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Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, (born 519? bce), Roman statesman who gained fame for his selfless devotion to the republic in times of crisis and for giving up the reins of power when the crisis was over. Although he was a historical figure, his career has been much embellished by legend.

The core of the tradition holds that in 458 Cincinnatus was appointed dictator of Rome in order to rescue a consular army that was surrounded by the Aequi on Mount Algidus. At the time of his appointment he was working a small farm. He is said to have defeated the enemy in a single day and celebrated a triumph in Rome. Cincinnatus maintained his authority only long enough to bring Rome through the emergency. He then resigned and returned to his farm. Most scholars see no factual truth in the further tradition that Cincinnatus was given a second dictatorship in 439 to check the monarchical ambitions of Spurius Maelius. Once again, he is supposed to have ceded his power after ending the crisis.

Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius Rick Dikeman

Amy Tikkanen, Corrections Manager.
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Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus | Biography & Facts

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Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, (born 519? bce), Roman statesman who gained fame for his selfless devotion to the republic in times of crisis and for giving up the reins of power when the crisis was over. Although he was a historical figure, his career has been much embellished by legend.

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Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 BCE) was perhaps the richest man in Roman history and in his eventful life he experienced both great successes and severe disappointments. His vast wealth and sharp political…

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Life: 159-121 BC

After the violent death of Tiberius Gracchus, the Gracchus family wasn't finished yet. Gaius Gracchus, a flamboyant and powerful public speaker, was to be a far more formidable political force than his brother.

The legacy of Tiberius Gracchus, the agrarian law, was being applied in a manner that created a fresh grievance among the allied regions of Italy. M.Fulvius Flaccus, one of the political supporters of Tiberius, suggested granting them Roman citizenship as compensation for any disadvantages they should suffer from agrarian reform. This naturally was not popular, as the people holding Roman citizenship sought to keep it as exclusive as possible.

To get rid of Flaccus, the senate sent him off as consul to Gaul to protect the Roman allies of Massilia, who had appealed for help against the aggressive Celtic tribes. (The result of Flaccus operations should be the conquest of Gallia Narbonensis.) But while Flaccus was absent, Gaius Gracchus, having finished his term of office as quaestor in Sardinia, returned to Rome to take the place of his brother. Being now some thirty years of age, nine years after his brother's murder, Gaius Gracchus was elected to the tribunate in 123 BC. Flaccus now also returned in triumph from his Gallic victories.

Gracchus' Reforms

The program initiated by the younger Gracchus was wider in scope and much more far-reaching than that of his brother. His reforms were wide-ranging and designed to benefit all interests, except of course those of Gracchus' old enemies, - the senate. He reaffirmed his brother's land laws and established smallholdings in Roman territory abroad.

The new Sempronian Laws extended the operation of the agrarian laws and created new colonies. One of these new colonies was to be the first Roman colony outside of Italy, - on the old site of the destroyed city of Carthage. The first of a series of open bribes to the voters was to enact legislation by which the population of Rome was to be provided with corn at half price.

The next measure struck straight at the power of the Senate. Now, members of the equestrian class should hold judgment in court cases over provincial governors accused of wrong-doings. It was a clear reduction in senatorial power as it restricted their power over the governors. Yet further favor was granted to the equestrian class by awarding them the right to contract for the collecting of the enormous taxes due from the newly created province of Asia. Further, Gaius initiated and forced through huge expenditures on public works, such as roads and harbors, which once more mainly benefited the equestrian business community.

Tribune of the People

In 122 BC Gaius Gracchus was re-elected unopposed as 'Tribune of the People'. Being that it had cost his brother his life to stand again for this office, it is remarkable to see how Gaius could remain in office without any major occurrence.

It appears that Gaius did not, in fact, stand again for the office of 'Tribune of the People. He was far more reappointed by the popular assemblies, as the Roman commoners saw him as the champion of their cause. Moreover, Flaccus was also elected as Tribune, granting the two political allies almost absolute power over Rome.

Gaius' most visionary piece of legislation, however, was too far ahead of its time and failed to get passed even in the comitia tributa. The idea had been to grant all Latins full Roman citizenship and to bestow upon all Italians the rights so far enjoyed by the Latins (trade and intermarriage with Romans).

When Gaius Gracchus in 121 BC stood for yet another term as Tribune, the senate conspired to put forward their own candidate, M. Livius Drusus, with an entirely false program which was by its very nature simply designed to be yet more populist than anything Gracchus proposed. This populist assault on Gracchus' standing as a champion of the people, together with the loss of popularity resulting from the failed proposal to extend Roman citizenship and wild rumors and superstitions of curses circulating after a visit to Carthage by Gaius, led to his losing the vote for his third term in office.

Demonstrations and Usurpation

Gaius Gracchus' supporters, led by no lesser than Flaccus, held an angry mass demonstration on the Aventine Hill. However, some of them made the fatal mistake of carrying weapons.

The consul Lucius Opimius now proceeded to the Aventine Hill to restore order. Not merely did he possess the high authority of his consular office, but he also was backed by a senatus consultum optimum, which was the order of the highest authority known to the Roman constitution. The order demanded him to take action against anyone endangering the stability of the Roman state. The bearing of weapons by some of Gracchus' supporters was all the excuse Opimius needed. And there was little doubt that Opimius sought to bring about the end of Gaius Gracchus that night, for he was, in fact, the most prominent - and most bitter - rival of Gracchus and Flaccus.

What followed on the arrival of Opimius with a militia, legionary infantry, and archers on the Aventine hill was, in effect, a massacre. Gaius, realizing the situation was hopeless, ordered his personal slave to stab him to death. Following the massacre, another 3'000 of Gracchus' supporters are believed to have been arrested, taken to jail, and strangled.

Post-effects of Gaius Death

The brief emergence and demise of Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius Gracchus onto the scene of Roman politics should send shock waves through the entire structure of the Roman state - waves of such magnitude that their effects would be felt for generations. One believes that around the time of the Gracchus brothers, Rome began to think in terms of political right and left, dividing the two factions into optimates and populares.

However questionable their political tactics at times were, the brothers Gracchus were to show a fundamental flaw in the way Roman society was conducting itself. Running an army with fewer and fewer conscripts to oversee an expanding empire was not sustainable. And the creation of ever greater numbers of urban poor was a threat to the stability of Rome itself.

People Also Ask:

What was Gaius Gracchus known for?

He is most famous for his tribunate for the years 123 and 122 BC, in which he proposed a wide set of laws, including laws to establish colonies outside of Italy, engage in further land reform, reform the judicial system and system for provincial assignments, and create a subsidized grain supply for Rome.

How long did Gaius Gracchus rule?

Read a brief summary of this topic. Gaius Gracchus (born 160-153? BCE- died 121 BCE, Grove of Furrina, near Rome) was a Roman tribune (123-122 BCE), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility.

