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This political map showcases the boundaries between Pakistan's Azad Kashmir and India's Jammu and Kashmir region. 

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Jammu and Kashmir (India & Pakistan)

Who?

PPP (Pakistan People’s Party) and India’s Union Government.

What?

The Jammu and Kashmir conflict is a dispute between the Pakistani and Indian governments over political control of a region of Kashmir.

When?

The issue began in 1947 after the Partition and is greatly due to British colonialism. The Partition post-colonialism created a Muslim majority in Pakistan’s region and a Hindu majority in India’s region, which only escalated the issue of regional control in Kashmir.

Why (there)?

The dispute is happening in Kashmir because of its proximity to both India and Pakistan. Since both regions have ethnic majorities residing in the area, they believe they should have political control over the entire region.

How?

Multiple wars have been fought along the border of the Line of Control (LoC), with cross-border firing and military activity barricading parts of the region. The intensity of the situation has caused many Kashmiris to want independence from both nations.

A brief timeline of events:

1947 - The end of British rule in the Indian subcontinent, with the partition between a Muslim-majority Pakistan and a Hindu-majority India. The Maharaja of Kashmir signs an accession treaty with India after a Pakistani tribal war breaks out. Political tensions rise between Pakistani and Indian control over the region.

1948 - The United Nations Security Council through Resolution 47, calls for the withdrawal of Pakistani troops from the Kashmir region and the limitation of Indian military influence. A ceasefire happens, but Pakistan refuses to withdraw troops from the area.

1957 - The Indian constitution includes Jammu and Kashmir as part of India.

1971/72 - Another war is fought between India and Pakistan, with Pakistan being defeated. The war ends in the 1972 Simla Agreement, which creates the line of ceasefire in Kashmir into the LoC (Line of Control).

1980s - Pakistan makes many attempts to gain control of the land, which is only met with more warfare from India.

1990s - India establishes military bases in the region to consolidate control.

2001/2004 - People begin protesting against the Indian government to advocate for developing a relationship with the Pakistani government. These protests are met with violence.

2013 - After several civilian casualties, Prime ministers of both countries agree to meet to resolve the issue. However, India then backed out of the agreement because they believed Pakistan was using Kashmir to wage a proxy war against India.

2016 - Thousands of Kashmiris in the Pakistan-controlled area evacuate due to the extensive firing across the LoC.

2021 - Conflict persists and India strips Kashmir of all autonomy.

What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

The concept of sovereignty prolonged the conflict beyond the Partition in 1947. Since both Pakistan and India had ethnic majorities residing in the region, they both believed they had the right to govern their controlled area. Even when a compromise was being discussed, the issue concerning political sovereignty remained.

How do people go about fighting for territory (soft vs. hard power)?

Soft power comes into play through treaties and peace agreements being discussed, especially after multiple civilian casualties. However, these tactics to gain territory have not been fruitful, considering India's reluctance to accept Pakistan's power over the region. Hard power would refer to the coercion used through border firing over the LoC and the establishment of Indian military bases in the region to consolidate power.

2 Connections to other units:

This conflict relates to the migration unit because thousands of Kashmiris are being forced to evacuate their homes due to war acting as a push factor.

This conflict also relates to the culture unit because the conflict is between two diverse cultures. The Indians are Hindus and speak mainly Hindi, while the Pakistani majority is Muslim and speaks Urdu. The complex differences between the two cultures are also the reason why it is difficult to resolve.

3 Additional Questions:

Would a two-state solution be an effective solution considering Kashmir already houses two ethnic majorities?

How is the government helping prevent civilian casualties from increasing beyond that of past years?

Will India's Prime minister ever meet Pakistan's Prime minister to resolve the issue?

Links to websites:

https://sri.org.pk/timeline-of-kashmir-conflict-from-1947-to-2021/

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078

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This is a political map highlighting the refugee camps within urban areas in the Gaza Strip. The map also showcases the high risk area at the border between Gaza and Israel, with border crossings at Egypt. 

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Golan Heights / Gaza Strip / West Bank (Israel & Palestine)

Who?

