music. The historical records make frequent reference to these practices-for example, Henry V's entry into London from the battle of Agincourt in 1415 was heralded at the gateway of London Bridge with horns. There was even an "Agincourt song" which fired up the crowd. In 1378, when the Holy Roman Emperor met with King Charles V in Paris, the monarch greeted his formidable visitor at the outskirts of the city with trumpeters playing silver instruments, and minstrels stood at the very front of the royal retinue. Again and again, surviving documents tell us that musicians were given a place of honor at such historic junctures, where they served as a focal point for all ritual and revelry.

For the same reason, cities often required their musicians to play from the top of the bell tower because that was the emotional center of the town. It's revealing how often huge battles in medieval wars were fought to take control of a bell tower. You couldn't claim a genuine victory until you owned that symbolic spot-the command center for the soundscape of the city below.

Even where I live-a city that brags that it is the "live music capital of the world"-musicians are still freelancers, not permanent employees. . . . I certainly appreciate those clubs and their commitment to live entertainment. Even so, I'd love to see horn players at the Austin city limits.

That same obsession with civic pride explains why musicians had to dress in the most splendid costumes. A painting by Gentile Bellini, Procession from 1496, shows the piffari in ceremonial attire, and other surviving works of art convey the lavish care devoted to the appearance of these civic performers. For example, all of the musicians at the 1409 Lord Mayor's Procession in London were dressed in red and white hoods that earned high praise from onlookers. The records from many cities indicate the payment of funds to the waits for their liveries, and in some instances they also carried scutcheons, or silver badges-further highlighting the similarity with modern-day police.

As late as Haydn's day, the esteemed composer was expected to wear a uniform as part of his job as "Capellmeister of His Highness the Prince (Esterházy) in whose service I live and die"-that's how Haydn described the position in a surviving letter. In his official costume, he looked like the leader of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.

Again and again, surviving accounts of medieval and Renaissance town musicians describe their attire. This was no small matter, because people judged a city by how well it outfitted its musicians. But other tiny details received equally close attention. In fact, almost every aspect of the minstrel's trade had a symbolic importance-for example the Waits of London consisted of nine musicians, because that was the same number as the Muses of ancient lore.

We shouldn't forget that civic musicians also provided entertainment-and not just for the ruling class. You could consider them as true public servants in this regard, at least judging by their responsibilities to perform for all and sundry. In Venice, the doge's piffari would perform for an hour each day in the Piazza. Such public performances were common throughout the region, where piffari were a regular attraction in the town square-when they weren't leading processions or adding to the spectacle of ceremonial occasions.

Montaigne writes of encountering them during his Italian trip of 1580-81, where the piffari played reveille for an hour in the morning and again in the evening on oboes and fifes. Benvenuto Cellini, the celebrated Italian artist and chronicler, tells of his father's participation in such a local band-until Lorenzo de Medici tried to have him removed from this position because he feared the elder Cellini was neglecting his talent as an engineer.

Payment for these services was modest, but extra income might be made from playing at private banquets and weddings or taking on students. The standards of musicianship were often quite high-some street musicians were capable of playing almost any wind instrument, and many were also skilled singers-and acceptance into this coterie was not happenstance but eventually followed the paths of apprenticeship practiced by the guilds.

But modern life has different priorities. Consider the case of London, where there had once been those nine waits. They were still around in the early nineteenth century, but at that point a new rule was instituted requiring that only trumpeters be hired-probably a sign that the job was now mostly about playing ceremonial fanfares. But in 1854, the city decided to stop filling vacancies in the ensemble. Finally, the whole notion of city musicians was abandoned in 1914-with the proviso that London would borrow military trumpeters if and when they needed ceremonial music.

I guess I shouldn't be surprised. But it does seem odd that today's cities have much larger budgets, with hundreds or thousands of employees of all types-offering so many services that no medieval town would have even considered-but no longer employ those musicians who were once a focal point of such civic pride.

Even where I live-a city that brags that it is the "live music capital of the world"-musicians are still freelancers, not permanent employees. That slogan was adopted by Austin back in 1991, when a survey showed it had more music venues per capita than other cities. I certainly appreciate those clubs and their commitment to live entertainment. Even so, I'd love to see horn players at the Austin city limits, and minstrels strolling down Sixth Street.

After all, the other motto proclaimed proudly by locals here is "Keep Austin Weird"-and what could be weirder than bringing back musicians as hired first responders for riotous revelry? If they could do that in 1370, why not today?

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Why Did Medieval Cities Hire Street Musicians as First Responders?

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Musicians patrolled streets and city gates-carrying badges and even taking an oath of office. They were often as bulky as football players nowadays. But why?

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https://bigthink.com/thinking/animal-morality-medieval-trials/#

Animals were put on trial when harming a human. There would be a full court case where they could be sentenced to death or “imprisonment”, and acquitted

KS

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Clothing for women was long gowns that either hit the floor or just above the floor, covering the ankles, of course. Long sleeves were a must during this time period. The clothing was made out of natural fibers, the wealthy class could afford dyed clothing whereas the lower class could not. The silhouette consisted of a high neck, and a more loose fitted skirt, the church viewed tighter clothes as immoral. -LB

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Medieval Europeans used to put animals that were deemed "bad" on trial. They were given their own lawyers, and even could be sentenced to death. This article goes more in depth about certain cases like a rooster being tried and executed for being in league with the devil! :O (TD)

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Why medieval Europeans used to put “bad” animals on criminal trial

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We often talk of “naughty” animals, or call a dog “good boy.” Here’s what philosophy has to say about animals’ moral responsibility.

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This article talks about music during the medieval period and all the changes it went through. Initially it was monophonic and primarily vocal music such as chants. And eventually as music became more secular we get elements of polyphony. There was very limited instrumentation and instrumental music. (YW)

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This article discussed the different types of music performed in the medieval times, such as chants and hymns, and outlined the source of those traditions.

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Musical performance - Medieval Instruments, Chant, Troubadours

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Musical performance - Medieval Instruments, Chant, Troubadours: The tradition of sung prayers and psalms extends into the shadows of early civilization. Such sacred singing was often accompanied by instruments, and its rhythmic character was marked. In the synagogue, however, the sung prayers were o…

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Lots of palaces and castles during the medieval times had to be regularly evacuated so they could clean the human waste and dead animals. Because lots of parties and balls were thrown, there were constantly tons of people in and out of the palaces, causing dirt and waste to build up. The odor in these palaces was horrendous.

