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Civilization - a group of human living together with their own unique culture, traditions and language

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Mercantilism - economic policy to increase exports and reduce imports

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Columbian Exchange - the exchanges of ideas, goods, disease and culture between the new world (Americas) and the old world (Eurasia, Africa)

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Indentured Servant - people who signed labor contracts to work for a particular period of time in exchanges for food, shelter and passage to the American colonies

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Chattel Slavery - a system where human are treated like objects by being bought and sold

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Puritans - english protestants during 16th and 17th century who were against catholicism and wanted to create a more biblical society in England and the American colonies

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Triangular Trade - trade network linking Europe, Africa and the Americas

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Encomienda System - labor system that granted Spanish colonists the right to demand labor from the Native Americans in exchange for protection

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Southern Colonies - Maryland, Virginia, Carolinas, Georgia

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Middle Colonies - New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware

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New England Colonies - Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut

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Proclamation Line of 1763 - Line drawn by the British government at the Appalachian mountains - wanted to stabilize relations with Natives by limiting westward colonial expansion

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Articles of Confederation - First governing documents of the states, purpose was to create a unified government for the newly independent states after the American revolution

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Enlightenment - An intellectual and philosophical movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that paid importance to reason, science and individual rights over traditional and religious authority.

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Newburgh Conspiracy - A potential military revolt by the Continental army officers, who were frustrated because the Congress hadn't paid them or promised them pensions

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Patriot - Patriots were American colonists who supported independence from Great Britain during the American Revolutionary war

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Federalists - Supporters of the US constitution during the late 1780s, pushing for a stronger national government

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Albany Plan of Union - a proposal to create a unified form of government for all 13 colonies

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Great Compromise - a deal that combined the Virginia and New Jersey plans creating a bicameral legislature with 2 house - one with equal representation of all states and one with representation based on proportion

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Tory - American colonists who remained loyal to the British crown during American revolution, also called loyalists

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Anti Federalists - citizens advocating for more power for the states and lesser national control

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Northwest Ordinance - a law passed by the confederation Congress that established a process for governing the northwest territory and creating new states

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Three fifths Compromise - an agreement made during the constitutional convention about how enslaved people will be counted for representation and taxation

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Salutary Neglect - a British policy where the british government largely ignored strict enforcement of colonial laws and trade regulations in the American colonies

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Political Party - A political party is a group of people who share similar ideas about government and work together to win elections and influence policies. In the 1800s, the main parties were the federalists and democratic-republicans.

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Marbury vs. Madison - Marbury v. Madison (1803) was a landmark Supreme Court case that established judicial review. It gave the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional, strengthening the judicial branch.

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Temperance Movement - The Temperance Movement (early 1800s) was a social campaign to reduce or ban alcohol consumption. Reformers believed alcohol caused crime, poverty, and family problems, leading to laws limiting its use.

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Abolition Movement - The Abolition Movement (1800s) was a campaign to end slavery in the United States. Leaders worked to promote emancipation and equal rights for African Americans.

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Women's Rights Movement - The Women’s Rights Movement fought for equal rights for women, including voting, education, and property rights.

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Cotton Gin - The cotton gin, invented in 1793, quickly separated cotton fibers from seeds. It made cotton production much faster and increased the demand for enslaved labor in the South.

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Steam Engine - The steam engine powered factories, trains, and steamboats. It fueled the Industrial Revolution and transformed transportation and manufacturing in the US and Europe.

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Factory System - The factory system centralized production in large buildings where workers and machines operated together. It increased efficiency, mass production, and helped the US shift from handmade goods to industrial manufacturing.

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Canals - Canals (early 1800s) were man-made waterways built to connect rivers and lakes, improving transportation of goods and people. They lowered shipping costs, encouraged trade, and helped settle the interior of the US, like the Erie Canal.

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Democratic Party - The Democratic Party, founded in the 1820s, supported states’ rights, limited government, and the “common man.” Its first major leader was Andrew Jackson, who promoted popular democracy and expanded voting rights for white men.

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Monroe Doctrine - The Monroe Doctrine warned European nations not to interfere in the Americas. It declared that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to colonization, asserting U.S. influence in the region.

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Whigs - The Whig Party (1830s–1850s) opposed Andrew Jackson and the Democrats. They supported a strong federal government, internal improvements, and economic development like banks, canals, and railroads.

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Telegraph - The telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse in the 1830s–1840s, allowed instant long-distance communication using coded signals. It revolutionized business, news, and personal communication across the United States.

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Interchangeable Parts - Interchangeable parts are identical machine-made components that can be swapped easily. They sped up manufacturing, reduced costs, and made repairs simpler, laying the foundation for mass production.

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Impressment - Impressment was the British practice of forcing American sailors into the British navy in the early 1800s. It was a major cause of the War of 1812, as the U.S. saw it as a violation of its sovereignty and citizens’ rights.

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Manifest Destiny - Manifest Destiny was the 19th-century belief that the United States should expand westward across North America.

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Compromise of 1850 - The Compromise of 1850 was a set of five laws aimed at easing sectional tensions, including admitting California as a free state, organizing Utah and New Mexico with popular sovereignty, ending the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act.

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Kansas-Nebraska Act - The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide on slavery for themselves (popular sovereignty), effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise and helping spark Bleeding Kansas.

