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You are welcome to print copies for non-commercial use, or a limited number for educational purposes, as long as credit is given to Reading Rockets and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings

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The International Dyslexia Association prepared this fact sheet describing reasonable accommodations involving materials, interactive instruction, and student performance to help children with learning problems in general education and special education classrooms.

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Center for Student Achievement Solutions

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When it comes to meeting the diverse needs of students with learning disabilities, there is no tool quite as transformative as Specially Designed Instruction (SDI). Today, we delve into the world of SDI, illustrating how it can revolutionize the educational journey of these students and enable them to reach their full potential.

Unpacking SDI: Real-World IEP Examples

SDI offers a wealth of innovative strategies to cater to a student's unique learning needs. Here are some examples that could be incorporated into an Individualized Education Program (IEP):

Facilitating the use of visual schedules.

Implementing social-emotional learning through evidence-based curricula.

Phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary instruction, fluency, and comprehension.

Pre-teaching, reteaching, or lesson repetition.

Teaching students to communicate preferences through choice cards.

Self-regulation instruction using the Zones of Regulation.

Repetition teaching with audio or video recordings.

Instruction using mnemonic strategies.

SDI vs. Differentiated Instruction & Intervention

While both SDI and differentiated instruction cater to individual student needs, SDI is tailored specifically for each student. In contrast, differentiated instruction modifies the learning content to cater to all students' abilities and learning styles. In essence, differentiation aims to give all students the opportunity to demonstrate learning in ways that suit them best.

SDI is closely tied to interventions, but it is delivered through the student's IEP, whereas interventions are delivered through a separate plan. An important distinction is that before qualifying for an IEP, a student should have received interventions that may be similar to SDI as part of the evaluation process.

Interventions vs. Accommodations

Interventions and accommodations often work hand-in-hand, yet they serve distinct roles. Interventions aim to teach new skills to help students overcome specific deficits, requiring targeted assessment, planning, and data collection. On the other hand, accommodations adjust the learning environment or process to help students leverage their existing abilities to the fullest.

The IEP Trinity for Specially Designed Instruction

There are three critical components that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates be included in the IEP for effective SDI:

Current levels of performance.

Specific and measurable goals.

These components support each other and work in concert to provide a robust framework for SDI.

SDI: A Beacon for Students with SLD and Dyslexia

Structured Literacy instruction is a key SDI strategy for students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) and dyslexia. This method explicitly and systematically teaches students to decode words, and it has been proven effective not only for students with dyslexia and SLD, but for all readers.

Who Delivers SDI and How?

This is a pivotal aspect of SDI. It must be delivered by a qualified special education professional or service provider, though general education teachers can collaborate with special education service providers to assist with SDI. Special and general education teachers can jointly deliver SDI through practices like Integrated Co-Teaching (ICT) and Special Education Teacher Support Services (SETSS).

Paraprofessionals can also contribute to SDI, provided a certified special education teacher designs the SDI and supervises the paraprofessional. The delivery of SDI involves rigorous monitoring, assessment data analysis, and potential instructional modifications based on progress updates.

Distinguishing SDI from Accommodations and Modifications

Accommodations and modifications can be elements of SDI, but they are not interchangeable terms. Accommodations alter how a student learns the same material as their peers, and modifications change what the student is expected to learn. In essence, SDI encompasses the adaptation and delivery of these strategies by qualified special education professionals.

Conclusion: Embracing the Power of SDI

SDI is not a one-size-fits-all approach; rather, it represents a collection of individually-tailored instructional plans designed to address the unique needs of each student. Unlike standard instruction, SDI can be adapted for the general classroom setting and is aimed at helping students progress towards the standard curriculum.

One key distinction, however, is that SDI must be delivered by a special education professional or at least under their supervision. Understanding this aspect of SDI is vital for school leaders, educators, and paraprofessionals, as it forms a cornerstone of special education and significantly impacts the academic development of students within the education system.

Through an in-depth understanding of SDI and a commitment to its implementation, we can make a substantial difference in the lives of our students, empowering them to reach their full potential.

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Specially Designed Instruction and Student Success

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Specially Designed Instruction is not a one-size-fits-all approach; it is tailored specifically to address the needs of each student.

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University
Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012). While the phrase assistive technology may make us think of computers and computerized devices, assistive technology can also be very low-tech. For example, pencil-grips (the molded plastic grips that slip over a pencil) are considered assistive technology. Assistive technology that helps students with learning disabilities includes computer programs and tablet applications that provide text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction capabilities (e.g., WordQ), and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration).

In comparison to other interventions, assistive technology may have a significant effect in helping students with disabilities progress towards the goals outlined on their Individual Education Plans (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010). Assistive technology helps in two ways: it can help the student learn how to complete the task and it can help to bypass an area of difficulty. For example, when a student decides to listen to a digital version of a book, they are bypassing an area of difficulty. However, if the student focuses on the computer screen as highlighted words are read aloud, they can learn unfamiliar words.

Assistive Technology Summary Points

1. Assistive technology ranges from low- to high-tech.

2. Assistive technology can be used in two ways: to support learning and to bypass a challenging task such as handwriting.

