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Microbiology is the study of microorganisms. Unicellular, multicellular, or acellular.

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1.2 Determine the type of microbe when given a description

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1.2 Determine the type of microbe when given a description

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Ways to determine microbes:
1. Cellular "floor plans"
2. Prokaryote: Do not have complex organelles
3. Eukaryotes: Employ organelles such as nucleus and mitochondria
4. Viruses: "bags" of DNA or RNA. Acellular

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1. Studio Apartment - Prokaryotes:
They have a simpiler layout and lack complex organelles.

Complex organelles - Any number of organized or specalized structures within a living structure.

E.g. : Nucleus, Mitochondria

2. Three Story Victorian - Eukaryotes:
They do have complex organelles.
3. Backpackers- Viruses
They carry a backpack made of protien and inside is nucleic acid that codes for their survival.

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Do not have complete organelles
Studio Apartment

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Do have complete organelles
Three Story Victorian

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Couch Surfers
Backpack of nucleic acid for coding

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Cellular - Molds, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archea.
Acellular - viruses, viroids, satelites, and prions.

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1.3 Describe the term "RNA world" as it relates to precellular life

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1.3 Describe the term "RNA world" as it relates to precellular life

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1. "Old" Earth: hot, anoxic, harsh environments. the atmosphere was water vapor, carbon dioxide, and nirtogen. Oceans: formation of hydrogen, methane, and carboxylic acid.
Hypothesis: At some time in the evolution of life, there must have been a single molecule that vould do both cellular  work and replicate.
Evidence:
- RNA can perform cellular "work"
- Liposomes form spontaneously and allow RNA nucleotides in, but strands cannot escape
- RNA can act as its own template
- RNA is very much involved in modern protien synthesis
- ATP use a ribonucleotide
- RNA can regulate gene expression

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1.4 Describe the basis of phylogenic tree creation and be able to calculate evolutionary distance

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1.4 Describe the basis of phylogenic tree creation and be able to calculate evolutionary distance

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- A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms.
- The pattern of branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors.
- How to calculate evolutionary distance:

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1.5 Define the endosymbiotic (and hydrogen) hypothesis and provide evidance to support both

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1.5 Define the endosymbiotic (and hydrogen) hypothesis and provide evidance to support both

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1.  Edosymbiotic: The interation between two organisms in which one organism lives inside the other.
2. Hydrogen: States that the endosymbiont was actually an anaerobic bacterium that produces H2 and CO2 biproducts

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1.5.1 Endosymbiotic Hypothesis and Evidance

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1.5.1 Endosymbiotic Hypothesis and Evidance

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- Edosymbiotic: The interation between two organisms in which one organism lives inside the other.
- Hypothesis: (later adjusted by hydrogen hypothesis): Over time, a bacterial endosymboint of an ancestral cell in the eukaryotic lineage lost its ability to live independently, becoming either a mitochondrion (if the intracellular bacterium used aeroibic respiration), or chloroplast (if the endosymbiont was a photosynthetic bacterium)
- Evidance:

Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes. These are similar to bacterial DNA and ribosomes

Peptidoglycan (which makes up the bacterial cell wall) has been found between the membranes that enclose the chloroplasts of some algae.

SSU rRna analysis shows that mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacterial lineage.

Mitochondria are most closely related to proteobacteria

Chloroplasts are most commonly related to ancestors of cyanobacteria.

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Cyanobacteria are very important organisms for the health and growth of many plants. They are one of very few groups of organisms that can convert inert atmospheric nitrogen into an organic form, such as nitrate or ammonia

Cyanobacteria, also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of prokaryotes consisting of both free-living photosynthetic bacteria and the endosymbiotic plastids that are present in the Archaeplastida, the autotrophic eukaryotes that include the red and green algae and land plants

Cyanobacteria: aquatic, photosynthetic organisms that release oxygen and fix nitrogen.

Misnomer: blue-green algae

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Modifies the endosymbiotic hypothesis with respect to mitochondrial evolution.