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In July of 1535, King Henry VIII and his court of over 700 people embarked on an epic official tour. Over the next four months the massive entourage would visit around 30 different royal palaces, aristocratic residences and religious institutions. While these stops were important PR events for the king, designed to spark loyalty in his subjects, royal households had another reason entirely for their constant movement.

They weren't just exercising their tremendous wealth: they actually needed to escape the disgusting messes large royal parties produced. Palaces-like Henry's Hampton Court -had to be constantly evacuated so they could be cleaned of the accumulated mounds of human waste. Livestock and farmland also needed time to recover, after supplying food for so many people. Once the tour was over, Henry and a swelling court of over 1,000 would keep moving for the rest of the year, traveling frequently between the King's 60 residences in a vain attempt to live in hygienic surroundings.

Within days of a royal party settling in one palace or another, a stink would set in from poorly discarded food, animal waste, vermin from or attracted to unwashed bodies, and human waste (which accrued in underground chambers until it could be removed.) The hallways would become so caked with grime and soot from constant fires that they were fairly black. The very crush of court members was so dense that it made a thorough house cleaning impossible-and futile. Though cleanliness standards were subpar throughout the Medieval, Renaissance and Regency eras, royal courts were typically dirtier than the average small cabin or home.
READ MORE: Why Royal Women Gave Birth in Front of Huge Crowds for Centuries
Some of the most storied reigns in history, like that of Catherine the Great, took place against a backdrop of horrifying smells, overcrowded quarters, overflowing chamber pots and lice-filled furniture. While paintings of Louis XIV 's opulent court at Versailles show royals clad in gorgeously embroidered garments, viewers today are missing one of the main effects of their finery: the odor of hundreds of garments that have never been washed, all in one unventilated room. And Charles II of England let his flea-bitten spaniels lie in his bed chamber, where they rendered the room "very offensive and indeed made the whole Court nasty and stinking," according to a 17th century writer.

But without a doubt, the most pressing health concern was caused by the dearth of waste disposal options in an era before reliable plumbing. "Feces and urine were everywhere," Eleanor Herman, author of The Royal Art of Poison, says of royal palaces. "Some courtiers didn't bother to look for a chamber pot but just dropped their britches and did their business-all of their business-in the staircase, the hallway, or the fireplace."

A 1675 report offered this assessment of the Louvre Palace in Paris: "On the grand staircases" and "behind the doors and almost everywhere one sees there a mass of excrement, one smells a thousand unbearable stenches caused by calls of nature which everyone goes to do there every day."

According to historian Alison Weir, author of Henry VIII: The King and his Court, the fastidious Henry VIII "waged a constant battle against the dirt, dust, and smells that were unavoidable when so many people lived in one establishment," which was fairly unusual for the time. The king slept on a bed surrounded by furs to keep small creatures and vermin away, and visitors were warned not to "wipe or rub their hands upon none arras [tapestries] of the King's whereby they might be hurted."
READ MORE: The Mysterious Epidemic That Terrified Henry VIII
Many of the rules laid down by the King indicate that his battle against the advancing grime was a losing one. To keep servants and courtiers from urinating on the garden walls, Henry had large red X's painted in problem spots. But instead of deterring men from relieving themselves, it just gave them something to aim for. Calls for people not to dump dirty dishes in the hallways-or on the King's bed-seemed to fall on deaf ears.

Amazingly, Henry was even forced to decree that cooks in the royal kitchen were forbidden to work "naked, or in garments of such vileness as they do now, nor lie in the nights and days in the kitchen or ground by the fireside." To combat the problem, clerks of the kitchen were instructed to purchase "honest and wholesome garments" for the staff.

While the King had a relatively sophisticated lavatory system for himself, other waste measures intended as hygienic seem disgusting today: servants were encouraged to pee in vats so that their urine could be used for cleaning. As actual cleanliness was often unachievable, the royal court resorted to masking the offending odors. Sweet-smelling plants covered palace floors, and the fortunate pressed sachets of scent to their noses.

Once Henry and his court moved on to the next royal residence, the scrubbing and airing out of the palace began. The waste from the King's non-flushing lavatories was held in underground chambers when the court was in residence. But after the court left, the King's Gong Scourers, tasked with cleaning the sewers in his palaces near London, went to work.

"After the court had been here for four weeks, the brick chambers would fill head-high," Simon Thurley, curator of Historic Royal Palaces, told The Independent. " It was the gong scourers who had to clean them when the court had left."

Of course, filthiness in over-crowded royal establishments was not just a problem at the English court. When the future Catherine the Great arrived in Russia from her family's relatively clean German court, she was shocked by what she found. "It's not rare to see coming from an immense courtyard full of mire and filth that belongs to a hovel of rotten wood," she wrote, "a lady covered in jewels and superbly dressed, in a magnificent carriage, pulled by six old nags, and with badly combed valets."
READ MORE: Why Catherine the Great's Enemies Turned Her into a Sex Fiend
The Western European belief that baths were unhealthy did not help matters, either. Although neat freak Henry VIII bathed often and changed his undershirts daily, he was a royal rarity. Louis XIV is rumored to have bathed twice in his life, as did Queen Isabella of Castile, Herman says. Marie-Antoinette bathed once a month. The 17th century British King James I was said to never bathe, causing the rooms he frequented to be filled with lice.

It was the Sun King himself, Louis XIV, whose choice to no longer travel from court to court would lead to a particularly putrid living situation. In 1682, in an effort to seal his authority and subjugate his nobles, Louis XIV moved his court permanently to the gilded mega-palace of Versailles. At times over 10,000 royals, aristocrats, government officials, servants and military officers lived in Versailles and its surrounding lodgings.

Despite its reputation for magnificence, life at Versailles, for both royals and servants, was no cleaner than the slum-like conditions in many European cities at the time. Women pulled up their skirts up to pee where they stood, while some men urinated off the balustrade in the middle of the royal chapel.According to historian Tony Spawforth, author of Versailles: A Biography of a Palace, Marie-Antoinette was once hit by human waste being thrown out the window as she walked through an interior courtyard.

The heavily trafficked latrines often leaked into the bedrooms below them, while blockages and corrosion in the palace's iron and lead pipes were known to occasionally "poison everything" in Marie-Antoinette's kitchen. "Not even the rooms of the royal children were safe," writes Spawforth. An occasional court exodus could have reduced the wear and tear on Versailles, perhaps leading to fewer unpleasant structural failures.