3. In order to be effective, assistive technology needs to be embedded within quality instruction.

Laptop Computers and Computerized Devices: Benefits of Assistive Technology

Laptop computers and tablet devices are beneficial for students with learning disabilities because they are portable and lightweight. For students with handwriting difficulties, being able to take notes on a laptop or computerized device (such as an iPad) can improve the quantity and quality of the notes (Vaughn & Bos, 2009). Using a word processor can help students to complete work that is more organized and includes less spelling errors than handwritten work (Hetzroni & Shrieber, 2004). In addition, students may identify and correct more errors when using spell check than when editing by hand (MacArthur, Graham, Haynes, & De La Paz, 1996; McNaughton, Hughes, & Ofiesh, 1997). However, obtaining personal access to laptops and computerized devices does not ensure engagement and increased academic success (Donovan, Green, & Hartley, 2010). For many students, laptop computers and computerized devices can be too distracting. Teachers and students need to be trained in how to meaningfully integrate technology into academic contexts so that the devices don't detract from learning (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

Computer-assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction refers to software and applications that have been designed to provide instruction and practice opportunities on a wide range of devices (e.g., computer, laptop, iPad, mobile technology). Computer-assisted instruction provides immediate and dynamic feedback and students with learning disabilities can benefit from this nonjudgmental computerized drill and practice (Stetter & Hughes, 2010). Computer-assisted instruction has been shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities in spelling and expressive writing skills (Wanzek et al., 2006) as this software can reduce distractibility (Hecker, Burns, Elkind, Elkind, & Katz, 2002), and can help students learn to read (Lee & Vail, 2005) and achieve other academic outcomes (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Computer-assisted instruction is also an effective way for students with learning disabilities to practice math drills (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009), as students who used computer-assisted instruction to practice math skills were able to memorize math facts more easily, and developed a more positive attitude towards math than students who did not use computer-assisted instruction (Adcock et al., 2010).
Computer-assisted Instruction Summary Points Figure 1: Helping students through assistive technology

1. Computer-assisted instruction provides students with dynamic feedback.

2. Computer-assisted instruction can help students practice spelling and multiplication drills.

3. In order to prevent the technology from being a distraction, students need to be taught how to use technology to support their learning

Software Functions

Assistive technology can improve the writing skills of students with learning disabilities (Batorowicz, Missiuna, & Pollock, 2012). Assistive technology can help students to bypass the mechanical aspects of writing. Using spell check and grammar features can help students focus on communicating their ideas and students can write with confidence knowing that they can easily make changes. In addition, being able to submit a final assignment that is neater and better organized supports positive self-esteem. Text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction (e.g., WordQ) and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration) are four useful software functions for students who struggle with language-based learning disabilities.

We may not consider the default functions of word processors to be ground breaking, but for students with learning disabilities, functions such as spell check and text-to-speech can be a tremendous help when composing and decoding words.

Text-to-speech - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text. This is beneficial as students are more likely to understand text when unfamiliar words are read to them (MacArthur, Ferreti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001). Text-to-speech can have a positive effect on decoding and word recognition (Raskind & Higgins, 1999), as well as reading fluency and reading comprehension (Izzo, Yurick, & McArrell, 2009; Montali & Lewandowski, 1996; Stodden, Roberts, Takahishi, Park, & Stodden, 2012). Text-to-speech software can be especially helpful for students who retain more information through listening than reading. This software can assist students with monitoring and revising their typed work, as hearing the text read aloud may assist students in catching grammatical errors that may have otherwise gone unnoticed (Raskind & Higgins, 1995; Rao, Dowrick, Yuen, & Boisvert, 2009; Zhang, 2000).

After reviewing the literature, Strangman and Dalton (2005) reported that the use of text-to-speech software can improve students' sight reading and decoding abilities. In addition, text-to-speech software can improve the reading comprehension of individuals with specific deficits in phonological processing (difficulty hearing letter-sounds) as students can learn to decode new words when they are highlighted as they are read aloud (Fasting & Halaas Lyster, 2005; Holmes & Silvestri, 2009). Kurzweil 3000 provides reading, writing, studying, and organizational support for students who have difficulty reading or writing (e.g., Elkind, 1998). The use of Kurweil 3000 software also improves students' perception of their work and their ability to write expressively (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Programs such as Kurzweil 3000 may decrease the negative emotions students associate with reading and provide students with a more complete comprehension of the text (Young, 2012), and as a result, text-to-speech programs are recommended for use along with research-supported reading intervention practices.