States that the endosymbiont was actually an anaerobic bacterium that produces H2 and CO2 biproducts

Eventually, it is the host who becomes depended on the H2 produced by the ednosymbiont

This endosymbiont eventually evoled into one of the five different organelles that resemble a mitochondria:

Mitosome

Anaerobic mitochondrion

Aerobic mitochondrion

Hydogenosome

H2- Producing mitochondrion

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1.6 Provide an argument against spontaneous generation

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1.6 Provide an argument against spontaneous generation

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Francesco performed an experiment on spoiled meat to prove the inaccuracy of this idea. People originally thought that maggots spontaneously generated on meat when it was spoiled. Francesco uncovered one piece of spoiled meat and covered the other piece of spoiled meat. Flies were able to lay eggs on the uncovered meat but not covered meat.

People though that organic matter could sponantously generate instead of larger organisms.

Pasteur developed a method to keep solutions sterile by fire, and boiling the flask.

Pasteur proved spontaneous generation wrong by kiling the bacteria off the flask, but still allowed air to pass through.

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Koch (german): Pronounced like "Coke"

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Postulate 2: You can't always grow on a pure culture because sometimes the organism (virus, and M. tuberculosis's cousin) needs a host to grow onto which you can't do in a pure culture.

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1.8 Understand and apply binomial nomenclature

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1.8 Understand and apply binomial nomenclature

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Species means something different in the field of microbiology, because most organisms reproduce asexually.

Strains are within a species

Each strain is a descendent of a pure microbial culture and shares stable properties that distinguish it from other strains.

Example:

Species = Escherichia Coli

Strain = E. Coli 0157:H7

Genus + specific epithet

Ex.: Micrococcus luetus

In writing, once a scientific name has been mentioned once, it can then be abbreviated throughtout the passage.

Ex.: Micrococcus luterus is a bacteria that can be found on our skin. M. luterus is also known as an opprotunistic pathogen that can cause skin infections in immunocompromised patients.

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1.9 Provide examples and identify the relevance of each major field in microbiology

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1.9 Provide examples and identify the relevance of each major field in microbiology

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Medical Micro

Medical labratory scientitst

Epidermiology/public health micro

Microbial ecology

Immunology

Agriculture micro

Food micro

Industrial micro

Microbial physiology

Microbial genetics

Molecular biology

Bioinformatics

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3.1 Distinguish bacterial cells from plant or animal cells with respect to their cell shapes, arrangments, size, and cell structure

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3.1 Distinguish bacterial cells from plant or animal cells with respect to their cell shapes, arrangments, size, and cell structure

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The two most common shapes are cocci and rods

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- Cocci can be arranged in many different ways depeinding on the plane of division, but we most commonly see staphlyococci and streptococci.
- Bacilli are often single (and ready to mingle) meaning that they do not arrange themselves in any particular way.

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- comma shapped Vibrio ssp.

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- spiral shapped Spirochaete ssp.

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-The average size of bacteruim is 0.2 - 2.0 μm in diameter
- Large cells, filamentous cells, oddly shaped cells are in less danger of predatory protists
-Size matters: Surface-to-volume ratio

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3.1.5 Overview of bacterial cell structure & organization

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3.1.5 Overview of bacterial cell structure & organization

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Bacterial cells are surrounded by several layers called cell envelopes

Layers from the outside in

Capsule/slime layer, cell wall, and plasma membrane

-Genetic material is localized to the nucleoid and is not mebrane bound.
-Ribosomes and inclusions are scattered throughout the cytoplasm
-Flagella are often present as a locomation device

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The plasma membrane encompasses the cytoplasm and acts as a selectively permeable barrier. This is also the location of respiration, synthesis of lipids and cell wall constituents.

The importance of the plasma membrane:

Interacts with its environment

Acquire nutrients

Eliminate waste

Maintain the interior of the cell even if external changes occur

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The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this biological model, there is a lipid bilayer in which protein molecules are embedded. The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane.