This unsanitary way of living no doubt led to countless deaths throughout royal European households. It was not until the 19th century that standards of cleanliness and technological developments improved life for many people, including members of royal courts. Today, many European royals still move from residence to residence-but for pleasure, not to try and outrun squalor.
READ MORE: Why 100 Imposters Claimed to Be Marie Antoinette's Dead Son READ MORE: The Delusion That Made Nobles Think Their Bodies Were Made of Glass READ MORE: How 'Unicorn Horns' Became the Poison Antidote of Choice for Paranoid Royals

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Naked Cooks, Excrement, Rats: The Secretly Disgusting History of Royal Palaces | HISTORY

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Filthy residences forced European monarchs to constantly move their courts.

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Ugly: Medical Practices in the Medieval Ages - CB

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Ugly: Medical Practices in the Medieval Ages - CB

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This link lists and provides an explanation of some medicinal practices used during the Medieval Ages. It makes you w grateful for the practices that are implemented now so that we don’t have to deal with those of the past. It includes medicinal cannibalism and bloodletting.

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Let's take a moment of immersion and imagine ourselves among the knights, kings, and castles that graced the time in history known as the Middle (or Medieval) Ages. The medieval period, from the 5th century to the 15th century, was known for its ferocious Crusaders, gruesome torture, deadly revolutions, and Gothic art. However, what the people of this period were definitely not famous for were their advancements in medicine, especially when compared to their predecessors, the Greeks and Romans. But what about this era in time made the practice of medicine nearly stand still, if not digress?

Well, it has a lot to do with the beliefs of the people who lived during this time. The medieval ages were a period in history controlled heavily by the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, religion became intertwined into every aspect of their lives, including medicine. Through the lens of religion, illnesses were thought of as God's punishment for those who had sinned. Unsurprisingly, this meant their medical procedures weren't the most grounded. That said, they sure were interesting.

1. Bloodletting

The practice of draining blood, or bloodletting, actually dates back to before the Middle Ages, to the time of ancient Greece.

To understand why this practice was so common, you must first understand what ancient physicians believed about the body. A theory proposed in the time of ancient Greece by Hippocrates, a famous physician, centered around the idea that our body consisted of four substances called " humors." Each substance was related to a particular personality type and a specific organ in the body. People believed if you had an imbalance in these humors, it could make you sick. Several centuries after Hippocrates and only two centuries before the medieval period began, a Greek physician named Galen of Pergamum theorized that draining a bit of the patient's blood would balance the four humors. Thus began the popularity of bloodletting during the medieval period.

Doctors recommended bloodletting for many conditions, like smallpox, fainting spells, gout, and even poor temperament. The practice was performed with specific instruments that cut into the blood vessels in your neck and forearm or leeches, the surprisingly less gruesome alternative.

As strange as bloodletting may seem, people sang its praises until the late 1800s. The practice is still used today for special cases, like haemochromatosis, polycythemia, and more. Although, the reasons for prescribing this treatment are quite different.

2. Medicinal Cannibalism

As you may have noticed, medieval society was not one of acceptance. People were intolerant, supersititous, and feared human individuality. So, it will come as a surprise that something as crude as cannibalism was widely accepted and revered as a medical treatment. That's right, back in medieval times, people believed that human flesh, blood, and bones could cure you. Doctors would prescribe human blood for epilepsy, migraines, eye problems, ulcers, and so on. For gout and epilepsy, doctors would give their patients oil made from boiled human bones. ¹

For the rich, Egyptian mummies were a large source of medicinal, magical human flesh. However, some people preferred the cheaper option, which consisted of attending an execution and filling a jug, towel, or cup with fresh blood before the victim was even dead. ¹

Many believed that consuming human parts could leave you with a part of the dead human's soul, boosting your vitality and serving as a gruesome fountain of youth. ¹

This practice was so common in medieval times that most kings and queens consumed human-made elixirs. Charles II, Queen Mary, Francis I, and many more monarchs were said to often rely on cannibalistic tendencies to cure their illnesses. ¹

3. Drilling Holes in Heads

If you're one that shies away from gory movies and gruesome history, this medical practice will probably seem extra horrific. Trepanation, a practice still used today, involves drilling holes into a patient's skull. Today, this practice is used for several procedures, but back then, it could be used to treat something as basic as a headache. It was a common procedure for epilepsy, mental illness, head wounds, and more.

Because people in the Middle Ages centered so much of their life around religion, people with mental illness were thought to be possessed by the devil or other evil spirits. Therefore, physicians often performed trepanation to release evil spirits from the person's head.

As alarming as that all sounds, there's one truly gruesome part to remember. People who underwent trepanation in the Middle Ages were awake the entire time. Trepanation was often done in someone's home with no anesthesia and no pain relief.

4. Coaxing the Wandering Womb

If this next idea doesn't give you perfect insight into women's medicine in the medieval period, then I simply don't know what will. This idea is as old as it is whacky with roots tracing back to ancient Egypt. ²

Doctors in the Middle Ages had very little interest in and knowledge of a woman's body, especially their reproductive structures. That said, one thing they did believe was that a woman's uterus had a life of its own. They also believed that a woman's uterus strongly desired to carry a fetus. It was said that if a woman wasn't routinely pregnant, the uterus would leave its home in the pelvis and start wandering about the body in search of something to fill the lonely womb. ²

Now, to physicians, a wandering womb was seen as very serious. This womb could cause severe illness and "hysteria" by running into vital organs and smashing them. This included the lungs, which could ultimately cause suffocation. ²

But never fear; medieval doctors had plenty of ways to remedy this issue. If physicians believed the uterus had made its way toward the top of the poor woman's body, he placed unpleasant-smelling fumes under her nose and sweet-smelling fumes between her legs. The hope was that this would cause the uterus to retreat back to its rightful place in the body. ²

5. The King's Touch

Similar to how King Midas's touch turned things to gold, kings of medieval times were believed to heal the sick with only the touch of their hand. Dubbed "the Royal Touch," a monarch's touch was often used as a treatment for scrofula. Scrofula, or cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis, is a type of tuberculosis that affects areas outside the lungs, usually causing inflamed lymph nodes in the neck. ³

The Royal Touch was such a popular treatment for scrofula the disease became known as "the King's Evil." People would stand in line for hours and wait for the king's magical healing touch. It's believed that King Charles II touched 100,000 of his subjects after performing several ceremonies a year during the entirety of his reign. ⁴

By the 15th century, monarchs began distributing golden coins that they had blessed instead. These gold coins, called "touchpieces," were also believed to have healing properties and acted as a good stand-in for monarchs not particularly fond of touching oozing boils all day. ⁴

6. Treatments for the Black Death

Easily one of the most famous events in medieval history was the spread of the Black Death. What started with the discovery of a ship from the Black Sea filled with dead sailors covered in oozing black boils ended with the death of nearly ⅓ of Europe's population, 20 million deaths in just five years. The Black Plague, also known as the "Black Death" or "Bubonic Plague," is a bacterial caused infection that was spread by fleas that then infected rats. Rats carried the disease all over Europe, hitching rides on ships and sailing to different countries.

