# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition, Checklist and Characteristics

Specific learning disability (SLD) refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or perform mathematical calculations.

Specific learning disability categories include dyslexia, executive function disorder, perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, and developmental aphasia.

SLD does not include learning problems related to physical difficulties (visual, hearing, motor skills), emotional disturbance, cultural factors, environmental, or economic disadvantage.

Specific Learning Disability is mentioned in the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004), the idea being that to qualify for an IEP (Individual Education Plan) a specific disability must be identified according to Federal guidelines.

Federal Definition of SLD

While states have some discretion as to how they measure specific learning disabilities, there are fairly detailed Federal guidelines that must be adhered to. Criteria adopted by states:

1. Must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability;

2. Must permit the use of a process based on the child's response to scientific, research-based intervention;

3. May permit the use of other alternative research-based procedures for determining whether a child has a learning disability.

Who Makes The Diagnosis

The assessment process made to determine if a child suspected of specific learning disabilities is a child with a disability must be made by the child's parents and a team of qualified professionals, including the child's regular teacher and a person qualified to conduct individual diagnostic examinations of children, such as a school psychologist, speech-language pathologist, or remedial reading teacher. The assessment must include observations in the child's classroom.

Definition of Specific Learning Disability In Detail

A specific learning disability as defined in IDEA:

1. When the child does not achieve adequately for the child's age or meet State-approved grade-level standards in one or more of the following areas:
- Oral expression
- Listening comprehension
- Written expression
- Basic reading skill
- Reading fluency skills
- Reading comprehension
- Mathematics calculation or problem solving

2. The child exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance, achievement, or both, due to an identified learning disability that is not the result of a visual, hearing, or motor disability; mental retardation; emotional disturbance; cultural factors; environmental or economic disadvantage; or limited English proficiency.

To see more details on the specific learning disabilities evaluation process, read this Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities on the US Department of Education website.

Can Gemm Learning Help?

Our software accelerates the natural development of essential cognitive skills needed for learning and reading. Our quick-fire exercises use the sounds of language and neuroscience principles to help the brain mature its learning on a faster trajectory. Our goals are improved processing, easier learning and more automatic reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Specific Learning Disability | SLD Definition, What is SLD?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Specific learning disability (SLD) refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or perform mathematical calculations.

# data[].attributes.body
It's a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. (IDEA, 2019)
High incidence: 2.7 (2nd in the IDEA rank)
Includes issues with:

Articulation (atypical production or omission of sounds)

Voice (atypical voice quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, disruption in vocal cord function)

Fluency (interruptions in the flow of speech, atypical rate or rhythm of sounds, syllables, words, phrases)

Language (impaired comprehension or use of spoken language which affects written language and other symbolic forms of communication).

# data[].attributes.body
Seating plan that allows proximity to teacher

Reducing background noise as far as possible

Careful chunking and scaffolding of content

Sequential or tiered approach to activities

Using multisensory enhancing cues for instruction and feedback (visual, auditory, tactile)

Multimodal assessment

Flexible grouping in differentiated learning stations w/ or w/o peer buddies

Recycling vocabulary often

Allowing extra time

# data[].attributes.body
They're beneficial particularly for learners with deficits in phonological processing.

Text-to-Speech (TTS) (eg, Microsoft Reader, ReadPlease, Kurzweil 3000). This kind of software helps students to bypass the task of decoding words. Seeing individual words highlighted as the text is read aloud may help to improve students’ sight word vocabulary.

Pentop computers

Talking Dictionaries (eg, Visuwords)

Audiobooks (eg, Audiobooks.com, Audible, Librivox)

Electronic notepads

Highlighter strips or sticky notes to block out clutter from a text

# data[].attributes.body
They can help reduce cognitive overload both on low and high level composition skills, from spelling and phonics to organization of ideas. The drawback is that the initial training process for some of these technologies might be frustrating for some learners. Well paced and step-by-step instructions will go a long way.