Speech-to-text - Writing involves low-level transcription skills (e.g., handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and grammar), as well as high-level composition skills (e.g., planning, generating content, and revising). Speech-to-text software transcribes spoken word into computer text, allowing the student to bypass the demands of typing or handwriting; freed from these effortful tasks, students may compose stories that are longer, more complex, and contain fewer errors (Graham, 1999). Speech recognition accuracy improves with use; however, new users can become frustrated with the training process, and they may lack the ability to efficiently edit the program's text output. Titles such as XpressLab are licensed by the Ministry of Education and can be used to improve expressive oral language for students in grade 7-12.
Software Summary Point
Voice recognition software can improve word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills for students with learning disabilities (Higgins & Raskind, 2000). MacArthur and Cavalier (2004) found that for students with learning disabilities, essays dictated using Dragon Naturally Speaking were better than handwritten essays, but essays dictated to a scribe were even better. These authors found a differential impact on students with and without disabilities, providing evidence that this technology removes a barrier based on disability.
Click here to access a list of Ministry of Education approved software titles.
Word Prediction - Word prediction software was originally designed for students with physical disabilities who experienced difficulty typing. However, word prediction with text-to-speech is also effective for students with learning disabilities because it reduces the need for handwriting, and improves students' spelling accuracy and writing skills (Cullen, Richards, & Frank, 2008; Evmenova, Graff, Jerome & Behrman, 2010; Handley-More, Dietz, Billingsley & Coggins, 2003; Lewis, Graves, Ashton, & Kieley, 1998; Silió & Barbetta, 2010). In addition, students may find it enjoyable to have the words recommended through word prediction and be able to form sentences without having to worry about spelling and word-choice (Evmenova et al., 2010).

An analysis of 25 years of research found that word prediction increases transcription accuracy and may also increase word fluency and compositional quality of writing for students with learning and academic difficulties (Peterson-Karlan, 2011). In one particular study, children and their families generally found WordQ to be helpful, and reported improved vocabulary use and increased independence, productivity, and motivation to write (Tam, Archer, Mays, & Skidmore, 2005). While there are potential benefits to the use of WordQ, a basic foundation of phonological awareness is required as students who are unable to identify the beginning sound of words will not benefit from using word prediction software because the user has to provide the first letters of the word (MacArthur, 1999). In addition, word prediction demands a fairly high level of attention to make use of the suggested words (MacArthur, 1998); and as a result, each child must be considered on an individual basis in order to select the appropriate technology for his or her learning needs.

1. Text-to-speech software helps students to bypass the task of decoding words. Seeing individual words highlighted as the text is read aloud may help to improve students' sight word vocabulary.

2. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

3. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

Mid-tech Devices

Mid-tech devices such as audio recorders, portable note takers, mp3 players, calculators, and pentop computers (such as LiveScribe smartpen) can be useful without the cost associated with high-tech devices. For example, the AlphaSmart is a note-taking device that can provide basic word-processing, without the cost related to the purchase and maintenance of a laptop. AlphaSmart devices were discontinued in 2013, but NEO Direct still provides support for users.

Figure 2: Exploring technology for students with learning disabilities
While assistive technology can be low or high-tech, most of the assistive technology for students with learning disabilities is high-tech (Lewis, 1998). Teachers should become familiar with assistive technology and understand how it can be incorporated within their teaching to support an inclusive learning environment.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers benefit individuals who experience difficulty expressing their thoughts on paper as well as visual learners who need to see their ideas mapped out. While graphic organizers completed without technology can help students with learning disabilities to improve the quality of writing (Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education, 2003), electronic versions, such as Inspiration, allow students to arrange their thoughts on the computer screen without worrying about order, level of importance or categories because the text can be easily manipulated. Graphic organizers provide an organizational framework to help writers generate topics and content for writing projects and can assist with the planning and organizational stages of writing, and using concept mapping software can increase the quality and quantity of writing (Sturm & Rankin-Erickson, 2002). Using a web-based graphic organizer with procedural prompts enabled students to produce better organized and higher quality papers, than they could produce with handwritten organizers (Englert, Wu & Zhao, 2005; Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, & Woblers, 2007). Being taught a strategy to plan and organize writing can improve the compositions of students with learning disabilities (MacArthur, 2009).

Pentop computers - Pentop computers, such as LiveScribe smart pens, are cheaper than high-tech devices like iPads but can provide text-to-speech, strategy feedback, and other organizational functions. As cost-effective and self-regulated reading aides, pentop computers may be a useful tool for students with reading disabilities (Schmitt, McCallum, Hennessey, Lovelace, & Hawkins, 2012). Pentop computers are also useful because they utilize instruction strategies such as providing auditory feedback during composition or math work. Handheld computerized devices that provide feedback have shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities for essay composition (Bouck, Bassette, Taber-Doughty, Flanagan, & Szwed, 2009), and receptive note-taking and multiplication skills (Bouck, Flanagan, Miller, & Bassette, 2009). For example, pentop computers are able to provide reminders such as "don't forget to carry" during multiplication questions (Doughty, Bouck, Bassette, Szwed, & Flanagan, 2013).

Calculators and math software - Students with learning disabilities may have a history of academic failure, which contributed to their development of learned helplessness in math. For some students, a fear of failure and low academic self-concept can lead to math related anxiety. While the use of calculators can level the playing field for students with learning disabilities, some research has shown that calculators may provide unfair advantage (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009). Graphing calculators may be particularly effective because they provide visual conformation of the graph-shape. The added advantage of visual data can be highly motivating for students with learning disabilities (Bethell & Miller, 1998). Math drill programs can be an effective way for students to learn to mentally solve math questions (Adcock et al., 2010), they are also effective in increasing motivation and the addition and subtraction skills of students with dyscalculia (Amiripour, Bijan-zadeh, Pezeshki, & Najafi, 2011). Math Trek 1,2,3 is an example of software licensed by the Ministry of Education for use in classroom. Click here to find the full list of approved software titles.