What did Gaius Gracchus promise?

Before Gracchus departed to plant his colonies, he proposed to fulfill his promises to the Italians. The bill promised full citizenship to all Latins (including the thirty "Latin" colonies) and Latin rights to all other Italians. This was in the spirit of the great statesmen of the fourth century.

When was Gracchus assassinated?

The elder brother, Tiberius Gracchus, was assassinated by a group of senators (led by his cousin, who was Pontifex Maximus) when he tried to implement his plan as Tribune of the People (133 B.C.)

Who is Gracchus in Spartacus?

123-21 BCE - Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (the younger brother of Tiberius) was elected tribune for two successive years; through the Assembly, he increased the power of the equestrian class at the expense of the senators. He also attempted sweeping economic reforms.

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Gaius Gracchus 159-121 BC - A Roman Tribune, Great Reformer

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The program initiated bynGaius Gracchus was wider in scope and much more far-reaching than that of his brother.

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Tiberius, as well as his brother, Gaius Gracchus, notable figures in Roman history, became renowned for their vigorous efforts to support the lower classes of Rome. Their actions and policies marked a significant shift towards advocating for the rights and welfare of the common people.

Tiberius Gracchus - A Pleb

Tiberius Gracchus was not a plebeian (pleb) but a member of the Roman nobility. Born around 163 BC into the Gracchi family, which was part of the patrician class, he was far from a commoner. His father, Tiberius Gracchus the Elder, was a prominent figure in Roman politics, holding the esteemed position of consul, one of the highest offices in the Roman Republic. This role placed him at the pinnacle of Roman political and social life, affording him and his family considerable influence and prestige. Tiberius Gracchus the Elder was also a noted senator, actively involved in the governance and decision-making processes of the Republic, further elevating the family's status in Roman society.

Tiberius's mother, Cornelia Africana, added to the family's distinguished heritage. She was the daughter of Scipio Africanus, the legendary Roman general renowned for his victory over Hannibal in the Second Punic War. Cornelia herself was a celebrated figure, known for her intelligence, virtue, and the excellent education she provided to her children. She was often regarded as the epitome of Roman womanhood, and her influence on Tiberius was profound, instilling in him the values and ideals of the Roman upper class.

READ MORE: Roman Women: Mothers, Daughters, Priestesses, and Augustas

Growing up in such an illustrious family, Tiberius Gracchus was afforded the privileges of the Roman elite. His education would have been among the best available, encompassing not only the study of literature, philosophy, and rhetoric but also training in military and political strategy. This education was designed to prepare him for a life of public service and leadership, in keeping with the expectations of his class.

Furthermore, Tiberius's early life was marked by exposure to the highest echelons of Roman society and politics. He would have been familiar with the workings of the Senate from a young age, accompanying his father to important political events and meetings. This upbringing not only provided him with a deep understanding of Roman politics and governance but also gave him insights into the challenges and issues facing the Republic.

Despite this aristocratic upbringing, Tiberius Gracchus's adult life took a turn that was atypical of his class. His decision to advocate for the plebeians, particularly through his land reforms, was a significant departure from his patrician roots. This decision suggests that his early experiences and education may have instilled in him a sense of responsibility towards the broader Roman society, not just the elite. His upbringing, thus, while steeped in the traditions and privileges of the Roman nobility, did not confine his perspectives and actions. Instead, it provided a platform from which he could understand and address the inequities within Roman society, making his later advocacy for the plebeians all the more remarkable.

Tiberius Gracchus and Punic Wars

Tiberius Gracchus' military career and experience in the Third Punic War significantly shaped his perspective and future political ambitions. In this conflict, he displayed remarkable bravery and leadership, notably being the first man over the wall at Carthage. This act of valor not only showcased his military prowess but also his commitment to the Roman cause, earning him considerable respect and recognition, eventually leading to his election as quaestor.

Following the Third Punic War, Tiberius' involvement in the Numantine War further demonstrated his skills, particularly in diplomacy and negotiation. The Roman army, under the command of Hostilius Mancinus, found itself in a precarious situation, surrounded and facing potential annihilation. In these dire circumstances, Tiberius Gracchus emerged as a key negotiator. His adept negotiation skills led to a treaty that saved the lives of 20,000 Roman soldiers and thousands more among the auxiliary units and camp followers. This feat further elevated his status as a leader who valued the lives of his men, prioritizing their safety over a potentially pyrrhic victory.

However, the treaty negotiated by Tiberius was not received favorably by the Roman Senate, which considered it dishonorable. The Senate's reaction to this treaty exposed a growing rift between Tiberius and the traditional ruling class of Rome. The Senate's disdain for the treaty was evident in their treatment of Mancinus, who was arrested, put in irons, and handed over to the enemy, a clear indication of their displeasure.

Tiberius' brother-in-law, Scipio Aemilianus, intervened to prevent further indignities to the general staff, including Tiberius. This intervention by Scipio, a respected and influential figure, provided a temporary shield for Tiberius from the immediate backlash of the Senate. However, the incident at Numantia was a critical moment in Tiberius' career, deepening his understanding of the Senate's priorities and possibly influencing his later political actions.

However, it was during the Numantine War that Tiberius' perspectives began to shift significantly. Faced with the dire situation of the Roman army, he negotiated a treaty that saved thousands of lives, displaying not only his negotiation skills but also a deep concern for the welfare of Roman soldiers. This concern extended beyond the battlefield, as he witnessed the consequences of war on the common Roman citizens, particularly the soldiers who returned to find their lands taken over by wealthy aristocrats.

The Senate 's rejection of the peace treaty he negotiated in Numantia, and their treatment of the commander Hostilius Mancinus, further alienated Tiberius from the senatorial class. This experience exposed him to the Senate's often harsh and uncompromising stance, which seemed disconnected from the needs and well-being of the common people.

Reform Under Tiberius Gracchus

Upon his return to Rome, Tiberius found a society grappling with economic challenges and social inequalities. The plight of landless Italian farm workers, compounded by the rise of slave labor and the monopolization of land by wealthy landowners, struck a chord with him. His family's status in the Roman nobility gave him a unique insight into the workings of power and the imbalances present in Roman society. This insight, combined with his experiences in the military, formed the basis of his empathy towards the lower classes and his desire for reform.

Tiberius witnessed the struggles of plebeians who aspired for office and social recognition. They, along with the urban poor and landless country dwellers, formed a significant portion of the Roman populace whose voices were often unheard in the political arena dominated by the nobility. Tiberius, despite his patrician background, found a common cause with these marginalized groups. His interactions with them likely deepened his understanding of the systemic issues plaguing Roman society.

The economic distress of the common people, particularly in rural areas, was exacerbated by the shift towards large-scale agricultural estates using slave labor. This shift not only displaced many small farmers but also threatened the traditional Roman values that emphasized the importance of the citizen farmer in the Republic. The growing reliance on slaves for labor also led to a decrease in the number of citizens eligible for military service, as land ownership was a prerequisite for enlistment.