Talking word processors, Speech-to-Text (STT) or Speech Recognition software (eg, WriteOutLoud, Intellitalk, Aspire Reader, Type & Talk on GoogleDocs, Dragon Naturally Speaking, Dictation support on Pages). Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

Graphic organizers (eg, DraftBuilder, Inspiration, SimpleMind+, SparkSpace)

Word prediction (eg, WordQ)

Pencil grips / Computerized pens

# data[].attributes.body
Besides specific speech therapy techniques that are beyond a regular classroom teacher's reach, here are some strategies that can help improve speech:

Cue cards (eg, Flashcard Machine)

Interactive Whiteboards (eg, ShowMe)

AAC (Augmentative Alternative Communication) (eg, ProLoquo)

# data[].attributes.body
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967467.pdf

https://www.ldatschool.ca/assistive-technology/

http://sinche.uom.gr/sites/default/files/14_disability_categories_under_idea.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lk8qesnsdec

https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46566

https://sites.google.com/site/inclusionresourcenotebook/disability-areas/high-incidence-disabilities

https://do2learn.com/disabilities/CharacteristicsAndStrategies/Overview.html

http://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-assistive-technology-and-aac/#:~:text=AAC%20is%20short%20for%20Augmentative,use%20verbal%20speech%20or%20writing.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Create a padlet with the 14 categories of disabilities as identified by IDEA with your cohort. This will be a single submission for the whole cohort.  Add your cohort name on the top of the mind map.

2. For each category, research and include assistive technologies and other accommodations that can be used for struggling students. Link or add images, videos, and additional relevant information to the relevant categories within the group padlet.

3. On the padlet, be sure to sign in (create a free account if needed) so that your name will appear in each of your contributions. Make sure to add your cohort name on the padlet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Image Credit Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI ...hillandponton.com

# data[].attributes.body
The use of assistive technology for cognition to support the performance of daily activities for individuals with cognitive disabilities due to traumatic brain injury.

Many individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) are young and could have many years of productivity ahead of them. However, cognitive impairments may hinder individuals’ ability to perform daily tasks. Assistive technology for cognition (ATC) can be effective in helping compensate for cognitive impairments.

Credit : iospress.com

# data[].attributes.headline
Examining the Quality of Individualized Education Program (IEP) Goals for Children With Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

# data[].attributes.subject
Examining the Quality of Individualized Education Program (IEP) Goals for Children With Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

# data[].attributes.body
For more information visit : https://www.slideserve.com/ronia/guided-pa-iep-for-student-with-traumatic-brain-injury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
guided pa iep for student with traumatic brain injury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
guided pa iep for student with traumatic brain injury ppt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Guided PA IEP for Student with Traumatic Brain Injury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Guided PA IEP for Student with Traumatic Brain Injury. Students with TBI typically need their IEPs reviewed every 1-3 months during the initial 1-2 years, depending on the time since the injury. www.brainsteps.net. The team needs to include professionals knowledgeable about TBI

# data[].attributes.body
What is Child Development?

"A series of skills and stages that occur in a child between birth and adulthood

Domains of skills include motor, sensory, social, cognitive

Pediatricians evaluate basic developmental progress during routine office visits

Involves Child Study Center, pediatrics"

Domains of Development

"Motor skills, including large (or gross) motor skills, such as rolling over, crawling and learning to walk and run, and fine motor skills, such as the ability to pick up and eat small pieces of food or hold a pencil and draw or write

Sensory skills, including how a child uses the senses (taste, smell, touch, sound and sight) to learn about the environment

Social skills, including how an infant interacts with parents and caregivers, and then with others, including siblings, extended family and strangers

Cognitive skills, including how a child’s attention, memory, and thinking and learning skills develop and grow"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
No two children develop in exactly the same way, but the phases of child development are, for a healthy child, logical and predictable.

# data[].attributes.body
Yifan Wu. (n.d.). [Autism]. Https://Www.Nytimes.Com/2021/03/01/Well/Family/Diagnosing-Autism-in-the-Pandemic.Html.

# data[].attributes.body
Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. According to the Centers for Disease Control, autism affects an estimated 1 in 44 children in the United States today.

We know that there is not one autism but many subtypes, most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Because autism is a spectrum disorder, each person with autism has a distinct set of strengths and challenges. The ways in which people with autism learn, think and problem-solve can range from highly skilled to severely challenged. Some people with ASD may require significant support in their daily lives, while others may need less support and, in some cases, live entirely independently.
Several factors may influence the development of autism, and it is often accompanied by sensory sensitivities and medical issues such as gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, seizures or sleep disorders, as well as mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression and attention issues.