Zionist Israeli government and Hamas-led Palestinian militant groups.

What?

The conflict in the Gaza Strip is a continuation of a prolonged period of war between Israel and Palestine over territorial control of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.

When?

Israel first established itself as a state in 1948 by ethnically cleansing Palestinians and expelling 750,000 Palestinians from their homeland. When Israel claimed statehood in Palestine, many Arab countries came to fight for the Palestinians and their land, which resulted in Israel’s control of about 78 percent of the region compared to 22 percent under the Egyptian and Jordanian governments. This trend of ethnic cleansing continued, despite major pushback from other Arab nations and the United Nations, and is an ongoing war today.

Why (there)?

The Gaza Strip was previously inhabited by Jewish communities for 300 years during the Middle Ages, but was then conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century after the Crusades. Modern-day Zionists believe that they have a historical claim over Palestinian land due to evidence of their people living in the area.

How?

Israel is taking over the Gaza Strip by bombing civilians, destroying their homes, forcing them to flee across the Strip, and cutting off access to necessities like food and medical care. Hamas, a Palestinian resistance group, has tried retaliating and capturing Israeli hostages, but due to the recent killing of their operational leader, Yahya Sinwar, the Palestinians do not have a stable defense against the Zionist regime.

Brief timeline of events:

1947 - A UN Resolution proposed by Israel details plans to create a separate Jewish and Arab state by partitioning Palestine. The Arabs disagreed with the resolution, which created political tensions and started the warfare.

1948 - Israel ethnically cleansed out Palestinians from their homelands and took control over the majority of the region. Egypt and Jordan interfered in the war and established governmental control over the remaining Palestinian-owned territory.

1956 - The Suez Crisis happened, which was Israel, Britain, and France’s attempt at invading Egypt after President Gamal Abdel Nassar nationalized the Suez Canal. They were forced to withdraw due to UN interference.

1964 - Palestine creates the Palestinian Liberation Organization (LBO) at the Arab League Summit in Cairo, Egypt. The organization was created to establish a sense of Palestinian statehood and defense against Israel.

1973 - Egypt and Syria attacked Israel on Yom Kippur, which resulted in Israel withdrawing from the Sinai Peninsula.

1987 - The First Intifada was a period of Palestinian resistance through protests and civil disobedience.

1994 - Israel and Jordan establish a peace treaty in which they both recognize each other’s statehood.

2000-2005 - The Second Intifada took place at Masjid Al-Aqsa, which was characterized by intense protests, suicide bombings, and confrontations between both sides.

2005 - Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip due to major pushback from the Intifada.

2007 - Hamas takes control of the Gaza Strip.

2020 - President Trump proposes a two-state solution amidst ongoing warfare.

October 7, 2023 to Present - Hamas attacks Israel and kills 1,200 people. Israel responds by killing hundreds of thousands of Palestinians and destroying all parts of their lives and Gaza’s infrastructure.

What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

How do people go about fighting for territory (soft vs. hard power)?

The concept of sovereignty instigated and is prolonging the conflict because both states believe that they have territorial control over the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Israel first occupied Palestinian land because of their belief that their ancestors lived and therefore owned rights to the land, while Palestine argues that they have a right to their ancestral homeland as well. They are arguing over this dispute through full-fledged warfare and resistance.

How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Geography shapes how and why people fight over territory due to the significance of its history and the present benefits associated with the consolidation of power. Territorial gain has always been a sign of a country’s political and military strength, and by engaging in war to gain territory, both sides of the conflict are trying to assert their political dominance.

2 Connections to other units:

This conflict relates to the migration unit because the consequence of the war is Palestinians fleeing from war-affected areas as refugees and gaining asylum in neighboring countries. Mass migration trends are following the onset of the conflict, especially considering Israel’s history of ethnically cleansing and pushing Palestinians out of their homeland.

This conflict also relates to population unit because as the war continues, populations are alarmingly decreasing in the Gaza Strip due to bombings and mass killings, but also due to a lack of medical supplies to accommodate sick people and pregnant women. As the population of working-class young people decreases, it will take a significant toll on the dependency ratio.