1. Concept organizers, whether completed electronically or by hand, may contribute to better writing in students with learning disabilities.

2. Pentop computers can be used for reading (text-to-speech), writing (digitizing written words), and math (strategy feedback).

3. Calculators can help students with learning disabilities demonstrate their understanding of mathematical computations. Graphing calculators can provide additional support as they verify graph shapes and help solve algebraic equations.

Considerations

Much needs to be done to improve the quality of special education technology research (Edyburn, 2009). Little research has been conducted on the use of assistive technology in inclusive schools (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010), and only a few researchers are conducting systematic, well-designed research that can lead to confident conclusions on how the use of assistive technology affects learning (Edyburn & Gersten, 2007; MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Wanzek et al., 2006). In addition, research cannot be produced quickly enough to match the rate of technological innovations, and as a result, educators tend to rely on the claims of the producers of the technologies rather than evidence-based research (Blackhurst, 2005).

Despite the enthusiasm that may surround the application of assistive technology in the classroom, assistive technology is not a panacea. Lack of common vision, limited training, access to support services, insufficient funding, and lack of teacher time are commonly cited problems in regards to the implementation of assistive technology (Ault, Bausch, & McLaren, 2013; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Morrison, 2007; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Researchers have noted that there is still an enormous gap between the potential of assistive technology and how much it actually helps (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011).

Assistive technology can reduce students' dependence on others to read, write, and organize their work (MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Mull & Sitlington, 2003). When provided with effective strategy instruction, outlining programs and concept mapping software can help with planning, and word processing, spell check, word prediction, and speech recognition can offer support for transcription and revision (MacArthur, 2009). While assistive technology can support struggling learners, MacArthur (2009) cautions that technology by itself has little impact on learning. In order for students to benefit from the technology, educators must have an understanding of assistive technology and how to embedded it within quality instruction (Batorowicz, Missiuana, & Pollock, 2012; Lee & Vega, 2005; Marino, Marino, & Shaw, 2006; Michaels & McDermott, 2003).

Staff Training

In a large scale survey study nearly three-quarters of respondents indicated that improved staff training and knowledge were the most important actions that could be taken to promote technology use (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Assistive technology devices and services have to be coupled with context-appropriate instruction from trained teachers (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007), as students' successful implementation of assistive technology is directly related to the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of special education teachers (Michaels & McDermott, 2003). While educators acknowledge the potential of assistive technology, they may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of understanding and using this technology with their students (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001). Many teachers feel that they lack the knowledge and support to more fully integrate assistive technology into the curriculum (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). This is not surprizing given that only a third of special education programs surveyed by Judge and Simms (2009) addressed assistive technology, and few workshops or professional development opportunities exist to continually support teachers' use of assistive technology during instruction (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001; Michaels & McDermott, 2003). Teachers' use and understanding of assistive technology may increase when provided with effective instruction during pre-service education or professional development opportunities (Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Lee & Vega, 2005). General educators and special educators need to become familiar with assistive and instructional technology so that they can embed this technology within their instruction to meet the needs of all their students (Chmiliar, 2007; Chmiliar & Cheung, 2007; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013).

When recommending the use of assistive technology, one must consider how training can be provided for students, parents, and teachers to become competent with the technology, as well as environmental factors that will continue to support the child in using technology (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007). Funding should be allotted for the training of teachers to effectively facilitate assistive technology use (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011), and all educators who support an individual student should be knowledgeable about that child's assistive technology and be able to embed the use of the technology within instruction (Nelson, 2006; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Computers shouldn't be restricted to a specific subject area, and the use of technology should not solely occur within a computer lab; rather, assistive and instructional technology should be an integral part of all subjects and the use of these tools should be built into the curriculum. Schools should encourage teaching staff to assume the role of technology co-ordinators as they understand the demands of the curriculum and may be best equipped to find free or low cost educational solutions to help students meet curricular expectations.

1. Due to the limited evidence-based research, teachers tend to make decision about assistive technology based on claims from the software companies.

2. In order to be effective, assistive technology has to be coupled with quality instruction.

3. Teachers require training to support their implementation of assistive technology.

Examples of Assistive Technology by Domain

Receptive
Notepad - Notepads are an excellent way to record information. Students with learning disabilities (LDs) may appreciate having the information colour-coded based on the purpose, topic, or function of the information.

Audiobooks - Provides a simple way to listen to many of the best classic books and modern titles .

Speaking
Cue cards - Cue cards provide helpful hints for the oral presentation of information, and the process of composing cue cards can help organize the information before-hand.

Prezi - A free 3D graphic organizer which can be used to create presentations. Prezis can be collaborative as students can comment and build upon other Prezis.

ShowMe Interactive Whiteboard -In order to reduce anxiety, students may opt to record presentations on their iPad beforehand. Video recordings can be uploaded on YouTube or a more private domain.

Reading
Highlighter strips - Translucent rectangles of colour can help eliminate extra visual clutter by blocking out the rest of the text. Sticky notes - Students with LDs may find it useful to summarize the main ideas of the text with sticky notes which can be stuck directly on the page.