Born from the hysteria of this deadly plague were several strange ideas on how to cure this devastating disease. To some, stale air seemed to be a reason for this disease, and to cure those with it, they needed to break up the air with loud noises like bells, guns, and birds. Others burned aromatic herbs, relied on bloodletting, and bathed in rosewater.

Most people believed that the Black Death was a punishment from God sent to destroy all sinners. This, unfortunately, led to some even worse ideas. While some prayed for salvation, others took it a step further, conducting massacres against groups who did not follow Christian law.

Flagellation became another way people believed they could end the plague. Flagellants were a group who frequently whipped themselves with leather straps studded in metal in the center of towns for all to see. The hope was that inflicting pain upon themselves could help them repent for their sins and end God's harsh punishment. Sadly, we later discovered that antibiotics seemed much more effective against the disease and switched to that treatment instead.

Conclusion

For a good reason, the Middle Ages are known as the Dark Age of Medicine. The field of medicine no longer flourished in discovery as it had in Greek and Roman times. In fact, medieval physicians were so pleased with the ancient beliefs and writings of physicians like Hippocrates that they claimed there was nothing left to learn in the realm of medicine. ⁵

Additionally, religion's stronghold on the Middle Ages also halted the field of medicine. For example, not much was known about the human body's anatomy. Human bodies were considered sacred to the Roman Catholic Church, so dissection was not permitted. ⁵

Eventually, as the story goes, the medieval ages ended, and thus the Age of the Renaissance began. Unlike its predecessor, the Renaissance advanced in medicine, questioning these barbaric practices medieval physicians had so faithfully sworn by. Scientists discovered human circulation, advanced their knowledge of human anatomy, developed new surgical techniques, and traded superstition for science. As humanity advanced, the dark age of medicine was forever left behind and we can now reflect with gratitude upon the fact that we never had to experience a headache in the 1300s.

Sources:

1. Sugg, Richard. "Mummies, Cannibals, and Vampires : the History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians." London: Routledge, 2011. Print.

2. Thompson, Lana. "The Wandering Womb : a Cultural History of Outrageous Beliefs About Women." Amherst, N.Y: Prometheus Books, 1999. Print.

3. Wheeler, Susan. "MEDICINE IN ART: 'Henry IV of France Touching for Scrofula', by Pierre Firens." Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 58.1 (2003): 79-81. Web.

4. Dossey, Larry. "The Royal Touch: A Look at Healing in Times Past." Explore (New York, N.Y.) 9.3 (2013): 121-127. Web.

5. Belofsky, Nathan. "Strange Medicine: A Shocking History of Real Medical Practices Through the Ages." N.Y: Penguin Group, 2013. Print.

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Six Medieval Medical Practices That Will Make You Relieved to Live in the 21st Century

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Headache? Try drilling a hole in your skull. Epilepsy? Just drink human blood. These are only a few of the terrifying medical practices of the Middle Ages.

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The diet of a medieval peasant was healthier than the modern diet. It mainly consisted of stews, vegetables, and cheeses. This diet enabled them to continue to work for many years. (MB)

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New research reveals what was on the menu for medieval peasants

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Scientists from the University of Bristol have uncovered, for the first time, definitive evidence that determines what types of food medieval peasants ate and how they managed their animals.

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This instrument is a part of the Zither family and later gave rise to instruments such as the H.arpsichord. This instrument is one that can be plucked and were created with gut or horsehair.

KF

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Table of Contents

This article was most recently revised and updated by Ask the Chatbot a Question

psaltery, (from Greek psaltērion: "harp"), musical instrument having plucked strings of gut, horsehair, or metal stretched across a flat soundboard, often trapezoidal but also rectangular, triangular, or wing-shaped. The strings are open, none being stopped to produce different notes. The instrument, probably of Middle Eastern origin in late Classical times, reached Europe in the 12th century as a variety of the trapezoidal Arabic psaltery, or qānūn. It was popular in Europe until about the 15th century and developed there into several shapes, including the characteristic "boar's head"-i.e., with two incurving sides. It was plucked with the fingers or quill plectra. Even after its decline, it continued to be played on occasion in fashionable society. It also gave rise to the harpsichord, which is a large psaltery with a keyboard mechanism for plucking the strings. Psalteries still played in European folk music include the Finnish kantele and its Baltic relatives, among them the Estonian kannel, which is bowed rather than plucked, and the Russian gusli.

The medieval qānūn also diffused eastward across India to Indonesia and China. Still prominent in the music of Arabic-speaking countries, it is played with finger plectra and is normally triple strung.

Psalteries are members of the zither family, instruments having strings extended across an armless, neckless frame or holder; non-Western psalteries are thus sometimes referred to as zithers. The dulcimer is a psaltery having strings that are struck with hammers rather than plucked.

Kathleen Kuiper.

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Psaltery, (from Greek psaltērion: "harp"), musical instrument having plucked strings of gut, horsehair, or metal stretched across a flat soundboard, often trapezoidal but also rectangular, triangular, or wing-shaped. The strings are open, none being stopped to produce different notes. The

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Homosexuality was seen as sodomy during medieval times, and often individuals could be punished for loving an individual of the same sex. The societal norms were determined by the Catholic Church, and thus any and all homosexuality was not accepted.

HB

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There is no denying that there have always been LGBTQ folks throughout history. But to understand the answer to this question we have to define the time period of the Middle Ages and understand how same-sex relations were viewed before the Middle Ages. For the purposes of this question, I am going to go with Britannica's definition of the Middle Ages and say it was the period of 500 AD to 1400 AD.

During Greco-Roman times same-sex relations were not uncommon and it should be noted that the same-sex relations were not always consensual. Many Greco-Roman conquerors would take the people they conquered as slaves and use both genders as concubines. How people acted as a married couple was different too. Many men had lovers outside of their marriage and sometimes these lovers were men. It was different for most women of the time. They were not able to participate in outside relations like men for the most part, because at that time women were still considered to be the property of men.

With a base understanding of what same-sex relations were like before the Medieval Times, we can now understand how LGBTQ people were treated during the Medieval Times. The simplest answer to who people were treated is it depended on a couple of factors. It depended on where they lived. It depended on if it was two men together or two women together. It even depends on the specific years during the Medieval Ages one looks. Furthermore, there wasn't a concept of "homosexuality" or "heterosexuality" during the Medieval Ages. Sexuality was more viewed as is it "normal" sexual behavior and "not-normal" sexual behavior. The group deciding what was "normal" was none other than the Christian Church at that time.