# data[].attributes.body
The autism diagnosis age and intensity of autism’s early signs vary widely. Some infants show hints in their first months. In others, behaviors become obvious as late as age 2 or 3.

Not all children with autism show all the signs. Many children who don’t have autism show a few. That’s why professional evaluation is crucial.

The following may indicate a child is at risk for an autism spectrum disorder.

Social Communication and Interaction Skills

Examples of social communication and social interaction characteristics related to ASD can include:

Avoids or does not keep eye contact

Does not respond to name by 9 months of age

Does not show facial expressions like happy, sad, angry, and surprised by 9 months of age

Does not play simple interactive games like pat-a-cake by 12 months of age

Uses few or no gestures by 12 months of age (e.g., does not wave goodbye)

Does not share interests with others (e.g., shows you an object that he or she likes by 15 months of age)

Does not point or look at what you point to by 18 months of age

Does not notice when others are hurt or sad by 24 months of age

Does not pretend in play (e.g., does not pretend to “feed” a doll by 30 months of age)

Shows little interest in peers

Has trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about own feelings at 36 months of age or older

Does not play games with turn taking by 60 months of age

Restricted or Repetitive Behaviors or Interests

People with ASD have behaviors or interests that can seem unusual. These behaviors or interests set ASD apart from conditions defined by only problems with social communication and interaction.

Examples of restricted or repetitive interests and behaviors related to ASD can include:

Lines up toys or other objects and gets upset when order is changed

Repeats words or phrases over and over (i.e., echolalia)

Plays with toys the same way every time

Is focused on parts of objects (e.g., wheels)

Gets upset by minor changes

Has obsessive interests

Must follow certain routines

Flaps hands, rocks body, or spins self in circles

Has unusual reactions to the way things sound, smell, taste, look, or feel

Other Characteristics

Most people with ASD have other characteristics. These might include:

Delayed language skills

Delayed movement skills

Delayed cognitive or learning skills

Hyperactive, impulsive, and/or inattentive behavior

Epilepsy or seizure disorder

Unusual eating and sleeping habits

Gastrointestinal issues (e.g., constipation)

Unusual mood or emotional reactions

Anxiety, stress, or excessive worry

Lack of fear or more fear than expected

It is important to note that children with ASD may not have all or any of the behaviors listed as examples here.

# data[].attributes.headline
Screening and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder

# data[].attributes.subject
Screening and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder

# data[].attributes.body
Diagnosing autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be difficult because there is no medical test, like a blood test, to diagnose the disorder. Doctors look at the child’s developmental history and behavior to make a diagnosis.

ASD can sometimes be detected at 18 months or younger. By age 2, a diagnosis by an experienced professional can be considered very reliable [¹]. However, many children do not receive a final diagnosis until much older. Some people are not diagnosed until they are adolescents or adults. This delay means that children with ASD might not get the early help they need.
Monitoring, screening, evaluating, and diagnosing children with ASD as early as possible is important to make sure children receive the services and supports they need to reach their full potential. There are several steps in this process.

Developmental Monitoring

Developmental monitoring observes how a child grows and changes over time and whether the child meets the typical developmental milestones in playing, learning, speaking, behaving, and moving. Parents, grandparents, early childhood providers, and other caregivers can participate in developmental monitoring.

When a child is  taken  to a well visit, the doctor or nurse will also do developmental monitoring. The doctor or nurse might ask  questions about thevchild’s development or will talk and play with the child to see if he or she is developing and meeting milestones. A missed milestone could be a sign of a problem, so the doctor or another specialist will take a closer look by using a more thorough test or exam.

Developmental Screening

Developmental screening takes a closer look at how a child is developing. The  child will get a brief test, or the parents or guardians  will complete a questionnaire about the child. The tools used for developmental and behavioral screening are formal questionnaires or checklists based on research that ask questions about a child’s development, including language, movement, thinking, behavior, and emotions. Developmental screening can be done by a doctor or nurse, but also by other professionals in healthcare, community, or school settings.