Lower temps: more unstable fatty acids

Higher temps: more staurated fatty acids

Membrane proteins are either integral or peripheral

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Compare and contrast passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and group translication. Provide examples of each

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Compare and contrast passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and group translication. Provide examples of each

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Passive diffusion (simple diffusion): molecules move from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration without using energy.

Most substances cannot freely diffuse into the cell. O2, CO2, and H2O are able to cross the plasma membrane but ions and polar substances that need protein transfers cannot.

Facilitated diffusion: Similar to passive diffusion, still requires a concentration gradient, and no energy is needed to get molecules across the membrane.

Substances move across the plasma membrane with the help of transport proteins that act as channels or carriers.

Active Transport:

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9.1 Trace the general history of antimicrobial chemotherapy

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9.1 Trace the general history of antimicrobial chemotherapy

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- Antibiotic development was at the stage where arsenic was considered an improvement over mercury

1.  Antimicrobials are often metabolic products of aerobic bacteria and fungi

2. Bacteria in genera Streptomyces and Bacillus

3. Molds in genera Penicillium and Cephalosporium

4. Produced as microbial warfare agents

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9.1.2 History of antimicrobial chemotherapy

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9.1.2 History of antimicrobial chemotherapy

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Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata develop Salvarsan to treat Syphilis in 1908

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Alexander Fleming accidentally “rediscovers” Penicillin in 1928

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9.2 Propose natural sources of new antimicrobial agents

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9.2 Propose natural sources of new antimicrobial agents

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9.3 Explain the difference between a narrow and broad-spectrum drug

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9.3 Explain the difference between a narrow and broad-spectrum drug

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1.  Broad spectrum: attack many kinds of bacteria

2.  Narrow spectrum: effective only against a limited variety of pathogens

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9.4 Correlate drug action with cidal and static effects

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9.4 Correlate drug action with cidal and static effects

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1.  Static: reversibly inhibit growth

2.  Cidal: kills target pathogen (may be static at low levels)

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9.5 Explain how to determine the level of antibacterial drug activity using the dilution susceptibility test, the disk diffusion test, and the Etest 

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9.5 Explain how to determine the level of antibacterial drug activity using the dilution susceptibility test, the disk diffusion test, and the Etest 

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1.  Dilution susceptibility testing:

Used to determine MIC and MLC

Can be performed in agar or broth

Mueller-Hinton agar or broth is used

Almost all organisms can grow on M - H

Contains starch to absorb any toxic biproducts produced by bacteria so that they don’t interfere with antimicrobial activity

“loose” agar allows for better diffusion of antibiotics

Twofold dilutions of antibiotics impregnated into media are inoculated with a standard density of the test organism

Lowest concentration of the antibiotic resulting in no growth after 16 -20 hours of incubation is the MIC

MLC is determined by culturing the tubes that show no growth onto fresh media that does not contain the antibiotic

2.  Disk diffusion test:  Most simple to perform

Mueller-Hinton agar inoculated with bacterium

Small paper disks, each impregnated with a different antibiotic are placed on the inoculated agar

Antibiotic will diffuse outward through the agar, producing a concentration gradient

Highest concentration of antibiotic near the disk and decreases with distance

Resistant organisms will grow close to the disk whereas susceptible organisms will not be able to

A clear zone or ring will form around an antibiotic disk after incubation if the agent inhibits bacterial growth

The wider the zone surrounding the disk, the more susceptible the pathogen is*

*Zone width is also a function of the antibiotic’s initial concentration, its solubility, and its diffusion rate through the agar, therefore zone width cannot be used to compare the effectiveness of antibiotics directly

3.  The Etest®

Often used in sensitivity testing

MIC determined by the Etest®

Bacteria inoculated onto surface of agar and an Etest® strip is placed on the surface

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9.6 Compare antibacterial drug mechanisms of action

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9.6 Compare antibacterial drug mechanisms of action

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9.7 Correlate lack of microbial growth with selective toxicity

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9.7 Correlate lack of microbial growth with selective toxicity

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9.8 Relate side effects of antibacterial drugs to mechanisms of action

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9.8 Relate side effects of antibacterial drugs to mechanisms of action