Loving a person of the same gender during the Middle Ages fell under the category of sodomy. Sodomy at this time meant any sexual act that wasn't "normal." Normal in this context meant any sex that did not result in procreation. Sodomy of heteronormative sexual acts usually resulted in much less persecution than acts that were between two people of the same gender. The Church also didn't really persecute sodomy until the early thirteenth century, so 1200 AD. For the beginning of the Medieval Ages, it was similar to how it was in Greco-Roman times. People really didn't get mad or persecuting LGBTQ folks unless it was at a more individual level because it was inferring with their marriage or something like that.

However, like stated earlier around 1200 AD the Church decided to start persecuting LGBT folks under the banner of sodomy. Historians speculate that this started happening because of societal changes reflecting the rejection of the other, though it is hard to say because historians can only speculate. The Medieval punishments for LGBTQ folks were swift, often without trial, and more often than not deadly. This was often the fate of LGBTQ folks during the 1200 AD - 1400 AD, at the end of the Medieval Ages. This persecution continued well past the Middle Ages in various forms always as destructive to the health and well-being of LGBTQ people if not as deadly. We can even see echoes of this choice in today's society, and how certain subgroups of people treat LGBTQ folks with contempt and hate.

I want to make sure that I say that we at the UNC library system are accepting of all people. It doesn't matter what race, religion, sexuality, gender expression, or culture you are. We accept you and are committed to helping you in whatever way we can.

SOURCES:

(2018). Middle Ages HISTORICAL ERA. Retrieved October 8, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages

Boswell, J. (1994). Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe. New York, NY: Villard Books.

Karras, R. M. (2012). Sexuality In Medieval Europe: Doing Unto Others. New York, NY: Routledge.

Halsall, P. (1988). The Experience of Homosexuality in the Middle Ages. Retrieved October 8, 2018, from https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/gaymidages.asp

IMAGES
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by Meg McMahon

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How was homosexuality treated in medieval times?

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There is no denying that there have always been LGBTQ folks throughout history. But to understand the answer to this question we have to define the time period of the Middle Ages and understand how...

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https://www.tumblr.com/uncrcow/179114171134/how-was-homosexuality-treated-in-medieval-times

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Musical Instruments of the Middle Ages (Musical)

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Musical Instruments of the Middle Ages (Musical)

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Just some highlights of the popular and common instruments of the time! There were often precursors to instruments we have now like the psaltry which is similar to a harp. Some are instruments we still see today in specialist performances like the hurry gurdy! (AR)

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10087853/

This article talks about the beauty standards of the Medieval times. Natural beauty was a gift, and the more curves a woman had, the better. It goes into detail about the herbs and routines used in skincare at this time. -RB

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Medieval people were fairly limited in what they could do in their free time, but they still found ways to relax when they were not working. Richer individuals would often hunt for both fun and food. Furthermore, primitive versions of modern sports like football and golf were also played.

- ERC

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By Tim Lambert
In the Middle Ages, the main pastime of the upper class was still hunting. Lords hunted deer with packs of dogs and killed them with arrows. They also hunted wild boars with spears. Both men and women went hawking. In the evenings they feasted, danced, and played board games such as chess and backgammon. In the mid-15th century playing cards arrived in England.

Knights also took part in tournaments. These events drew large crowds of spectators. At them, knights fought with wooden lances, swords, or maces. This was called jousting. There were also tourneys (fights between teams). Tournaments often lasted four days. Two days were for jousting, one was for tourneys and one was for archery competitions.

In the Middle Ages, wealthy people also played board games. We are not certain where or when chess was invented. It was probably invented in India in the 6th or 7th century AD or possibly earlier. At any rate by the 10th century, it was being played in Europe.

Games similar to draughts were played by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. The Arabs played a similar game and by the 11th century, a form of draughts was being played in Europe.

Golf is believed to be a corruption of the Dutch word 'kolve', which means club. The Dutch played games with clubs in the Middle Ages but golf developed in Scotland in the 15th century. Meanwhile, the first recorded bowling green was laid out in Southampton in the 13th century.

Even for Medieval peasants life was not all hard work. People were allowed to rest on Holy Days (from which we get our word holiday). During them, poor people danced and wrestled. They also played a very rough form of football. The men from 2 villages played on a 'pitch', which might include woods and streams! There were no rules so broken limbs and other injuries were common. Furthermore in the Middle Ages, people made skates from cow's shoulder blades and went ice skating.

People also enjoyed cruel 'sports' like cockfighting and bear-baiting. (A bear was chained to a post and dogs were trained to attack it). Gambling was also common.

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Leisure in the Middle Ages - Local Histories

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A brief history of leisure, games and pastimes in Europe in the Middle Ages both of the rich and poor people

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Trumpets and horns were mainly used by nobility. But instruments such as vielle, harp, psaltery, flute, shawm, bagpipes, and drums were used by others who weren’t nobility. Secular instrumentation was known to only be used as accompaniment, not as the main show instrument.

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Musical performance - Medieval Instruments, Chant, Troubadours

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Musical performance - Medieval Instruments, Chant, Troubadours: The tradition of sung prayers and psalms extends into the shadows of early civilization. Such sacred singing was often accompanied by instruments, and its rhythmic character was marked. In the synagogue, however, the sung prayers were o…

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Rich and poor has similar styles for base clothing, but to signify wealth, bright colors, jewelry, and furs were often added to provide the ornate was associated with wealth! (AR)

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As in just about any other period of history, clothing in the Middle Ages was worn for necessity, comfort, and display. Bright colours and rich decorations made for a striking medieval wardrobe, at least among the wealthy, although there was a surprising similarity in clothes for different social classes and the sexes. More expensive items of clothing were generally distinguished not by their design but by their use of superior materials and the cut. Governments sometimes intervened in who should wear what and how much certain items were taxed while some members of the clergy, in particular, were frequently berated for looking rather too flashy and being indistinguishable from knights. Trends came and went, as today, with laces sometimes in vogue, pointed shoes became the done thing, and tunics were made ever shorter towards the end of the period when showing a little more leg was considered the height of fashion (and that was just the men).

Materials & Colours

Clothes were generally the same for all classes but with the important difference of extra decoration, more and finer materials used, and an improved cut for the wealthier. Additions of metal, jewels, and fur, or intricate embroidery also distinguished the wardrobe of the rich from that of the poor. Outer clothes were not so different between the sexes either except that those for men were shorter and the sleeves roomier. As all clothes were tailor-made, a good fit was guaranteed.