These societal issues were not just economic but also deeply political. The concentration of land and wealth in the hands of a few powerful families ran contrary to the Roman ideals of shared prosperity and citizen rights. Tiberius, with his understanding of both the noble and common perspectives, saw an opportunity to address these disparities through legislative reforms.

His decision to run for the tribunate in 133 BC was thus a culmination of his personal experiences, his observations of societal injustices, and his desire to implement change. Tiberius' platform of land reform and his subsequent election to the tribunate were driven by a combination of economic, social, and moral considerations, setting the stage for the significant reforms and tumultuous events that would follow in his political career.

When Gracchus won the election to the tribunate in 133 BC he had probably no intention of starting a revolution. His aim was largely economic. Long before his rise to fame, the plebeians who wanted office and social recognition had made common cause with the urban poor and the landless country dwellers.

Was the plight of landless Italian farm workers hard enough, it was now further endangered by the rise of slave labor, by which rich landowners now sought to maintain their vast estates. It could indeed be suggested that those very estates had been acquired against the rule of law. The law according to which the peasantry should have shared in the land.

As any projects of reform that would touch their own wealth or power would naturally be opposed by the nobles, Tiberius' ideas of land reform should win him few friends in the senate.

Tiberius brought forward a bill to the Concilium plebis for the creation of allotments mostly out of the large area of public land which the republic had acquired after the Second Punic War.

Those currently living on the land would be restricted to what had for some time been the legal limit of ownership (500 acres plus 250 acres for each of up to two sons; i.e. 1000 acres), and would be compensated by being granted a hereditary rent-free lease.

This was a significant political package at a time of general unrest and expansion abroad. It also restored to the list of those eligible for military service (for which a tradition of qualification was the possession of land) a section of society that had fallen out of the reckoning. After all, Rome needed soldiers. Leading jurists of the day confirmed that his intentions were indeed legal.

But however reasonable some of his arguments might have been, Gracchus with his contempt for the senate, his flagrant populism and political brinkmanship, heralded a change in the nature of Roman politics. The stakes were getting ever higher, things were becoming more brutal. Rome's well-being seemed more and more to be a secondary factor in the great contest of egos and boundless ambition.

Also, the passions whipped up during Tiberius' and Gaius' brief time in office is largely seen as having led to the following period of social strife and civil war. Gracchus' bill was unsurprisingly supported by the popular assembly. But the other Tribune of the people, Octavius, used his powers to overrule the law.

Gracchus now replied by applying his own veto as Tribune to every sort of action by government, in effect bringing the rule of Rome to a standstill. Rome's government was to deal with his bill before any other matter should be dealt with. Such was his intention. At the next assembly, he reintroduced his bill. Once again there was no doubt of its success in the assembly, but once again Octavius vetoed it.

At the next assembly, Gracchus proposed that Octavius should be deposed from office. This was not within the Roman constitution, but the assembly voted for it nonetheless. Tiberius' agrarian bill was then voted on once again and became law.

Three commissioners were appointed to administer the scheme; Tiberius himself, his younger brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, and Appius Claudius Pulcher, 'leader' of the senate - and Tiberius' father-in-law.
The commission began work at once and some 75'000 smallholdings may have been created and handed to farmers.

As the commission began to run out of money Tiberius proposed to the popular assemblies to simply use the available funds from the kingdom of Pergamum, which Rome had recently acquired. The Senate was in no mood to be outwitted again, particularly not on matters of finance. It unwillingly passed the proposal. But Tiberius was not making any friends. Particularly as the deposition of Octavius was a revolution if not a coup d'état. Under the given conditions Gracchus could have introduced any law on his own, given popular support. It was a clear challenge to the Senate's authority.

So too, hostile feelings against Gracchus arose, when rich, influential men discovered that the new law may deprive them of land they saw as their own. In such hostile conditions, it was distinctly possible that Gracchus was in danger of prosecution in the courts as well as assassination. He knew it and therefore realized that he had to be re-elected to enjoy the immunity of public office. But the laws of Rome were clear that no man was to hold office without interval. His candidacy was in effect illegal.

The senate failed in an attempt to bar him from standing again, but a group of enraged senators, led by his hostile cousin Scipio Nasica, charged into an election rally of Tiberius', broke it up, and, alas, clubbed him to death.

Nasica had to flee the country and died at Pergamum. On the other hand, some of Gracchus' supporters were punished by positively illegal methods, too. Scipio Aemilianus on his return from Spain was now called upon to save the state. He probably was in sympathy with the real aims of Tiberius Gracchus but detested his methods. But to reform Rome it would need a man of less scruples and perhaps less honour. One morning Scipio was found dead in his bed, believed to have been murdered by the supporters of Gracchus (129 BC).

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Roman brothers known for their influential and controversial roles in enacting social and political reforms during the Roman Republic. Their actions and tragic fates had a lasting impact on Roman politics and society.

Tiberius Gracchus, as a tribune of the plebs in 133 BC, initiated significant land reforms with the Lex Sempronia Agraria. This law aimed to redistribute public land to the poor, limiting the amount of land that could be held by the wealthy and reallocating the excess to landless Romans. His reforms sparked fierce opposition from the Roman Senate and the wealthy elite. Tiberius's methods, such as seeking re-election as tribune against the norms, escalated political tensions. His career ended violently in 133 BC when he was killed by a group of senators and their followers. His death was an important moment in Roman history, marking one of the first instances of organized political violence in the Republic.

Following in his brother's footsteps, Gaius Gracchus became a tribune of the plebs in 123 BC. He introduced a broader range of reforms, including further land redistribution, grain subsidies for the poor, and significant legal reforms. Gaius also proposed military and colonial policies, such as extending Roman citizenship and founding new colonies, both in Italy and overseas, to address overpopulation and unemployment in Rome. However, like his brother, Gaius' reforms and actions generated hostility from the Senate and conservative factions. His political career ended in turmoil, and he took his own life in 121 BC after facing defeat and the likelihood of execution.

The Gracchi brothers are often regarded as early populists who challenged the established order of the Roman Republic. Their efforts to reform land ownership and empower the lower classes set a precedent for future political conflicts between the Senate and popular leaders. Their deaths are viewed as significant events that contributed to the eventual decline of the Roman Republic.

Tiberius' Assassination

Tiberius Gracchus' assassination was a direct result of the intense political conflict and turmoil that arose from his ambitious reformist agenda, particularly his proposal for land reforms. This event marked a significant and violent turn in Roman politics, reflecting deep societal divisions.

At the heart of the conflict were Tiberius' land reforms, encapsulated in the Lex Sempronia Agraria, which aimed to redistribute public land to the poor. This proposal posed a direct threat to the interests of the wealthy and powerful, especially the senatorial class, who owned extensive estates and benefited greatly from the status quo. Tiberius' reforms challenged the economic foundations of the Roman elite, leading to significant opposition from these powerful groups.