Kurzweil 3000 - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text.

Storyline Online - A free online streaming video program featuring books read aloud. Each book includes accompanying activities and lesson ideas.

Project Gutenberg - Over 45,000 free e-books.

Wikipedia - The Simple English function on Wikipedia allows content to be "translated" into plain English which is easier to read.

Writing
Pencil grips - For students who struggle with handwriting, pencil grips can provide a surface that is easier to manipulate.

Computerized pens - These pens can automatically transmit handwriting into digital text. Some computerized pens have audio-recording functions that allow the writer to listen to specific sections of the audio file by tapping on the written notes.

Word processing - Functions such as spell check, dictionary options, synonym support, and word-prediction features are helpful for students with learning disabilities.

Reasoning
Graphic organizers - Organizing ideas visually allows students with LDs to see the connections between ideas. Audio recorders - Many students with LD experience difficulty translating oral language into written text. Recording ideas early in the thinking process can provide a record for later recall and clarification.

SimpleMind+ - This app allows you to brainstorm and organize your ideas. Completed concept maps can be automatically converted to an outline.

Math
4-function calculator - Depending on the type of work being done, a 4-function calculator can be a great help without providing disproportionate advantage to students with LDs.

Graphing calculator - Graphing computers can solve complex equations, and the dynamic display screen allows the student to verify the results before solving on paper.

Math Dictionary for Kids - An animated, interactive online math dictionary that explains over 600 common mathematical terms in simple language.

Braiing Camp - Animated lessons and interactive activities to assess student understanding.

IXL Math - IXL's math practice skills are aligned with pre-K through Grade 8 provincial curricula, and students' performance is assessed on each objective.

Sumdog - Sumdog's learning engine adapts its math questions to each student's ability. Covering number operations through to simple algebra, it is designed for students age 6 to 14.

ShowMe and ScreenChomp - These apps provide an interactive whiteboard interface to solve problems. The actions on the screen and audio can be recorded and shared as a video file.

References

Adcock, W., Luna, E., Parkhurst, J., Poncy, B., Skinner, C., & Yaw, J. (2010). Effective class-wide remediation: Using technology to identify idiosyncratic math facts for additional automaticity drills. The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 6, 111-123.

Amiripour, P., Bijan-zadeh, M. H., Pezeshki, P., & Najafi, M. (2011). Effects of assistive technology instruction on increasing motivation and capacity of mathematical problem solving in dyscalcula student. Educational Research, 2(10), 1611-1618.

Ault, M. J., Bausch, M. E., & McLaren, E. M. (2013). Assistive technology service delivery in rural school districts. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32(2), 15-22. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1420524203?accountid=6180

Batorowicz, B., Missiuna, C. A., & Pollock, N. A. (2012). Technology supporting written productivity in children with learning disabilities: A critical review. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(4), 211-224. doi:10.2182/cjot.2012.79.4.3

Bethell, S. & Miller, N. (1998). From an E to an A in first year algebra with the help of a graphing calculator. Mathematics Teacher, 91, 118-119.

Blackhurst, A. (2005). Perspectives on applications of technology in the field of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 28, 175-178. doi:10.2307/1593622

Bouck, E. C., Bassette, L., Taber-Doughty, T., Flanagan, S. M., & Szwed, K. (2009). Pentop computers as tools for teaching multiplication to students with mild intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 367-380.

Bouck, E. & Flanagan, S. (2009). Assistive technology and mathematics: What is there and where can we go in special education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 24, 24-30.

Bouck, E., Flanagan, S., Miller, B., & Bassette, L. (2012). Technology In Action. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27, 47-57.

Burne, B., Knafelc, V., Melonis, M. & Heyn, P. (2011). The use and application of assistive technology to promote literacy in early childhood: a systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 6, 207-213. doi:10.3109/17483107.2010.522684

Chiang, H., & Jacobs, K. (2009). Effect of computer-based instruction on students' self-perception and functional task performance. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 4(2), 106-118. doi:10.1080/17483100802613693

Chmiliar, L. (2007). Perspectives on assistive technology: What teachers, health professionals and speech language pathologists have to say. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 35(1), 1-17.

Chmiliar, L., & Cheung, B. (2007). Assistive technology training for teachers - Innovation and accessibility online. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 35(1), 18-28.

Cullen, J., Richards, S. B., & Frank, C. L. (2008). Using software to enhance the writing skills of students with special needs. Journal of Special Education Technology, 23, 33-44.

Dell, A., Newton, D., & Petroff, J. (2012). Assistive technology in the classroom: Enhancing the school experiences of students with disabilities (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Donovan, L., Green, T., & Hartley, K. (2010). An examination of one-to-one computing in the middle school: Does increased access bring about increased student engagement? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 42, 423-441. doi:10.2190/EC.42.4.d

Doughty, T., Bouck, E., Bassette, L., Szwed, K. & Flanagan, S. (2013). Spelling on the fly: Investigating a pentop computer to improve the spelling skills of three elementary students with disabilities. Assistive Technology, 25, 166-175. doi:10.1080/10400435.2012.743491

Edyburn, D. (2009). Using research to inform practice. Special Education Technology Practice, 11(5), 21-28. doi:10.1080/09362830902805699

Edyburn, D., Gersten, R. (2007). Defining quality indicators in special education technology research. Journal of Special Education Technology, 22(3), 3-18. doi:10.1598/RRQ.42.1.7

Elkind, J. (1998). Computer reading machines for poor readers. Perspectives International Dyslexia Association, 24, 9-13.

