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c. 3500-539 BCE: Mesopotamian Civilization

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c. 3500-539 BCE: Mesopotamian Civilization

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Known as the 'Cradle of Civilization,' Mesopotamia emerged between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq. This civilization gave us the first cities, writing system (cuneiform), laws (Code of Hammurabi), and the wheel. Major cities included Ur, Babylon, and Nineveh.

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c. 3100-30 BCE: Ancient Egyptian Civilization

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c. 3100-30 BCE: Ancient Egyptian Civilization

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Along the life-giving Nile River, ancient Egypt flourished for over 3,000 years. Famous for the pyramids, mummies, hieroglyphics, and powerful pharaohs like Tutankhamun and Cleopatra. Their innovations in medicine, mathematics, and engineering continue to amaze us today.

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c. 2600-1900 BCE: Indus Valley Civilization

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c. 2600-1900 BCE: Indus Valley Civilization

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One of the world's earliest urban civilizations, the Indus Valley people built advanced cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in present-day Pakistan and India. They had sophisticated drainage systems, standardized weights and measures, and a mysterious script that remains undeciphered.

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c. 2070 BCE-1644 CE: Ancient Chinese Civilization

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c. 2070 BCE-1644 CE: Ancient Chinese Civilization

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Beginning with the Xia Dynasty, ancient China developed along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. This civilization gave the world paper, gunpowder, the compass, silk, and the Great Wall. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven influenced Chinese politics for millennia.

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c. 800-146 BCE: Ancient Greek Civilization

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c. 800-146 BCE: Ancient Greek Civilization

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The birthplace of democracy, philosophy, theater, and the Olympic Games. Ancient Greece, centered around city-states like Athens and Sparta, produced great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Their influence on Western civilization in politics, art, and science is immeasurable.

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From a small city-state to a vast empire spanning three continents, Rome dominated the ancient world for over 1,000 years. Romans excelled in engineering (aqueducts, roads), law, military tactics, and administration. Their legal system still influences modern law today.

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In the tropical rainforests of Central America, the Maya built magnificent cities like Tikal and Chichen Itza. They were master astronomers, mathematicians (invented the concept of zero), and created one of the world's most accurate calendars. Their hieroglyphic writing system was highly sophisticated.

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High in the Andes Mountains, the Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Centered at Cusco, they built incredible stone structures like Machu Picchu without using wheels or iron tools. Their road system connected the vast empire across challenging mountain terrain.

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At its height under Cyrus the Great and Darius I, the Persian Empire was the largest the world had ever seen, stretching from India to Greece. Known for their tolerance of local customs and the impressive Royal Road, they connected diverse cultures across three continents from their capital at Persepolis.