Developmental screening is more formal than developmental monitoring and normally done less often than developmental monitoring. The  child should be screened if the parents or  doctor have a concern. However, developmental screening is a regular part of some of the well-child visits for all children even if there is not a known concern.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends developmental and behavioral screening for all children during regular well-child visits at these ages:

9 months

18 months

30 months

In addition, AAP recommends that all children be screened specifically for ASD during regular well-child doctor visits at:

18 months

24 months

Additional screening might be needed if a child is at high risk for ASD (e.g., having a sister, brother or other family member with an ASD) or if behaviors sometimes associated with ASD are present.

If a  child is at higher risk for developmental problems due to preterm birth, low birthweight, environmental risks like lead exposure, or other factors, the healthcare provider may also discuss additional screening. If a child has an existing long-lasting health problem or a diagnosed condition, the child should have developmental monitoring and screening in all areas of development, just like those without special healthcare needs.

Comprehensive Developmental Evaluation

A brief test using a screening tool does not provide a diagnosis, but it indicates if a child is on the right development track or if a specialist should take a closer look. If the screening tool identifies an area of concern, a formal developmental evaluation may be needed. This formal evaluation is a more in-depth look at a child’s development, usually done by a trained specialist, such as a developmental pediatrician, child psychologist, speech-language pathologist, occupational therapist, or other specialist. The specialist may observe the child, give the child a structured test, ask the parents or caregivers questions, or ask them to fill out questionnaires. The results of this formal evaluation determines whether a child needs special treatments or early intervention services or both.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Supporting Students with Autism: 10 Ideas for Inclusive Classrooms

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students with autism may have unique needs with learning, social skills, and communication. These ten simple ideas will help teachers address some of these needs and provide guidance for bringing out the best in learners with autism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Applied Behavior Analysis Programs Guide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
With education constantly evolving and autism on the rise (autism is said to now affect 1 in 43!), more and more teachers are welcoming into their classrooms students on the autism spectrum. While teaching a child with autism may seem daunting, doing so can often prove to be one of the most rewarding parts of an educator's career. Here are 30 things all teachers should know about autism in the classroom.

If you've met one child with autism, you've met one child with autism.

It's possible for a child with autism to move up the spectrum.

Like all kids, children with autism have strengths and weaknesses.

Respect the patterns.

Be aware of sensory issues - what they are and why they can be a problem.

Get used to the rocking, pacing, and flapping.

Provide instructions in as few words as possible.

Be prepared to give instructions multiple ways.

Social situations are difficult for children on the autism spectrum.

Don't be afraid to spend time teaching very specific social rules and skills.

Don't take the hurtful words personally.

Don't surprise your autistic students with changes.

Children on the autism spectrum often experience difficulties with motor skills.

Understand that children with autism need extra time to process language.

An autistic child has plenty of ideas and opinions, even if he can't verbalize them.

You cannot communicate to a child with autism the way you might another child.

Use positive reinforcement over punishment.

Use down time as a positive reinforcer.

Allow an autistic child time and space to self-regulate.

Students on the autism spectrum have many special interests.

Remain calm during even the "worst" behavior.

Speak literally.

Avoid even the most common idioms.

Present your autistic students with clear choices.

Use photos and examples of what a finished product looks like.

Abrupt changes in behavior usually signify anxiety.

Be aware that your classroom decor may be overstimulating to a child with autism.

Watch over the child during free time and recess.

Know that repetitive actions are calming for a child with autism.

Provide any needed help with organization.

Love your student with autism like you would love any other child in your classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
30 Things All Teachers Should Know About Autism in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Autism is on the rise. Teachers are welcoming into their classrooms students on the autism spectrum. While teaching a child with autism may seem daunting, it can often be one of the most rewarding parts of an educator's career. Here are 30 things all teachers should know about autism in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
CHC’s Speech and Language Pathologist, Hilda Man, MS, CCC-SLP offers practical strategies to support the development of social skills in children with autism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Building Social Skills in Kids with Autism

# data[].attributes.body
This podcast is part of a series that highlights adjustments that can be made in the classroom to enable students with disability to access and participate in education on the same basis as their peers.

Top five takeaways

Remember that the learning and social needs of autistic students can be hugely varied. A student who excels in maths won’t necessarily be confident in the playground, and vice versa.