3 Additional Questions:

Is a two-state solution an effective resolution to the conflict?

How will disparities in population growth affect future demographics?

To what extent are international countries responsible for providing aid to refugees?

Links to websites:

https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/6/4/the-naksa-how-israel-occupied-the-whole-of-palestine-in-1967

https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/06/israel-occupation-50-years-of-dispossession/

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This is a dot map of the Strait of Hormuz, that connects Gulf countries through oil imports. The dots signify the number of oil tankers and other vessels being transported across the Strait, making it an invaluable asset to foreign trade. 

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Strait of Hormuz

Who?

The Iranian government and the United States.

What?

The Strait of Hormuz is a global checkpoint for the passage of oil from Gulf countries, meaning that it transports about one-fifth of the world’s crude oil supply through its passage. Iran borders the Strait and therefore is dependent on the revenue generated by the passage of the oil.

When?

In April 2019, Iran threatened to cut off the waterway in response to President Trump’s decision to end sanction waivers on the importation of Iranian oil. This action affected Iran’s ability to profit from the Strait and caused political tensions between both states.

Why (there)?

The Strait of Hormuz is between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and is located near Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. Due to oil being a sought-after commodity in the Middle East, the Strait plays a huge role in transporting and distributing the oil. Iran's threatening to close off the Strait due to the United States' policies for more naval autonomy could threaten global oil distribution, and oil prices would skyrocket.

How?

The United States has seized oil tanks and established a military presence to maintain oil flow. There has also been a history of attacks on Saudi and Emirati vessels and military confrontations between the United States and Iran.

Brief timeline of events:

1979 - Post-Iranian Revolution, tensions surrounding control of the Strait of Hormuz pose a threat to the United States.

1987 - The US destroys Iranian oil platforms after an Iranian missile injured 18 Americans on a US oil tanker.

1988 - The US destroys two more platforms after 10 American sailors were injured due to a mine explosion. The US believes that Iran is using oil platforms to attack shipping through the Strait, which Iran denies.

1988 - Operation Praying Mantis is carried out by the US in the Persian Gulf, sinking two Iranian warships and six speedboats during the confrontation.

2007  - The US sends two aircraft carriers and 100 jets to the Gulf to establish a military presence amidst Iran’s threats of closing down the Strait.

How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

In the case of the Strait of Hormuz conflict, geography is shaping why people fight over territory due to the economic factors associated with the location of the Strait. Since it is between states with control of oil distribution, the Strait plays a significant role in the globalized effort to consolidate power based on oil upheaval.

How do people go about fighting for territory (soft vs. hard power)?

In this case, the US and Iran went about fighting for territory through the use of hard power. This references the idea that both sides utilized military coercion to defend themselves, with the US attacking Iranian warships and Iran using mine explosions to injure American sailors.

2 Connections to other units:

This conflict directly relates to the Industry and Development unit, specifically about free trade and the relationship between the US and Iran, according to Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory. Since the Strait of Hormuz promotes free trade between Gulf countries and core countries, Iran's incentive to blockade the Strait poses a threat to such global freedom of acquiring oil. The United States is a core country, according to Wallerstein's theory, meaning that it profits off of periphery or underdeveloped countries like Iran.

3 Additional Questions:

How will other core countries that profit off of the Strait of Hormuz react to a blockade initiated by Iran?

How will global oil prices fluctuate as a result of the conflict?

How does Iran plan to gain profit off of the Strait if President Trump goes through with his sanction waiver policy?

Links to websites:

https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/strait-hormuz-us-iran-maritime-flash-point?fbclid=IwAR3kRbJ8F7DPrj2enee9zsmUpxfhnJzE6CgRUkPBJpIL5F3difs4rPV3n38

https://time.com/5632388/strait-of-hormuz-iran-tanker/

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Moroccan Western Sahara Wall, Morocco، Mauritania

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This map showcases Sahrawi women protesting against the Moroccan and Algerian conflict. They are holding up the flag of the Western Sahara and are advocating for an independent state. 