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Popular Sovereignty - Popular sovereignty is the idea that political power comes from the people, who decide laws and policies through voting, including in territories deciding whether to allow slavery.

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Fugitive Slave Act - The Fugitive Slave Act was a 1850 law that required the return of escaped enslaved people to their owners and punished those who helped them, strengthening enforcement in free states.

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Sectionalism - Sectionalism is prioritizing the interests of one region over the whole country, leading to regional tensions and divisions (North vs. South over slavery).

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Secession - Secession is the formal withdrawal of a state or region from a larger country or union, such as the Confederate states leaving the United States in 1861.

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Union - The Union was the Northern states that remained loyal to the United States government during the Civil War, opposing the Confederate states.

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Confederacy - The Confederacy was the 11 Southern states that seceded from the United States and fought the Union in the Civil War.

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13th Amendment - The 13th Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime.

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14th Amendment - The 14th Amendment (1868) guarantees birthright citizenship, equal protection under the law, and due process, and it has been used to apply constitutional rights to state governments.

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15th Amendment - The 15th Amendment (1870) prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

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Capitalism - Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals or businesses own and control property and industries to make a profit

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Cornelius Vanderbilt - Cornelius Vanderbilt was a wealthy American businessman who built his fortune in railroads and shipping during the 1800s

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Andrew Carnegie - Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist who made his fortune in the steel industry and became one of the richest men of his time

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John D. Rockefeller - John D. Rockefeller was an American businessman who founded Standard Oil and became the wealthiest man in U.S. history through the oil industry.

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JP Morgan - J.P. Morgan was a powerful American banker who helped finance major industries and stabilized the U.S. economy during financial crises.

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Titans of Industry - Titans of Industry were wealthy and influential business leaders in the late 1800s who shaped the U.S. economy through industries like steel, oil, and railroads.

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Robber Barons - Robber Barons were wealthy business leaders in the late 1800s who were accused of using unfair or unethical practices to gain huge profits.

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Unions - Unions are organizations of workers who join together to protect their rights, improve working conditions, and negotiate for better pay.

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Migration - Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, often for work, safety, or better living conditions.

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Gilded Age - The Gilded Age was a period in U.S. history (late 1800s) marked by rapid economic growth, industrialization, and wealth alongside social inequality and corruption.

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Social Darwinism - Social Darwinism is the belief that only the strongest or most capable people or businesses succeed in society, often used to justify inequality.

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Gospel of Wealth - The Gospel of Wealth is the idea, promoted by Andrew Carnegie, that the rich have a moral responsibility to use their money to help society.

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Muckraking - Muckraking is the practice of journalists exposing corruption, unfair practices, or social problems to bring about reform.

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Women's Suffrage - The campaign to allow female voters

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Prohibition - The nationwide ban on making, selling, or transporting alcohol in the U.S. from 1920–1933.

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Isolationism - A policy of avoiding involvement in foreign conflicts and alliances.

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Imperialism - When a stronger nation controls or dominates weaker territories politically, economically, or militarily.

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Alfred Thayer Mahan - A U.S. naval officer who argued that strong navies and sea power were essential for national greatness.

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Open Door Policy - A U.S. policy calling for equal trading rights in China and protection of Chinese sovereignty.

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Militarism - The belief in building up strong armed forces and using them aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

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Nationalism - Strong pride in and loyalty to one’s nation, often with a belief in its superiority.

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League of Nations - An international peacekeeping organization created after World War I to prevent future wars.

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Treaty of Versailles - The 1919 peace treaty that ended World War I and imposed heavy penalties on Germany.

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Great Migration - The movement of millions of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities in the early 1900s.

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Zimmerman Telegram - A German secret message urging Mexico to join WWI against the U.S. in exchange for lost territory.

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Stocks on margin - Buying stocks by paying only part of the cost upfront and borrowing the rest.

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Tariffs - Taxes placed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or raise revenue.

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3 Rs - Roosevelt’s New Deal goals: Relief, Recovery, and Reform.

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Island Hopping - A U.S. WWII strategy of capturing specific Pacific islands to move closer to Japan.

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Holocaust - The Nazi-led genocide that killed about six million Jews and millions of others during World War II

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International Organizations - Groups formed by multiple countries to cooperate on global issues like peace and trade

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United Nations - An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation

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Bretton Woods System - A post World War II system that stabilized global economies through fixed exchange rates

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NATO - A military alliance formed to protect Western nations from Soviet aggression

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Iron Curtain - The division between communist Eastern Europe and democratic Western Europe during the Cold War

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Warsaw Pact - A military alliance of communist nations led by the Soviet Union

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Containment - A U.S. policy aimed at stopping the spread of communism worldwide

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Domino Theory - The belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow

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Mutually Assured Destruction - A nuclear strategy where both sides avoid war because it would mean total destruction

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Atomic Bomb - A powerful weapon first used by the U.S. in World War II that uses nuclear reactions

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Nuclear Weapons - Weapons that release massive energy through nuclear reactions, threatening global destruction

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Great Society Program - President Lyndon B. Johnson’s reforms aimed at reducing poverty and racial injustice

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Brown V Board - A 1954 Supreme Court case that ended racial segregation in public schools

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Reganomics -

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Liberal -

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Conservative -

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Moral Majority -

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Trickle Down Economics -

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Fiscal Policy -