Adding to the tension, Tiberius' political methods were seen as radical and a departure from Roman norms. His decision to seek re-election as tribune, contrary to the established political conventions, alongside his earlier move to depose another tribune who opposed his reforms, were viewed as aggressive and potentially destabilizing actions. These tactics not only intensified his conflict with the Senate but also raised fears among some that he was amassing too much power, potentially threatening the Republic's foundations.

The opposition to Tiberius culminated in a violent confrontation. The situation escalated when Tiberius and his supporters clashed with a group of senators and their followers. In the chaos that ensued, Tiberius was killed. This assassination was not merely a personal tragedy but a crucial moment in Roman history. It was the first instance of such political violence in the Roman Republic, setting a dangerous precedent for future conflicts and signaling the deepening of social and political divisions within Roman society. The death of Tiberius Gracchus thus symbolized the fragility of the Roman political system and the growing unrest among its citizenry.

Tiberius Gracchus: Pioneer of the People

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, important figures in Roman history, significantly championed the lower classes through reforms, especially in land redistribution. Their actions challenged the elite, leading to strong opposition. Tiberius' assassination, driven by his revolutionary reforms and political approach, marked a critical juncture in Roman history, emphasizing growing internal conflicts. Their legacy underlines their influence on Roman society, foreshadowing future political turmoil and contributing to the Roman Republic's decline.

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Tiberius Gracchus: Life, Work, Death, and More! | History Cooperative

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Explore the impactful story of Tiberius Gracchus, a Roman reformer who fought for the people. Discover his life, work, and legacy. Read more now!

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Table of Contents

How did Spartacus become famous?

How did Spartacus influence the world?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Spartacus, (died 71 bce), leader in the Gladiatorial War (73-71 bce) against Rome.

A Thracian by birth, Spartacus served in the Roman army, perhaps deserted, led bandit raids, and was caught and sold as a slave. With about 70 fellow gladiators he escaped a gladiatorial training school at Capua in 73 and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius, where other runaway slaves joined the band. After defeating two Roman forces in succession, the rebels overran most of southern Italy. Ultimately their numbers grew to at least 90,000. Spartacus defeated the two consuls for the year 72 and fought his way northward toward the Alps, hoping to be able to disperse his soldiers to their homelands once they were outside Italy. When his men refused to leave Italy, he returned to Lucania and sought to cross his forces over to Sicily but was thwarted by the new Roman commander sent against him, Marcus Licinius Crassus. Hemmed in by Crassus's eight legions, Spartacus's army divided. The Gauls and Germans were defeated first, and Spartacus himself ultimately fell fighting in pitched battle. Pompey's army intercepted and killed many slaves who were escaping northward, and 6,000 prisoners were crucified by Crassus along the Appian Way.

Heroes, Rebels, and Killers

Spartacus was apparently both competent and humane, although the revolt he led inspired terror throughout Italy. Although his uprising was not an attempt at social revolution, his name has frequently been invoked by revolutionaries such as Adam Weishaupt in the late 18th century and Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and the other members of the German Spartacus League of 1916-19.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy McKenna.

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Spartacus, (died 71 bce), leader in the Gladiatorial War (73-71 bce) against Rome. A Thracian by birth, Spartacus served in the Roman army, perhaps deserted, led bandit raids, and was caught and sold as a slave. With about 70 fellow gladiators he escaped a gladiatorial training school at Capua in 73 and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius, where other runaway slaves joined the band.

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Marcus Tullius Tiro (died c. 4 BC) was first a slave, then a freedman of Cicero. He is frequently mentioned in Cicero's letters. After Cicero's death he published his former master's collected works. He also wrote a considerable number of books himself, and possibly invented an early form of shorthand.

The date of Tiro's birth is uncertain. Jerome dates it to 103 BC, which would make him only a little younger than Cicero. However, he was probably born considerably later than that: Cicero refers to him as an "excellent young man" ( adulescentem probum) in 50 BC.

It is possible that Tiro was born a slave in Cicero's household in Arpinum and came with his family to Rome. However we do not know for sure that he was a verna (homegrown slave). Cicero refers to Tiro frequently in his letters. His duties included taking dictation, deciphering Cicero's handwriting and managing his table, as well as his garden and financial affairs. Cicero remarks on how useful he is to him in his work and studies.

He was freed in 53 BC and accompanied Cicero to Cilicia during Cicero's governorship there, although he was frequently separated from his patron due to poor health, and many of Cicero's letters refer with concern to his illnesses.

After Cicero's death Tiro bought an estate near Puteoli, where Jerome says he died in 4 BC at the age of ninety-nine.

He is believed to have collected and published Cicero's work after his death, and, it seems, was a prolific writer himself: several ancient writers refer to works of Tiro, now lost. Aulus Gellius says, " [he] wrote several books on the usage and theory of the Latin language and on miscellaneous questions of various kinds," and quotes him on the difference between Greek and Latin names for certain stars. Asconius Pedianus, in his commentaries on Cicero's speeches, refers to a biography of Cicero by Tiro in at least four books, and Plutarch refers to him as a source for two incidents in Cicero's life.

He is credited with inventing the shorthand system of Tironian notes, later used by Medieval monks, among others. There is no clear evidence that he did, although Plutarch credits Cicero's clerks as the first Romans to record speeches in shorthand.

Tiro appears as a recurring character in Steven Saylor's Roma Sub Rosa crime fiction series, where he occupies the role of sometime sidekick to Saylor's investigator hero, Gordianus the Finder.

He is the first-person narrator in the three books of Robert Harris's biographical-fiction trilogy of Cicero: Imperium (2006), Lustrum (2009, published in the US as Conspirata), and Dictator (2015).

Tiro appears in several books in the SPQR series by John Maddox Roberts.

Tiro (spelled Tyro) appears in the television historical drama Rome, played by Clive Riche in the episodes "Son of Hades", "These Being the Words of Marcus Tullius Cicero", "Heroes of the Republic", and "Philippi". This version of Tiro appears to be older than Cicero, and is only freed in Cicero's will.

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Marcus Tullius Tiro - Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia

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Marcus Tullius Tiro (died c. 4 BC) was first a slave, then a freedman of Cicero. He is frequently mentioned in Cicero's letters. After Cicero's death he published his former master's collected works. He also wrote a considerable number of books himself, and possibly invented an early form of shortha

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John P.V. Dacre Balsdon See All • Edit History

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Cicero | Biography, Philosophy, Writings, Books, Death, & Facts

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Cicero, in full Marcus Tullius Cicero, (born 106 bce, Arpinum, Latium [now Arpino, Italy]—died December 7, 43 bce, Formiae, Latium [now Formia]), Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer who vainly tried to uphold republican principles in the final civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic.…

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Seneca, in full Lucius Annaeus Seneca, byname Seneca the Younger, (born c. 4 bce, Corduba (now Córdoba), Spain-died 65 ce, Rome [Italy]), Roman philosopher, statesman, orator, and tragedian. He was Rome's leading intellectual figure in the mid-1st century ce and was virtual ruler with his friends of the Roman world between 54 and 62, during the first phase of the emperor Nero 's reign.