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Moroccan Western Sahara Wall, Morocco، Mauritania

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Moroccan Western Sahara Wall, Morocco، Mauritania

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Western Sahara (Morocco & Algeria)

Who?

The Kingdom of Morocco and the Polisario Algerian government.

What?

The conflict is over disputed territory in the Western Sahara following prior Spanish colonization.

When?

In 1975, when Spain withdrew from the Western Sahara territory, Morocco and Mauritania established the Madrid Accords. This action was a violation of the policies instated by the International Court of Justice (IOJ), which did not recognize the Madrid Accords as a state. In 1976, the Polisario Front was given official recognition and statehood under the name Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) but was controlled by the Algerian government.

Why (there)?

The Western Sahara region is located on the western border of Morocco, and Algeria borders the eastern border of Morocco. Since the region is in the state of Morocco, The Kingdom of Morocco believes it has full authority over the territory compared to Algeria’s out-of-state control.

How?

In response to the establishment of the SADR, Moroccan forces annexed the Western Sahara territory and built a military infrastructure consisting of mined and patrolled regions. By 1991, Morocco controlled two-thirds of the Western Sahara territory, which led the United Nations to propose a meeting about giving the Western Sahara territory complete independence or the unification of Moroccan and Algerian forces.

A brief timeline of events:

1975 - Spain gives the Western Sahara territory to Morocco and Mauritania under the Madrid Accord.

1976 - Morocco annexed the territory but the SADR is established as a state in the region. Both sides begin fighting over political control of the Western Sahara.

1979 - Mauritania gives up their part of the region to Morocco and withdraws from the conflict.

1982 - The SADR is admitted into the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

1984 - Morocco withdraws from the OAU in protest of the SADR being recognized as a state.

1988 - Both countries came to a UN-based settlement proposal which allowed the people of the Western Sahara to choose between becoming an independent state or joining forces with Morocco.

1996 - The identification process through which the settlement would go through and statehood would be claimed is canceled.

2001 - James Baker, the United States Secretary of State, proposes a new settlement through which Morocco controls the Western Sahara territory while the Sahrawi people living in the region have control over local issues. Morocco accepts the settlement but Polisario denies it.

2002 - Baker introduces another proposal that gives the Sahrawi people 4 to 5 years to choose whether to join forces with Morocco or become an independent nation. The Polisario agrees to the proposal and Morocco rejects it.

2004 - Baker resigns from his position in resettling the issues with the Western Sahara.

2007 - Both countries meet in Manhasset, outside of New York, to discuss settlement offers. Both sides do not go through with an official agreement. Morocco refuses to give full independence to the territory.

Present - The US recognizes the Western Sahara as a part of Morocco under President Trump’s administration.

How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

In the case of the Western Sahara conflict, land is shaping how and why people fight over territory because of its history rooted in colonization. The Western Sahara territory has a history of Spanish colonization, and when Spain seceded from the region, it created issues with territorial control.

How do people go about fighting for territory (soft vs. hard power)?

The Moroccans and Algerian forces went about fighting for territory through hard power, as seen through Morocco’s forceful annexation into the Western Sahara territory and persistence for political control through military entrapments. Additionally, both sides of the conflict are enlisting the help of the United Nations and forming other organizations to coerce each other into settling on their proposal.

2 Connections to other units:

This connects to the unit about migration because people in the Western Sahara region are forced to migrate due to the escalation of political conflict. The Sahrawi people of Western Sahara have been displaced from their homes and are currently living in Algerian refugee camps. Additionally, this pattern of migration relates to Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration because these migrants are moving short distances from rural areas.

3 Additional Questions:

Would it be more effective for the dispute to be handled by a country other than the United States?

To what extent are international countries responsible for providing aid and resettlement proposals to mitigate the conflict?

Will the refugees in Algeria ever be able to return home if Morocco’s proposal of political sovereignty over the region is reached?