The taste for colours was the brighter the better, with crimson, blue, yellow, green & purple being popular choices in all types of clothes.

Clothing was usually made from wool, although silk and brocade items might be saved for special occasions. Outer clothing made from goat or even camel hair kept the rich warm in winter. Fur was an obvious way to improve insulation and provide decorative trimmings, the most common were rabbit, lambskin, beaver, fox, otter, squirrel, ermine, and sable (the latter three became a standard background design in medieval heraldry such was their common use). More decoration was achieved by adding tassels, fringes, feathers, and embroidered designs, while more expensive additions included precious metal stitching and buttons, pearls, and cabochons of glass or semi-precious stones. The taste for colours was the brighter the better, with crimson, blue, yellow, green and purple being the most popular choices in all types of clothes.

Underclothes

Nightwear was not much of a social indicator and did not take a whole lot of forethought as most people slept naked. After a quick wash with cold water in a basin the first thing to put on in the morning, at least for the wealthier members of society, were underclothes, usually made of linen - long-sleeved shirts and drawers for men (down to the knee or below and known as braies) and a long chemise for women.

Both sexes wore long-sleeved tunics which had either a low-cut neck or a slit down the front so they could be put on over the head and then tied at the neck, sometimes with a brooch. The tunic might go down to the knee or even the ankles in the case of more formal wear for the nobility. The longer versions were usually split up to the waist at the front and back. Most tunics were made in one colour, although they might have a different coloured lining. Decorative embroidery was most often added at the neck, cuffs and hem, less often on the upper arms or all over the garment. A 14th century CE fashion was the jupon or pourpoint, a tight tunic or jacket with padding. The jupon was fastened by buttons or laces all down the front and there were sometimes buttons running from the elbow to the wrist; sleeves sometimes reached down to the knuckles on these garments.

Outer clothes

On top of the first tunic, another tunic was worn but either without sleeves or with much baggier sleeves; it was also shorter at the waist than the undertunic. For colder weather, these top tunics were often lined with fur (then called a pelisson). A waist belt with decorative metal buckle was worn over the tunic and was the flashiest part of a man's wardrobe, very often with gold, silver, and jewelled additions.

Illustrations from the Middle Ages often show quite plain dresses with only a minimal decoration.

An alternative type of outer tunic was the tabard, cut like a poncho but with the sides closed by stitching or clasps. Heralds wore a version of the tabard with sleeves only covering the outer arms and the chest decorated with the coat of arms of the noble they represented. Once again, the 14th century CE saw a new fashion, that of the cote-hardie, a tight jacket with sleeves going only to the elbows, and buttons or laces from the neck right down to the waist (laces were especially fashionable in the 12th century CE). Tied with a belt, the part below the waist billowed out like a skirt, sometimes with a dagged hem. Over time hanging cuffs were added to the sleeves which became longer and a collar was added.

Noble women wore fine dresses, particularly at court and at such social events as the medieval tournament. In contrast to later more romantic paintings, illustrations from the Middle Ages often show quite plain dresses with only a minimal decoration. Typically of a single colour (sometimes with a different coloured lining), they are long, long-sleeved, high-cut, and close-fitting above a belted waist. Women's belts, almost ever-present in graves and illustrations, sometimes had chains hanging down (chatelaine) to which were attached small decorative objects (for working women these would have been small tools, useful for such tasks as weaving and embroidery). The most common extra decoration is a border at the cuffs and neckline. of the dress. Illustrations often show tall pointed or flat-topped hats being worn with veils hanging down, although not covering the face.

Men wore hose or long stockings of wool or linen which went up to the knee or just above it and which were secured to the belt of their drawers. Women's stockings were shorter and held up by a garter worn below the knee. Some stockings ended in a stirrup while those which fully enclosed the foot might have a leather sole added to them. Stockings might also be padded to create a fashionable pronounced point at the toes.

Cloaks & Mantles

For going out, a cloak or mantle was worn, which was typically made from a roughly circular or rectangular piece of cloth which might, too, be fur-lined. Here was another chance for a bit of jewellery as cloaks were fastened with either a chain or brooch at the neck. An alternative fastening was to pull one corner of the cloak through a hole in the other top corner and then tie a knot. A man might fasten his cloak at the left shoulder to allow his right arm to freely draw his sword. An alternative to the cloak was a great coat (garde-corps or herygourd) which stretched down to the shins or ankles and had wide sleeves gathered at the shoulder. Both cloaks and great coats might have a hood with some being fastened using a button. An entirely separate hood which also covered the shoulders was an alternative for headgear. An alternative outer garment from the 14th century CE was the houppelande, a long robe split down the sides from the waist down and with flared sleeves and a high collar.

Gloves, Hats & Footwear

Gloves were worn outdoors and might go almost up to the elbow. They also used fur lining and frequently had embroidered designs, typically a gold band. Hats were worn by everyone. At home, men wore a linen coif (close-fitting cap) which was tied under the chin and decorated with embroidered designs. Women meanwhile wore a wimple (a headdress which also covers the neck and sides of the face). Keeping on their indoor headgear, a cap or hood was worn as well when outdoors or, when travelling, a hat with a brim that could be turned up at either the back or front. Some hats had a soft and shapeless crown, others were round or had a flat top, and all types could easily be decorated with a couple of ostrich or peacock feathers. From the 14th century CE, hat bands came into fashion.

Boots, usually quite loose in fitting, were either high riding boots or low on the leg (bushkins). Shoes covering the ankle were worn out of doors, and soft slip-on slippers in one's private chambers. Shoes, made from cloth or leather, were closed via inner laces, a strap or buckle, which was another opportunity for decoration and personalisation. Footwear became increasingly pointed as the Middle Ages wore on, especially for men.

Maintenance

For the aristocracy, there was no worry over the maintenance of their wardrobe as that was done by their staff. The chamberlain was (before the role widened and became more important) responsible for his master's wardrobe which was kept folded in chests or on pegs ('perches') when not in use. Ladies had their ladies-in-waiting and maids to help them dress. Washing was done by laundresses who soaked the clothes, or at least the less delicate smalls, in tubs of water mixed with caustic soda and wood ashes, and then pounded them clean using wooden paddles.

Social Display & Control

As already mentioned, there was not such a distinction between the general style of clothes of different classes except in terms of cut and materials. Nevertheless, the distinction was a sharp one, and it was protected by the upper classes, especially when people tried to dress above their station for personal advancement. Various sumptuary laws were passed from the 13th century CE onwards which restricted the wearing of certain materials by the lower classes in order to maintain the class divisions of society. There were even limits put on the quantities of such expensive imported materials as furs and luxury cloths like silk for the same purpose. Another indicator of the relationship between clothing and social status is the fact that clothing was considered along with other items of a person's property to decide their tax obligation, but for the higher classes clothing was often left out, suggesting social display was regarded as a necessity for them and an unnecessary luxury for everyone else.