Early life and family

Seneca was the second son of a wealthy family. His father, Seneca (Seneca the Elder), had been famous in Rome as a teacher of rhetoric. His mother, Helvia, was of excellent character and education. His elder brother was Gallio, who met St. Paul the Apostle in Achaea in 52 ce, and his younger brother was the father of the poet Lucan. An aunt took young Seneca as a boy to Rome, and there he was trained as an orator and educated in philosophy in the school of the Sextii, which blended Stoicism with an ascetic Neo-Pythagoreanism. Seneca's health suffered, and he went to recuperate in Egypt, where his aunt lived with her husband, the prefect, Gaius Galerius. Returning to Rome about the year 31, he began a career in politics and law. Soon he fell foul of the emperor Caligula, who was deterred from killing him only by the argument that his life was sure to be short.

In 41 the emperor Claudius banished Seneca to Corsica on a charge of adultery with the princess Julia Livilla, the emperor's niece. In that uncongenial milieu he studied natural science and philosophy and wrote the three treatises entitled Consolationes ( Consolations). The influence of Julia Agrippina, the emperor's wife, had him recalled to Rome in 49. He became praetor in 50, married Pompeia Paulina, a wealthy woman, built up a powerful group of friends, including the new prefect of the guard, Sextus Afranius Burrus, and became tutor to the future emperor Nero.

The murder of Claudius in 54 pushed Seneca and Burrus to the top. Their friends held the great army commands on the German and Parthian frontiers. Nero's first public speech, drafted by Seneca, promised liberty for the Senate and an end to the influence of freedmen and women. Agrippina, Nero's mother, was resolved that her influence should continue, and there were other powerful enemies. But Seneca and Burrus, although provincials from Spain and Gaul, understood the problems of the Roman world. They introduced fiscal and judicial reforms and fostered a more humane attitude toward slaves. Their nominee Corbulo defeated the Parthians; in Britain a more enlightened administration followed the quashing of Queen Boudicca 's rebellion.

But, as the historian Tacitus said, "Nothing in human affairs is more unstable and precarious than power unsupported by its own strength." Seneca and Burrus were a tyrant's favourites. In 59 they had to condone-or to contrive-the murder of Agrippina. When Burrus died in 62, Seneca knew that he could not go on. He withdrew from public life, and in his remaining years he wrote some of his best philosophical works. In 65 Seneca's enemies denounced him as having been a party to the conspiracy of Piso to murder Nero. Ordered to commit suicide, he met death with fortitude and composure.

Philosophical works and tragedies

The Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii (Pumpkinification of the Divine Claudius) stands apart from the rest of Seneca's surviving works. A political skit, witty and unscrupulous, it has as its theme the deification-or "pumpkinification"-of the emperor. The rest divide into philosophical works and the tragedies. The former expound an eclectic version of middle Stoicism, adapted for the Roman market by Panaetius of Rhodes (2nd century bce) and developed by his compatriot Poseidonius in the 1st century bce. Poseidonius lies behind the books on natural science, Naturales quaestiones ( Natural Questions), where lofty generalities on the investigation of nature are offset by a jejune exposition of the facts. Of the Consolationes, Ad Marciam ( To Marcia) consoles a lady on the loss of a son; Ad Helviam matrem ( To Mother Helvia), Seneca's mother on his exile; and Ad Polybium ( To Polybius), a powerful freedman on the loss of a son but with a sycophantic plea for recall from Corsica. The De ira ( On Anger) deals at length with the passion, its consequences, and control. The De clementia (On Mercy), an exhortatory address to Nero, commends mercy as the sovereign quality for a Roman emperor. De tranquillitate animi ( On Mental Tranquility), De constantia sapientis ( On the Steadfastness of the Wise Man), De vita beata ( On the Happy Life), and De otio ( On Leisure) consider various aspects of the life and qualities of the Stoic philosopher. De beneficiis ( On Favours) is a diffuse treatment of benefits as seen by giver and recipient. De brevitate vitae ( On the Brevity of Life) demonstrates that the human span is long enough if time is properly employed-which it seldom is. Best written and most compelling are the Ad Lucilium epistulae morales (Moral Letters to Lucilius). Those 124 brilliant essays treat a range of moral problems not easily reduced to a single formula.

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Of the 10 " Senecan" tragedies, Octavia is certainly, and Hercules Oetaeus is probably, spurious. The others handle familiar Greek tragic themes, with some originality of detail. Attempts to arrange them as a schematic treatment of Stoic "vices" seem too subtle. Intended for play readings rather than public presentation, the pitch is a high monotone, emphasizing the lurid and the supernatural. There are impressive set speeches and choral passages, but the characters are static, and they rant. The principal representatives of classical tragedy known to the Renaissance world, these plays had a great influence, notably in England. William Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus, John Webster's The Duchess of Malfi, and Cyril Tourneur's Revengers Tragaedie, with their ghosts, witches, cruel tyrants, and dominant theme of vengeance, are the progeny of Seneca's tragedies.

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Seneca, in full Lucius Annaeus Seneca, byname Seneca the Younger, (born c. 4 bce, Corduba (now Córdoba), Spain-died 65 ce, Rome [Italy]), Roman philosopher, statesman, orator, and tragedian. He was Rome's leading intellectual figure in the mid-1st century ce and was virtual ruler with his friends of the Roman world between 54 and 62, during the first phase of the emperor Nero's reign.

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Livia Drusilla (born January 30, 58 bc-died ad 29) Caesar Augustus's devoted and influential wife who counseled him on affairs of state and who, in her efforts to secure the imperial succession for her son Tiberius, was reputed to have caused the deaths of many of his rivals, including Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, and Germanicus.

Her father was Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, an adoptive son of the tribune of 91, Marcus Livius Drusus. She married her cousin Tiberius Claudius Nero and in 42 bore him Tiberius, the future emperor. She was still pregnant with her second son, Nero Claudius Drusus, when early in 38, Octavian (later Augustus) arranged for her to divorce Nero and marry him. Her second marriage was childless. After the death of Augustus (Aug. 19, ad 14), she was adopted in his will and assumed the name Julia Augusta; she played a major role in the cult of the deified Augustus.

Livia's power and ambition proved embarrassing to Tiberius after his accession. He forbade her to accept certain honours and even refused to carry out the terms of her will. She was, however, deified (42) by her grandson Claudius. Surviving portraiture confirms her reputation for dignified beauty.