Englert, C. S., Wu, X., & Zhao, Y. (2005). Cognitive tools for writing: Scaffolding the performance of students through technology. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 184-198. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00132.x

Englert, C. S., Zhao, Y., Dunsmore, K., Collings, N. Y., & Woblers, K. (2007). Scaffolding the writing of students with disabilities through procedural facilitation: Using an Internet-based technology to improve performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30, 9-29. doi:10.2307/30035513

Evmenova, A., Graff, H., Jerome, M., & Behrmann, M. (2010). Word prediction programs with phonetic spelling support: Performance comparisons and impact on journal writing for students with writing difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(4), 170-182. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2010.00315.x

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Dr. Gabrielle Young is an Assistant Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland where she teaches undergraduate courses such as the Nature and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities and Inclusive Practices for Students with Learning Disabilities, as well as graduate courses such as the Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities. While completing her doctoral studies at Western University, Gabrielle was also actively involved with the Learning Disabilities Association - London Region, where she was Vice-President of the Board. Gabrielle's research interests include: the use of assistive technology by students with special learning needs; learners' self-beliefs and the self-esteem of individuals with learning disabilities; and the use of universal design for learning and differentiated instruction to support the inclusion of students with exceptionalities in the general education classroom. Jeffrey MacCormack is a PhD student at the Faculty of Education, Queen's University, with a focus on cognition. He is a teacher certified by the Ontario College of Teachers with 9 years of experience teaching elementary school. He worked as an instructor at Queen's University and has taught and authored online courses for educators. He is currently conducting research on several topics including: learning disabilities, autism, emotional well-being, and youth development.
Young, G. (2012). Examining assistive technology use, self-concept, and motivation, as students with learning disabilities transition from a demonstration school into inclusive classrooms. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2316&context=etd

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Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

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Assistive technology (AT) has the potential to enhance the quality of life for students with learning disabilities (LD) by providing them with a means to compensate for their difficulties, and highlight their abilities. Because students with learning problems have individual strengths, limitations, interests, and experiences, a technology tool that is be helpful in one situation or setting may be of little use under different circumstances.As a result, selecting the appropriate technology for a student with LD requires a careful analysis of the dynamic interaction between the individual, technology, task, and context.

Selecting the appropriate technology for a student with LD requires careful analysis of the interaction between (a) the individual; (b) the specific tasks or functions to be performed; (c) the technology; and (d) the contexts or settings in which the technology will be used.

The AT assessment process

Whether an AT assessment is sought from a public school or private source, it is important for parents to understand the critical elements for conducting an AT assessment. Although some universities and organizations offer training and certificates in AT assessment, no licenses or credentials are required. As is the case with any profession, some practitioners are better qualified than others. Therefore, in addition to investigating the qualifications of the person conducting the assessment (education, training, experience) the more you know about the key components of a quality assessment, the greater the likelihood the appropriate "technology match" will be found for your child. Let's discuss the key elements of an AT evaluation. Also see our worksheet for matching AT tools to your child's needs (PDF).

The individual student

It is important to consider the student's strengths and weaknesses in regard to such areas as reading, writing/spelling, speaking, listening, math, memory, organization, and physical/motor ability. Examining these areas will help identify the specific areas of difficulty that need to be bypassed by using AT. Such examination will also help identify the child's areas of strength and ability which an AT product may "capitalize on" in order to work around a specific difficulty. For example, a student who struggles with reading but who has good listening skills might benefit from the use of audio books. You can gather information about a child's strengths and difficulties from several sources, including:

school records

prior diagnostic assessments (e.g., psycho-educational testing)

interviews with individuals who are familiar with the student (e.g., parents, teachers, counselors, therapists, and tutors)

Additional data may be obtained by conducting formal assessments (e.g., standardized tests) and informal diagnostic techniques (e.g., observations) that focus on the academic skill areas. A student being evaluated for technology use should participate as a key member of the technology evaluation team and be interviewed about her understanding of the nature of her learning difficulties, as well as her strengths, talents, and special abilities.

The potential effectiveness of any assistive technology tool also depends on the student's prior experience with, and interest in, using technology. Consideration should also be given to the student's technology experience and interest relative to the specific areas of difficulty (e.g., prior experience with/interest in a word processor to compensate for writing problems, or an OCR system for a reading difficulty), as well as the student's general working knowledge of technology, and overall interest and comfort level. Such information is also needed to plan appropriate technology instruction and training.

The task to be performed

Another key factor in determining what AT tools might benefit a student is to pinpoint the specific task(s) she struggles with. For example, when it comes to writing an essay, she may construct sentences and tackle spelling with no problem, but she has trouble organizing and outlining the essay. In this case, a graphic organizer or outlining tool might help her plan and revise the "big picture" of her essay. In other words, not all AT tools for writing target the same skills or tasks. Knowing where a student struggles (and where she does not) are critical to choosing an appropriate AT tool.