The clergy was one section of society that had more clothing restrictions than most: nuns could not wear expensive furs, and members of specific monastic orders had to wear a particular style of habit to make themselves easily identifiable. Neither could members of the secular clergy adopt certain wider fashions, notably the 13th-century CE shortening of tunics to show a little more leg or the use of too many colours in one outfit. Although there is evidence these rules were frequently ignored, the idea was to maintain the distinction between the clergy and other members of society, especially knights. There were even measures to distinguish between the faiths, and Jewish clergy, for example, had to wear two white tablets of linen or parchment on their chests from the mid-13th century CE.

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Access to clothing was also restricted in times of economic strife during wars like the Hundred Years War with France (1337-1453 CE), presumably to stop wasteful spending. At such times governments, in effect, rationed clothing so that, for example, priests might only be permitted one new robe per year and bishops three. The same rules applied to aristocratic ladies and knights who could only have one new change of outfit per year. For the staff in the employ of a local baron or castle-owner, there were differences in the cost, cloth, and colours of the clothes their lord provided them so that there were marked distinctions between such groups as the menial servants, squires, clerks, men-at-arms, and sergeants.

Clothing remained an important and easily communicated method to display rank and job title. On the battlefield, knights wore chain mail or plate armour with a dash of colour perhaps provided by a surcoat and plumed helmet, but they still had to look the part of society's ambassadors of chivalry even when at leisure. Particular robes were worn on special occasions by those with the privileged right to wear them. For example, members of particular knights orders such as the Order of the Garter could wear a fine dark blue robe with a gold collar-chain made up of knots and red roses encircled with garters. Clearly, then, there were subtle and not so subtle wardrobe distinctions, not only between certain classes but also within the same class in a continuous game of social display emphasising just who had the right and the means to wear what and when.

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As in just about any other period of history, clothing in the Middle Ages was worn for necessity, comfort, and display. Bright colours and rich decorations made for a striking medieval wardrobe, at...

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There were different kinds of education depending on when someone was attending. Grammar school was through the church and focussed on subjects such as Latin, rhetoric, Greek, and basic sciences, and it wasn't until later in time that geography and other natural sciences were added.

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Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was under the Frankish ruler Charlemagne that a concerted campaign began to offer education to the people. Beginning in the late 8th century, monasteries and cathedrals started establishing schools of their own where they would educate young boys in a variety of sciences.

Most of the secular education was concerned with classical Greek and Roman subjects while a significant section of the taught syllabi comprised religious education.

Role of Church in Medieval Education

The Church played a very significant role in medieval education. At the time of Charlemagne's ascension, the Roman heritage and culture of Western Europe had largely been forgotten. It was the Church and its bishops and monks who continued learning and teaching classical subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, and logic.

As a result, when Charlemagne sought to have his subjects educated, he had to turn to the Church. This remained the case not just in France but also elsewhere throughout Europe until at least the High Middle Ages. The Church, as the primary patron of arts and education, would remain the key institution that aided in imparting education to medieval Europe.

Medieval Education *Subjects Taught

A wide range of subjects was taught as part of education during the medieval period. In grammar schools which typically fell under a large church, subjects such as Latin, rhetoric, Greek, and basic sciences such as arithmetic were taught. Towards the later medieval period, this list included geography and a number of other natural sciences as well.

In monastic schools which were directly associated with monastic orders, a wider latitude was exercised in the choice of subjects. Such schools typically taught directly from the rich treasure-trove of Greek and Roman books, often exploring even such subjects as physics, philosophy and botany.

Medieval Education Important Facts

Education in the early medieval period was imparted and overlooked by the Church. Frankish king Charlemagne was among the first in medieval Europe to support formal education. Medieval education institutions were of three types

The first university in medieval Europe was established in Italy in 1088. Only 5% of the European population had any formal education by 1330. If a peasant or serf family attained education without the permission of the nobility, they were fined.

Medieval Universities

The establishment of universities in Europe began in the 11th century. The primary purpose of a university was to provide advanced education to those who had already attained formal education in a monastic or grammar school. Initially, universities fell under an ecclesiastical authority such as the Church, and the students, as well as teachers at the universities, enjoyed significant privileges.

A wide range of subjects was taught at the universities which included arithmetic, geometry, music theory, astronomy, rhetoric, logic, grammar, metaphysics, physics, and moral philosophy.

Once a student had attained sufficient education in these subjects, he could go on to follow a specific field such as theology or law, or medicine. Typically, he then had to spend another few years pursuing the specific literature of that field before qualifying for the practice of say, law or medicine.

Social Stratification in Medieval Education

Until the High Middle Ages, formal education for serfs or peasants was simply never considered. Education was mostly limited to the nobility or the rich and wealthy.

It was towards the late High Middle Ages that this began to change as more and more members of the nobility started to support education for the common person. Even in this period, a peasant or serf could get an education only with the permission of his lord.

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important facts about medieval education

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social stratification in medieval education

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Medieval Education | Medieval Chronicles

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Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was under the Frankish ruler Charlemagne that a concerted campaign began to offer education to the people. Beginning in the late 8th century, monasteries and cathedrals started establishing schools of their own where they would educate young boys in a variety of sciences.

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Hygiene and Sanitation in the Middle Ages (Ugly)

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Hygiene and Sanitation in the Middle Ages (Ugly)

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This article talks about several factors that played into the Bubonic Plague. Weak immune systems, lack of privacy, and waste disposal were the main contributors to the spread of disease. Up until scientific advances were prominent (late 19th century- 20th century), the disease was blamed on other minority immigrant groups instead of what was happening in their environment. (TL)

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Almost everyone used privies or chamber pots, which were emptied into open sewers that typically fed into streams, creeks, or adjacent rivers, as in the case of London and the Thames. Cities also contained public latrines and outhouses. Waste from these vehicles fed into ditches that ultimately emptied into nearby bodies of water.

Urban dwellings were constructed as primitive tenements, the upper levels extending over the lower so as to block out sunlight onto the narrow passageways below. This led to severe overcrowding and an acute lack of privacy. In most cases, beds were considered a luxury. When sickness inflicted one or more members of the "household," there was no possibility of isolation; medical care was practically non-existent.

The absence of personal hygiene and the prevalence of poor dietary habits weakened immune systems, making it impossible to physically combat disease when it struck. Most Europeans living in France, Spain, and Italy, for example, subsisted on porridge-type meals devoid of protein. Not until the 16th Century, with the Columbian Exchange and the diffusion of agricultural products like the potato from the Americas, would European life expectancy rise.