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Livia Drusilla | Roman Empress, Empress of Rome, Wife of Augustus

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Livia Drusilla Caesar Augustus's devoted and influential wife who counseled him on affairs of state and who, in her efforts to secure the imperial succession for her son Tiberius, was reputed to have caused the deaths of many of his rivals, including Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Gaius and Lucius

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Julia Agrippina or Agrippina the Younger (6 November 15 - 19/23 March 59 CE) was a prominent woman during the early Roman Empire, niece to Tiberius (r. 14-37 CE) and Claudius (41-54 CE), whom she married…

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Scipio Africanus | Biography, Battles, & Facts

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Scipio Africanus, Roman general noted for his victory over the Carthaginian leader Hannibal in the great Battle of Zama (202 BCE), ending the Second Punic War. For his victory he won the surname Africanus. Learn more about his life and military career in this article.

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Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, (born 63 ?-died March, 12 bc, Campania [Italy]), powerful deputy of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. He was chiefly responsible for the victory over Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 bc, and during Augustus' reign he suppressed rebellions, founded colonies, and administered various parts of the Roman Empire. Of modest birth but not a modest man, Agrippa was disliked by the Roman aristocracy. In his own interest he scrupulously maintained a subordinate role in relation to Augustus, but he felt himself inferior to no one else.

Virtually nothing is known of his early life until he is found as the companion of Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) at Apollonia, in Illyria, at the time of Julius Caesar's murder in 44. Octavian, the adopted son of Caesar, returned with Agrippa to Italy to make his political claim as Caesar's heir. In 43 Agrippa is thought to have held the office of tribune of the plebs; presumably in this capacity he prosecuted the tyrannicide Cassius, then absent in the East.

In the struggle for power after Julius Caesar's death, Agrippa served as one of Octavian's key military commanders. In 41-40 he fought against Mark Antony's brother Lucius. In 40 he held the post of praetor urbanus (magistrate mainly in charge of administration of justice at Rome) and was a major figure in negotiating a settlement between Octavian and Antony at Brundisium. During the next two years he was away on campaigns in Aquitania and on the Rhine River. When he returned to Italy, he conspicuously refused to celebrate a triumph for his successes in the north, but in 37 he held the office of consul. In the spring of 37 Octavian and Antony came to an agreement at Tarentum, and it must have been then that Antony arranged the marriage of Agrippa to the daughter of Titus Atticus, a wealthy friend of Cicero.

Octavian's efforts to resist at sea the son of the republican general Gnaeus Pompey, Sextus Pompeius, had not met with success. Agrippa therefore took charge of the operations. He constructed a fine harbour at Puteoli in the Bay of Naples and then won, in 36, two decisive naval victories (at Mylae and Naulochus), ending the threat from Pompeius. For this achievement Agrippa was awarded a golden crown. In 35-34 Octavian waged a vigorous campaign in Dalmatia, and in this Agrippa had a distinguished military role. In 33 Agrippa served as curule aedile (magistrate of public buildings and works) at Rome, even though it was a much lower post than the consulate that he had already held. He used the opportunity to win favour for Octavian by spending his own funds lavishly on building baths, cleaning sewers, and improving the water supply. When Octavian and Antony finally came into direct conflict at the Battle of Actium in 31, Agrippa commanded the fleet and was primarily responsible for Octavian's victory.

During Octavian's absence from Rome after Actium, Agrippa managed affairs in the city together with Maecenas, the great patron of poets. In 29-28 Agrippa and Octavian jointly conducted a census and carried out a purge of the Senate; in 28 and 27 Agrippa held the consulate again, both times with Octavian (from 27, Augustus) as his colleague. In 23, a year of constitutional crisis, Augustus fell ill and presented his signet ring to Agrippa, who seemed thus to be designated the emperor's successor. Agrippa took Augustus' daughter Julia as his wife after divorcing a niece of Augustus (Marcella the Elder), who had replaced Atticus' daughter as his wife some four or five years previously.

Agrippa went immediately to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, from which he administered affairs in the East. The nature of Agrippa's constitutional power ( imperium) at this time is controversial. It has been argued whether the Senate in 23 gave him an imperium greater than that of any other provincial governor in the East ( imperium majus). After Augustus' death Roman historians claimed that Agrippa's sojourn at Mytilene was a kind of exile as a result of Augustus' preference for his own nephew Marcellus. This appears implausible. Agrippa was soon back in Rome to act on behalf of the emperor, who himself left for the East in 22. Before Augustus' return, in 19, Agrippa had left for Gaul and Spain. In Spain he finally subdued the recalcitrant Cantabrians.

Returning to Rome in 18, Agrippa received the power of a tribune ( tribunicia potestas), which Augustus also possessed. Perhaps, too, he received an imperium majus, if he had not been granted it in 23. He participated in Augustus' celebration of the Secular Games at Rome in 17, after which he returned to the East as vicegerent of the emperor. In 15 he accepted an invitation from Herod I the Great to visit Judaea; while in the East, he established colonies of veterans at Berytus and Heliopolis, in Lebanon. He next settled an uprising in the Bosporan kingdom on the Black Sea and set up the cultivated dynast Polemo as king. Herod led a fleet to support Agrippa in the Bosporan affair, and, when it was over, the two traveled together along the coast of western Asia Minor.

In 13 Agrippa's tribunicia potestas was renewed, and at this time without doubt he received (or had renewed) a grant of imperium majus. Troubles in Pannonia required his presence, but the rigours of the winter of 13-12 caused a fatal illness; he died in March of 12 bc. Augustus delivered a funeral oration in honour of his colleague; a fragment of that oration, in Greek translation, has recently come to light.

Agrippa deserved the honours Augustus heaped upon him. It is conceivable that without Agrippa, Octavian would never have become emperor. Rome remembered him for his generosity in attending to aqueducts, sewers, and baths; and in the mid-20s he completed the celebrated Pantheon. One of Agrippa's five children by Julia, Agrippina the Elder, was the mother of one emperor (Caligula) and the grandmother of another (Nero). Agrippa's autobiography is lost, but an extensive geographical commentary that he wrote influenced the extant works of the geographer Strabo and of Pliny the Elder.

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Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, (born 63 bc?-died March, 12 bc, Campania [Italy]), powerful deputy of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. He was chiefly responsible for the victory over Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 bc, and during Augustus' reign he suppressed rebellions, founded colonies, and administered various parts of the Roman Empire.

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Augustus Caesar (27 BCE - 14 CE) was the name of the first and, by most accounts, greatest Roman emperor. Augustus was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus on 23 September 63 BCE. Octavian was adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, and then took the name Gaius Julius Caesar. In 27 BCE the Senate awarded him the honorific Augustus ("the illustrious one"), and he was then known as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus.