Observation of student, technology, and task in action

Direct observation is the best technique for gathering information about a student's use of a technology tool to compensate for an area of difficulty. Only by observing the individual while she is actively using the technology tool to perform a specific task can it be determined that the tool is appropriate for her. It may be necessary to collaborate with AT professionals who are trained to observe students using technology. Some AT manufacturers' representatives will demonstrate specific technologies as well as provide opportunities for the student to try out specific products. (Keep in mind that a company representative may not be an objective observer of your child using the AT tool.) As the student experiments with a certain technology tool to perform tasks, the observer will want to note:

the student's interest in and comfort level with the technology

the student's ease in learning about and using the technology

the degree to which the technology taps into the student's strengths

the extent to which the student is able to use the technology independently and troubleshoot as necessary

the effectiveness of the technology in compensating for specific difficulties as compared to alternative strategies

The assistive technology tool

There are a number of factors specific to the technology itself that should be considered in the selection process. Particular attention should be given to the technology's effectiveness in accomplishing its primary compensatory purpose.For example, does a speech recognition system accurately convert the student's oral language to written text and improve the quality of the written product?

Contexts of interaction

Students with learning difficulties must function in a variety of settings. Technology that is appropriate in one setting may be quite inappropriate in another. Therefore, it is important to consider the selection of technology relative to all settings where she is likely to use the tool (e.g., school, home, work, social, and recreational or leisure environments). The fact that a technology successfully compensates for a learning problem in one setting does not mean that it will be effective in another. For example, a speech recognition system may work quite effectively at home where the student can work alone. However, the use of the technology in a classroom setting, where there is considerable extraneous noise, may interfere with the technology's operation.

Similarly, the social appropriateness of AT may change from one setting to another. For instance, using a calculator to compensate for a math disability in a classroom setting may blend in nicely, without any negative social ramifications. However, using a calculator to keep score of a board game outside of school may appear inappropriate to peers.

The settings in which the technology will be used may change over time. For example, a high school student who uses a portable word processor to take notes in the classroom may later find the same technology useful in a college lecture hall or during meetings on the job. Therefore, some consideration should be given to projecting the appropriateness of the technology for the various settings where you expect it may be used over the course of one, two, three, or more years.

Assistive technology: Rights under IDEA

Under IDEA, AT must be considered for children with disabilities if it is needed to receive a "free and appropriate public education." It is the school district's responsibility to help select and acquire the technology, as well as provided training to the student in the use of the technology, and, at no cost to parents. This is done on a case-by-case basis. It is the IEP team (including parents and students) that makes a determination as to the necessity of AT. It is also the IEP team, (or any individual member) that initiates a request for an AT assessment. The assessment may be performed by school district personnel, or an outside consultant working in conjunction with the IEP team. Parents should know that at present, there are no standard policies, procedures or practices among school districts for conducting AT assessments. This is all the more reason for parents to be informed as to the critical elements in conducting a quality AT assessment.

Assessment for today and tomorrow

Selecting an appropriate AT tool for a student requires parents, educators, and other professionals to take a comprehensive view, carefully analyzing the interaction between the student, the technology, the tasks to be performed, and the settings where it will be used. Keep in mind that AT assessment is an on-going process, and it is critical to periodically re-evaluate the match even after a technology tool has been selected. This will help ensure that the student receives the maximum benefit from AT and is able to reach her full potential.

This article is based on the Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (Raskind & Bryant, 2002).

References

Collins, T. 'The impact of microcomputer word processing on the performance of learning disabled students in a required first year writing course.' Computers and Composition, Vol. 8.

Elkind, J. "Using computer-based readers to improve reading comprehension of students with dyslexia." Annals of Dyslexia, Vol. 43.

Elkind, J., Black, M.S., et al. "Computer-based compensation of adult reading disabilities." Annals of Dyslexia, Vol. 46.

Higgins, E. L., and Raskind, M. H.. "The compensatory effectiveness of optical character recognition/speech synthesis on reading comprehension of postsecondary students with learning disabilities." Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, Vol . 8.

Higgins, E.L., & Raskind, M.H . "An investigation of the compensatory effectiveness of speech recognition on the written composition performance of postsecondary students with learning disabilities." Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 18.

MacArthur, C. A. "Beyond word processing: computer support for writing processes." LD Forum, Vol. 19.

MacArthur, C. A. "Word processing with speech synthesis and word prediction: Effects on the dialogue journal writing of students with learning disabilities." Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 21.

MacArthur, C. A., Schwartz, S. S., et. al. "A model for writing instruction: Integrating word processing and strategy instruction into a process approach to writing." Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, Vol. 6.

McNaughton, D., Hughes, C., et. al.. "The effect of five proofreading conditions on the spelling performance of college students with learning disabilities." Journal of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 30.

Primus, C. Computer assistance model for learning disabled (Grant # G008630152-88). Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, U.S. Department of Education.