Italian historian Giulia Calvi, writing about the impact of Bubonic Plague in Italy, comments that, "...poor people attracted contagion and vice, serving as a sort of putrifying pimple where all sorts of diseases coagulated."

In addition to the town dwellers, cities attracted the homeless, beggars, abandoned children, and students denied admittance to early universities. Wanderers, known as "vagabonds," traveled from city to city.

In 1212 hundreds of children made their way to Southern France and Italy, compelled by charismatic leaders to participate in the European crusading mentality. This Children's Crusade is still a mystery and historians like the late John Boswell question whether they were truly "abandoned," but the phenomenon suggests a characteristic of medieval everyday life: many people, especially the youth, were prone to homelessness and living on the very edge of destitution.

Calvi's link between poverty and "contagion" takes on greater meaning when viewed through the actions of, for example, rootless children making their way through towns and cities while pursuing a perceived noble and sacred cause.

Disease Epidemics Linked Historically to the Wrong Causes

Not until the scientific advances of the late 19th Century and early 20th Century would urban disease and epidemic outbreaks be blamed on poor sanitation, overcrowding, and dietary considerations. In the 1830s, for example, a severe cholera outbreak in American cities was blamed on Irish immigrants. As late as the 1890s, immigrant groups were blamed for disease epidemics, linked to ethnic considerations rather than environmental realities.

Lincoln Steffens' Shame of the Cities, published in 1904, definitively explained the causes and effects of urban blight. These same reasons can be tied to the rise of European urban centers in the Middle Ages and how everyday living conditions contributed to on-going epidemics, notably the Bubonic Plague which reemerged in France well into the reign of the "Sun King," Louis XIV in the late 17th Century.

Wars such as the Thirty Years' War and attempts at early "urban renewal" beginning in the 15th Century replaced the narrow streets with wider avenues.

Napoleon Bonaparte and his French successors redesigned Paris, building sewer systems and eliminating the narrow medieval passages, albeit for political reasons: it was far more difficult to erect barricades across wide avenues. But the efforts indirectly affected urban sanitation.

It took European society centuries to transition from the unsanitary conditions of medieval towns and cities. The few remaining examples of walled towns with their picturesque passageways hardly bear witness to the noisy, stench-ridden cities of the Middle Ages, ripe for disease and premature death.

Sources:

Dominique Barthelmy and Philippe Contamine, "The Use of Privte Space," A History of Private Life II: Revelations of the Medieval World (The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1988)

Giulia Calvi, Histories of a Plague Year: The Social and the Imaginary in Baroque Florence (University of California Press, 1989)

Philip Ziegler, The Black Death (Harper & Row, 1971)

William H. McNeill, Plagues and People (Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976).

Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300-1475 (McGraw-Hill, 1992) p 482.

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Living conditions in the Middle Ages contributed to weakened immune systems that led to premature death when disease and pestilence ravaged communities. Poor hygiene and sanitation in medieval cities contributed to the spread of disease, especially the devastating plague years of the mid to late 14

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Treatment of people with disabilities (bad)

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Treatment of people with disabilities (bad)

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being disabled in the middle ages was seen as a punishment for sin, or being stuck in purgatory for eternity.

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Provision and care

There was no state provision for people with disabilities. Most lived and worked in their communities, supported by family and friends. If they couldn't work, their town or village might support them, but sometimes people resorted to begging. They were mainly cared for by monks and nuns who sheltered pilgrims and strangers as their Christian duty.

Care for sick and disabled people was based on the Church's teachings. The monks and nuns would follow the seven 'comfortable works' which involved feeding, clothing and housing the poor, visiting them when in prison or sick, offering drink to the thirsty, and burial. The seven 'spiritual works' included counsel and comfort for the sick.

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Disability in the medieval period 1050-1485 | Historic England

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There was no state provision for people with disabilities. Most lived and worked in their communities, supported by family and friends. If they couldn't work, their town or village might support them, but sometimes people resorted to begging. They were mainly cared for by monks and nuns who sheltered pilgrims and strangers as their Christian duty.

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https://wh1350.at/en/equipment/menstruation-in-medieval-times-a-practical-experiment/

Women were deemed “unclean” when their cycle came along, and there was a lot of misogyny surrounding menstruation.

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Apparently, choir books in the middle ages were quite easy to see. Singing in the choir was a major religious responsibility, so maybe optimal visibility helped minimize error. However, it has also been much easier for us to understand this notation than ancient Greek or Roman notation. (TH)

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Aleteia - Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture

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The old plainchant system was easy to read, even for the short-sighted singer.

Singing from the same hymn sheet is a figure of speech that had more meaning during the Middle Ages. At that time, the people doing the singing were members of the choir. It was a serious religious duty rather than an excuse for belting out a favorite song. Choristers in monasteries and churches needed to get it right. As song sheets were made of parchment - and very rarely paper - they were extremely expensive. Members of the choir had to sing from the same sheet, literally. This required a very large page.

Many choir books are more than three feet tall. Also making life easier for those using the page was the way that notes were written. Simpler than modern musical notation, medieval musicians used only four lines rather than the five we are used to nowadays. There are none of the complexities that ranged from breves to demisemiquavers. The old plainchant system was easy to read, even for short-sighted singers.

Thanks to the choir books, we understand medieval Christian music much better than, for example, ancient Greek or Roman notation. Scores from the classical world are almost non-existent despite the huge number of writers engaged in musical criticism at the time. Of those few scores that have survived from the ancient world, the performance is seldom a happy experience for modern listeners. The use of quarter tones creates an obstacle, although recent research at Jesus College, Oxford University, has provided a breakthrough in listening pleasure with re-created instruments and melodies. Medieval plainchant, on the other hand, consistently sounds as serene and spiritual today as it did a thousand years ago. It has been a continuous tradition in those places where the Reformation didn't destroy it. These days it is no longer sung from the same choir book.

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Medieval choirs sang from these 3-foot-tall books

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Singing from the same hymn sheet is a figure of speech that had more meaning during the Middle Ages. At that time, the people doing the singing were members of the choir. It was a serious religious duty rather than an excuse for belting out a favorite song.

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How did everyone get down during the middle ages to disperse those plague blues? Every party had live music complete with drums, recorders, and lutes, and women would even get crazy and wear ribbons and their hair. Wine was bonteous. Parties were not limited by class so every class!
-LW

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The holiday season is upon us once again, which means that it’s time to get medieval and party like there’s no fifteenth century!