Owing to the many names the man went by in his life, it is common to call him Octavius when referring to events between 63 and 44 BCE, Octavian when referring to events between 44 and 27 BCE, and Augustus regarding events from 27 BCE to his death in 14 CE. It should be noted, however, that Octavian himself, between the years 44 and 27 BCE, never went by that name, choosing instead to align himself closely with his great uncle by carrying the same name; a decision which prompted Mark Antony's famous accusation, as recorded by Cicero: "You, boy, owe everything to your name".

Augustus, Mark Antony & Lepidus

Having cleansed Rome of the 'bad blood' of their opposition, the Second Triumvirate then turned their attention to Caesar's assassins.

After Julius Caesar's assassination in March of 44 BCE, Octavian allied himself with Caesar's close friend and relative, Mark Antony. Together with another supporter of Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Antony and Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate in October of 43 BCE. Their first order of business seems to have been the systematic killing of any political rivals and supporters of Caesar's assassins. Exactly which of the three was most responsible for the killings is disputed by ancient and modern writers alike with some claiming Octavian innocent and others ascribing to him the most bloodshed. Having cleansed Rome of the 'bad blood' of their opposition, the Second Triumvirate then turned their attention to Caesar's assassins. At the Battle of Phillipi in October 42 BCE, the forces of Brutus and Cassius were defeated by those of the Second Triumvirate forcing both assassins to kill themselves.

Between 38 and 36 BCE, Octavian and Lepidus battled Sextus Pompeius (son of Pompey Magnus, Julius Caesar's great rival) for rule of Rome with Antony lending aid from Egypt. The Second Triumvirate was victorious over Pompeius, and Lepidus, glorying in the triumph and confident of his strength, insulted Octavian by ordering him to leave Sicily, the theatre of operations, with his troops. Octavian, however, offered Lepidus' troops more money than Lepidus could pay and his army defected to Octavian. Lepidus was stripped of all his titles save Pontifex Maximus and the Second Triumvirate came to an end.

Augustus, Antony & Cleopatra

During this time, however, relations between Octavian and Mark Antony began to deteriorate. In 40 BCE, in an effort to solidify their alliance, Octavian had given his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony. Antony, though, had allied himself closely with Cleopatra VII of Egypt (the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of his son Caesarion) and, in fact, had become her lover. Octavian charged that Antony had misused his sister when Antony divorced Octavia in favor of Cleopatra in 33 BCE which prompted Antony to write Octavian, "What's upset you? Because I go to bed with Cleopatra? But she's my wife and I've been doing so for nine years, not just recently. Does it really matter where, or with what women, you get your excitement?"

To Octavian, Antony's behavior in the east, both in private, politically and militarily, was intolerable. He forced the priestesses of the temple of Vesta in Rome to surrender Antony's will and had it read in the Roman Senate. The will gave away Roman territories to Antony's sons and contained directions for a great mausoleum to be built in Alexandria for Antony and Cleopatra, among other stipulations which Octavian felt threatened the grandeur of Rome and branded Antony a renegade.

Among the worst of Antony's offenses was his declaration that Caesarion was the true heir of Julius Caesar, not Octavian. The Senate revoked Antony's consulship and declared war on Cleopatra VII. At the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BCE Octavian's forces, under the general Marcus Agrippa, defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra, scattered them (many had already defected to Octavian's side before the battle) and pursued the survivors until 1 August 30 BCE when, after the loss of Alexandria, Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves. Octavian had Caesarion strangled (stating that "two Caesars are one too many") and Antony's eldest son executed as a possible threat to Rome.

Octavian was now the supreme ruler of Rome and all its territories but, in order to keep from making the same mistake his adoptive father had of seeming to covet power, Octavian was careful to characterize all of his political stratagems as being for the good of the Roman Republic. In January of 27 BCE, Octavian resigned his powers humbly only to receive them back from the grateful Senate who also bestowed upon him the title Augustus. Octavian was careful not to refer to himself by that title at any time in public, simply calling himself ' Princeps', or, First Citizen. So carefully did Octavian play the political game in Rome that his claims to restoration of the Republic seemed in earnest, even when he gained supreme power, giving him absolute control over Rome and its colonies.

Popular already with the soldiers of his army, the title Augustus solidified his power in the provinces as Imperator.

Augustus as Emperor

Popular already with the soldiers of his army, the title Augustus solidified his power in the provinces as Imperator, or commander-in-chief (from which the English word 'emperor' is derived). The month of August was named in his honor. In the year 19 BCE, he was given Imperium Maius (supreme power) over every province in the Roman Empire and, from that time on, Augustus Caesar ruled supremely, the first emperor of Rome and the measure by which all later emperors would be judged. By 2 BCE Augustus was declared Pater Patriae, the father of his country.

The era of Augustus' reign was a golden age in every respect. The peace which Augustus restored and kept (the ) caused the economy, the arts and agriculture to flourish. An ambitious building program was initiated in which Augustus completed the plans made by Julius Caesar and then continued on with his own grand designs. In his famous inscription Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) he claims to have restored or built 82 temples in one year. The famous public Roman baths were constructed under Augustus by his second-in-command, Agrippa, and the poet Virgil composed his epic the . Augustus took great personal concern in the arts and was a personal patron of many artists.

He passed many sweeping reforms as well as laws to maintain stability in marriage and to raise the birth rate in Rome, making adultery illegal, offering tax incentives to families with over three children and penalties for childless marriages. So strictly did Augustus himself adhere to his laws that he banished his own daughter, Julia, and his granddaughter, for adultery.

Death

Augustus died at Nola in 14 CE. His official last words were, "I found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble" which aptly describes Augustus' achievements during his reign as emperor. According to his wife Livia Drusilla and his adopted son Tiberius (r. 14-37 CE), however, his last words were actually, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit."

Augustus' body was brought back to Rome, and on the day of the funeral, all businesses in Rome closed out of respect for the emperor. He was succeeded by Tiberius who he had adopted in 4 CE and who read the eulogy (along with his own son, Drusus) at Augustus' famously grand funeral. The emperor's body was cremated and his ashes interred in his mausoleum. Augustus' death was mourned as the loss of a great ruler of immense talent and vision, and he was proclaimed a god among the host of the Roman pantheon.

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Augustus Caesar (27 BCE - 14 CE) was the name of the first and, by most accounts, greatest Roman emperor. Augustus was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus on 23 September 63 BCE. Octavian was adopted by his...

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Nero | Biography, Claudius, Rome, Burning, Fate, Accomplishments, & Facts

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Nero, fifth Roman emperor, the emperor Claudius’s stepson and heir, who became infamous for his personal debaucheries and extravagances and, on doubtful evidence, for his burning of Rome and persecutions of Christians. Learn more about the life of Nero here.

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Publius Clodius Pulcher (born c. 93 bc-died January, 52 bc, Bovillae, Latium [Italy]) was a disruptive politician, head of a band of political thugs, and bitter enemy of Cicero in late republican Rome.