Raskind, M.H., & Higgins, E.L. "The effects of speech synthesis on proofreading efficiency of postsecondary students with learning disabilities." Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 18.

Raskind, M. H., & Higgins, E. L. (1995). "Effects of speech synthesis on the proofreading efficiency of postsecondary students with learning disabilities." Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 18.

Raskind, M. H., Higgins, E. L., et. al. "Technology in the workplace for persons with learning disabilities: View from the inside." In P. J. Gerber & D. S. Brown (Eds.), Learning disabilities and employment. Austin, TX : PRO-ED, 1997.

Reviewed February 2010

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Matching assistive technology tools to individual needs | Parenting

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Assistive technology (AT) has the potential to enhance the quality of life for students with learning disabilities (LD) by providing them with a means to compensate for their difficulties, and highlight their abilities.

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Certain assistive technology (AT) tools can help people who have difficulty processing and remembering spoken language. Such devices can be used in various settings (e.g., a class lecture, or a meeting with multiple speakers).

AT tools that assist with listening fall into several categories:

Paper-based computer pen

This technology records and links audio to what a person writes using the pen and special paper. It enables the user to take notes while simultaneously recording someone( e.g., a teacher) speaking. The user can later listen to any section of his notes by touching the pen to his corresponding handwriting or diagrams.
What type(s) of learning difficulty do these tools address?
This type of tool may benefit people who struggle with: writing, listening, memory and reading.
Products to consider
Personal FM listening systems

A personal FM listening system transmits a speaker's voice directly to the user's ear. This may help the listener focus on what the speaker is saying. The unit consists of a wireless transmitter (with microphone) worn by the speaker and a receiver (with earphone) worn by the listener.
What type(s) of learning difficulty do these tools address?
This type of tool may benefit people who struggle with: listening or attention.
Products to consider
Variable-speed recorders

Recorders/players allow a user to listen to pre-recorded text or to capture spoken information (e.g., a classroom lecture) and play it back later. Variable-speed control (VSC) recorders speed up or slow down the playback rate without distorting the "speaker's" voice.
What type(s) of learning difficulty do these tools address?
This tool may help people who struggle with: reading and listening.
Products to consider Resources to help you evaluate assistive technology for your child
The assistive technology products listed on our site have been compiled in consultation with Marshall Raskind, Ph.D. This does not represent a comprehensive list. The inclusion of any product is not intended as an endorsement. The information is provided to guide parents and educators in selecting products to meet children's specific needs.
Updated February 2010

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Assistive technology tools: Listening | Parenting

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Certain assistive technology (AT) tools can help people who have difficulty processing and remembering spoken language. Such devices can be used in various settings (e.g., a class lecture, or a meeting with multiple speakers). AT tools that assist with listening fall into several categories: This technology records and links audio to what a person writes using the pen and special paper.

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INCLUSIVE IEPs: ADAPTATION CHECKLIST STUDENT_____________________________________ DOB_______________ DATE______________________ COMPLETED BY________________________ The following adaptations are appropriate and necessary for this student. Check all that apply. Pacing _____ Extend time requirements _____ Vary activity often _____ Allow breaks _____ Omit assignments requiring copy in timed situation _____ School texts sent home for summer preview _____ Home set … Continue reading IEP Adaptations →

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By Eve Kessler, Esq. with Michele Schneider, MS

AT A GLANCE

Accommodations and modifications are tools used by your child's IEP team to help level the playing field for kids with learning difficulties * Understanding the differences-along with what the options are- can help ensure that your child's needs are met at school

The difference between success and failure for students with LD and ADHD often comes down to how effectively the curriculum is adapted to individual needs. Accommodations and modifications are the tools used by the IEP team to achieve that end.

Accommodations

Accommodations allow a student to complete the same tasks as their non-LD peers but with some variation in time, format, setting, and/or presentation. The purpose of an accommodation is to provide a student with equal access to learning and an equal opportunity to show what he knows and what he can do.

Accommodations are divided into four categories:

Variations in time: adapting the time allotted for learning, task completion, or testing

Variation of input: adapting the way instruction is delivered

Variation of output: adapting how a student can respond to instruction

Variation of size: adapting the number of items the student is expected to complete

Common examples of accommodations include extended time to complete assignments, provision of notes or outlines, untimed tests, and reduced number of test questions.

Modifications

Unlike accommodations, which do not change the instructional level, content, or performance criteria, modifications alter one or more of those elements on a given assignment. Modifications are changes in what students are expected to learn, based on their individual abilities.

Examples of modifications include use of alternate books, pass/no pass grading option, reworded questions in simpler language, daily feedback to a student.
Eve Kessler, Esq., a criminal appellate attorney with The Legal Aid Society, NYC, is co-founder of SPED*NET Wilton and a Contributing Editor of Smart Kids.
Related Smart Kids Topics

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IEP Planning: Accommodations & Modifications

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By Eve Kessler, Esq. with Michele Schneider, MS Accommodations and modifications are tools used by your child's IEP team to help level the playing field for kids with learning difficulties * Understanding the differences-along with what the options are- can help ensure that your child's needs are met at school The difference between success and failure for students with LD and ADHD often comes down to how effectively the curriculum is adapted to individual needs.