Links to websites:

https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/western-sahara.php

https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-polisario-front-morocco-and-the-western-sahara-conflict/

https://padlet.com/aizat2_1/political-power-territoriality-rtyb9b7dihwnkmet

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This image shows the Takeshima / Dokdo Islands among the Liancourt Rock region between Japan and Korea. The islands are uninhabited but were once used for fishing by both states. 

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Takeshima / Dokdo Islands (Japan & Korea)

Who?

South Korea and Japan.

What?

The Takeshima/Dokdo Islands are in the Sea of Japan and are being controlled by the South Korean government. However, Japan believes it also has political authority over the region, which only contributes to the political dispute over territory. Takeshima is the Japanese name and Dokdo is the South Korean name for the islands.

When?

In 1696, Japan recognized Dokdo as a South Korean territory after an issue involving South Korean and Japanese fishermen. However, in 1905, Japan annexed the Takeshima Islands territory. After WWII, South Korea regained political control over the Dokdo Islands and still claims it to be an integral part of its history.

Why (there)?

The Takeshima/Dokdo Islands are located midway between South Korea and Japan. Although the islands do not have any inhabitants, both countries feel strongly about their political control of the area because of their history. Japan believes that the islands belong to it because the Tokugawa Shogunate granted it authority to cross over the sea in 1618. However, South Korea believes that Japan’s annexation of the region was illegal and in violation of their territorial claim.

How?

Both countries are engaging in political and legal warfare rather than armed conflict. The territory serves as a fishing ground as well, which only further escalates the rising tensions between Japanese and Korean fishermen based on legality. Japan is teaching Japanese school children that the Takeshima Islands were always a part of Japanese history, while South Korea opened a museum highlighting their political control over the Dokdo Islands and other territories.

Brief timeline of events:

1905 - Japan annexed the Dokdo Islands.

1910 - Japan colonized Korea entirely, and Koreans were forced to live under Japanese laws and regulations for 35 years. The Koreans suffered several abuses by the Japanese government during WWII, ranging from pro-Korean independence seekers being executed to Korean men being forced to work as laborers.

1954 - South Korea claimed control over the territory, which the Japanese government labeled as illegal.

2005 - The Shimane region in Japan creates a ‘Takeshima Day,” which is met with aggressive protests from South Koreans. South Koreans begin protesting outside of Japanese embassies, burning Japanese flags and holding up posters.

2008 - Japan’s education system begins indoctrinating Japanese schoolchildren to believe their version of the conflict. South Korea responds by recalling their ambassador to Tokyo.

2012 - Lee Myung-bak becomes the first South Korean president to visit the Dokdo Islands. Japan responds by recalling its ambassador to Seoul.

Present - Conflict persists.

What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

The concept of sovereignty has prolonged the conflict because both states believe that they have historical and cultural ties to the land. Both countries use the Takeshima/Dokdo Islands as a symbol of their nationalistic pride and incorporate their version of its history in their textbooks, holidays, and social customs. Due to conflicting and strong perspectives on the authoritative claim of the land, the conflict persists today.

How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Geography shapes how and why people are fighting over land in the Takeshima/Dokdo Islands because the territory is between Japan and South Korea, with both countries using the island for fishing. A territory that has beneficial resources makes them valuable to the economic and political sectors of their respective governing country, which creates tensions for disputes over control.

2 Connections to other units:

This conflict is related to the culture unit because it ties in aspects of Japan and Korea’s cultural traditions with the Takeshima/Dokdo Islands. More specifically, Japan’s history of gaining control of the islands and then of Korea itself is an example of forced assimilation, which highlights the idea of a group involuntarily integrating into another culture’s norms and ideologies. Japan’s annexation of the islands only furthered their attempt at consolidating power over Korea during WWII. Additionally, both nations have non-material culture in the form of holidays and material culture in the form of museums dedicated to their culture’s history on the islands.

3 Additional Questions:

How is Japan’s indoctrination of schoolchildren into believing their version of the conflict an example of nationalism?

To what extent does a country’s history with a territory override legal control?

What measures is South Korea taking to consolidate its power over the islands?

Links to websites:

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19207086

https://apjjf.org/lee-sang-tae/1728/article