Born into two distinguished families, Clodius served under his brother-in-law L. Lucullus in the war against Mithradates and instigated a mutiny among the troops in the winter of 68-67. In December 62, when the winter ceremony of the Bona Dea (from which men were excluded) was celebrated in the house of Julius Caesar, a man believed to be Clodius was discovered disguised as a female harpist among the participants. Charged with incestum he was tried before the Senate. Caesar divorced his wife in suspicion that she had admitted Clodius to the ceremony. Clodius maintained he had been at Interamna, 90 miles (145 km) from Rome, on the day in question, but Cicero, who abused the defendant intemperately, presented evidence to the contrary. Clodius was acquitted, perhaps because the jury had been bribed, but immediately began to devise ways to revenge himself on Cicero.

In 59, Clodius was adopted into a plebeian family and elected tribune for 58. He put an end to such unprincipled obstruction of public business on religious grounds as Bibulus had practiced in 59 and reenacted a series of laws forbidding execution of a Roman citizen without trial. Cicero, the intended target of the latter measures, had in December 63 put to death without trial the associates of the conspirator Catiline. The orator thereupon fled from Rome to avoid prosecution, and Clodius managed, with a second act, to have him outlawed. In the following two years Clodius worked for Caesar to ensure that Pompey did not abandon his political alliance with Caesar to side with the Optimates. Clodius then became the political rival in Rome of the Optimate tribune T. Annius Milo, who helped to have Cicero recalled from exile in 57. The conflicting gangs, partisans of Milo and of Clodius, kept the city in turmoil for several years and prevented elections of officials. Clodius was killed by Milo after a running fight on the Appian Way.

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

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Publius Clodius Pulcher | Patrician Family, Roman Tribunes & Plebeian Rights

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Publius Clodius Pulcher was a disruptive politician, head of a band of political thugs, and bitter enemy of Cicero in late republican Rome. Born into two distinguished families, Clodius served under his brother-in-law L. Lucullus in the war against Mithradates and instigated a mutiny among the

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Gaius Maecenas (born c. 70 -died 8 bc) was a Roman diplomat, counsellor to the Roman emperor Augustus, and wealthy patron of such poets as Virgil and Horace. He was criticized by Seneca for his luxurious way of life.

The birthplace of Maecenas is unrecorded, but his mother's family, the Cilnii, had lorded it centuries earlier in Arretium (modern Arezzo, about 90 miles [145 km] north of Rome), and this was apparently also the hometown of his father's family. Tacitus (in Annals) once calls him Cilnius Maecenas (Etruscans used the mother's family name), but officially he was Gaius Maecenas. His great wealth may have been partly inherited, but he owed his position and influence to Octavian, later the emperor Augustus. Maecenas felt that, though a knight (slightly humbler than a senator but basically a nonpolitical member of the privileged class), his lineage and power overtopped any senator's, and he refused a career as one.

He was perhaps present at Philippi (the battle, in 42 bc, in which Antony, at first an ally of Octavian, defeated Caesar's assassins Cassius and Brutus), though if he was there it was hardly as a combatant. As a counsellor he negotiated two years later the short-lived marriage of Octavian and Scribonia, designed to conciliate her kinsman the formidable Sextus Pompeius, last of the great republican generals. Before the year's end he had secured greater advantages for his leader: a treaty had ended the dangerous armed confrontation with Antony at Brundisium (modern Brindisi), and Antony had married Octavia, Octavian's sister. In 38-37 he persuaded Antony to come to Tarentum (modern Taranto) and lend the warships that Octavian needed to win complete control of the West. Maecenas administered Rome and Italy, while Octavian fought Pompeius (36) and Antony (31). Although holding no office or military command, he swiftly and secretly scotched a plot to kill Octavian on his return from the East and executed its supposed leader, the son of the triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. If not on this occasion, at least in general, Maecenas kept his hands unstained by bloodshed and, in an age of ruthless violence, won praise for his mildness and humanity.

During Octavian's continued absence from Rome, Maecenas shared with Agrippa (Octavian's executive lieutenant) the position of informal vice-regent. He could use Octavian's seal and even alter his dispatches at will and continued to be deeply involved with foreign and domestic affairs after Octavian, now Augustus, had established his principate (27). He was the most trusted of advisers, holding his own in competition with the Agrippa faction.

Maecenas shared Augustus' dynastic hopes and worked for the eventual succession of Marcellus, the emperor's nephew. Meanwhile, Maecenas had recently married the beautiful, petulant Terentia. Her brother by adoption, Varro Murena, quarreled with Augustus, was disgraced, and plotted his assassination. The conspiracy was detected and Murena executed (23), though Maecenas had earlier revealed the plot's discovery to Terentia, thus giving his kinsman a chance to escape. Augustus forgave the indiscretion, but from that point on Maecenas' influence waned. Agrippa had emerged from the crises of 23 as co-regent, son-in-law, and Augustus' prospective successor. Maecenas had become a sick man, aging rapidly, though in 17 he was still sufficiently buoyant to mock Agrippa because the latter lacked a pedigree.

The domestic life of Maecenas was unhappy. Terentia tired of him and is said to have become Augustus' mistress. Maecenas died childless and left all his wealth, including his palace and gardens on the Esquiline Hill (the eastern plateau of Rome), to Augustus, with whom he had never ceased to be on friendly terms.

Maecenas impressed ancient writers by the contrast between the great energy and ability he showed in public life and the luxurious habits he flaunted as a courtier. His character as a generous patron of literature has made his name a personification of such activities. His patronage was exercised with a political object: he sought to use the genius of the poets of the day to glorify the new imperial regime of Augustus. The diversion of Virgil and Horace toward themes of public interest may be ascribed to him, and he endeavoured less successfully to do the same thing with Sextus Propertius. The relationship between Maecenas and his circle is largely a matter of conjecture, but he and Horace were certainly personal friends. It has fallen to the lot of no other patron of literature to have his name associated with works of such lasting importance as the Georgics of Virgil, as well as Horace's Satires 1, Epodes, Odes (books 1-3), Epistles (book 1), and Propertius (book 2).

Maecenas himself wrote both prose and verse, but only fragments survive. His prose works on various subjects were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca, and Quintilian for their undisciplined style. They include a dialogue, Symposium (or Dinner Party), in which Virgil and Horace participated.

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Gaius Maecenas | Roman Diplomat, Patron & Poet

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Gaius Maecenas was a Roman diplomat, counsellor to the Roman emperor Augustus, and wealthy patron of such poets as Virgil and Horace. He was criticized by Seneca for his luxurious way of life. The birthplace of Maecenas is unrecorded, but his mother's family, the Cilnii, had lorded it centuries

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What makes this person significant within their social group?

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What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?

# data[].attributes.body
What makes this person significant within their social group?

How did this individual impact Ancient Roman society?

What aspects of this person’s life or contributions are most interesting to you?