Help students organise and plan their learning day by using technological tools such as timers, visual schedules and reminders. Every autistic student child will present differently; however, structure and routine in the classroom are beneficial to all students.

Prepare students for new situations through strategies such as storytelling and social scripts which describe social situations, skills or concepts. Explain any upcoming changes in routine and provide reassurance. Anxiety caused by transitions can be a major issue for some autistic students, and this can interrupt learning.

Use visual cues such as concept maps to help students learn and revise previously explored ideas. Many autistic students will benefit from materials being presented visually, as it enables them to concretely see what is required.

Consider that some autistic students may not be able to cope in a noisy classroom environment or may have other sensory sensitivities therefore require the implementation of strategies to counteract this such as the use of headphones or by providing a quiet room. When setting classroom activities, think about what you are trying to achieve, and whether the task can be completed in an alternate way.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In this episode, we talk about common adjustments teachers can make in the classroom to support autistic students. Autism is a lifelong developmental condition that can affect a student's ability to learn and the rate at which they develop new skills. Autistic students may have repetitive behaviours and experience challenges with sensory issues or social communicationwith possible accompanying intellectual and/or language impairment. Since the condition occurs on a spectrum, students will vary vastly in their strengths and talents.

Year 3 student Christopher discusses how he sometimes has trouble focusing and talks about a supervised 'time out' arrangement that helps him. His mum Claire talks about how anxiety can be one of the biggest factors holding him back. Teacher Helen McLennan says that structure and routine are important to all students, but especially autistic students. Dr Suzanne Carrington explains why it is important to get to know a student's learning strengths and to provide both scaffolding and personalised support.

Consider that some autistic students may not be able to cope in a noisy classroom environment or may have other sensory sensitivities therefore require the implementation of strategies to counteract this such as the use of headphones or by providing a quiet room. When setting classroom activities, think about what you are trying to achieve , and whether the task can be completed in an alternate way.

Discussion starters?

Search "Classroom adjustments" in Apple podcasts This link will open in a new window , Spotify This link will open in a new window , Google podcasts This link will open in a new window or wherever you get your podcasts to listen via your mobile device.

28 minute run time.
Credits Interviewees
Helen McLennan, Inclusion Support Teacher, Fig Tree Pocket State School

Dr Suzanne Carrington, Program Director, Autism Cooperative Research Centre and Assistant Dean (Research), Faculty of Education, Queensland University of Technology

Christopher, Year 3 student

Claire, Christopher's mum
Host/Producer Producer/Audio Engineer Further resources
Find further resources on the website. Download a Autism Spectrum Australia website and the the podcast episode. Autism Aspergers Advocacy Australia transcript This link will open in a new window of

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this episode, we talk about common adjustments teachers can make in the classroom to support autistic students. Autism is a lifelong developmental condition that can affect a student's ability to learn and the rate at which they develop new skills.

# data[].attributes.headline
AUTISM FOCUSED INTERVENTION RESOURCES AND MODULES

# data[].attributes.subject
AUTISM FOCUSED INTERVENTION RESOURCES AND MODULES

# data[].attributes.body
The Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules (AFIRM) are a free online tool designed to ensure that practitioners and families can USE these practices once they are identified through the review.

AFIRM Modules are designed to help you learn the step-by-step process of planning for, using, and monitoring an Evidence Based Practices with learners with ASD from birth to 22 years of age. Supplemental materials and handouts are available for download.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
AFIRM Modules are designed to help you learn the step-by-step process of planning for, using, and monitoring an evidence-based practice (EBP) with learners on the spectrum from birth to 22 years of age. Supplemental materials and handouts are available for download.

Download an overview of the Components of AFIRM to learn about modules, resources, and professional development options.

Visit the Learn with AFIRM section to find out more.

To learn more about the updated EBPs, check out the National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice website.

Introduction to Autism

Selecting an Evidence-Based Practice

AFIRM for Paraprofessionals: Simulated E-Learning

These simulated learning modules include brief overviews, video examples, and activity-based scenarios to learn foundational EBPs.

Reinforcement: Introduction & Practice

Prompting: Introduction & Practice

Supporting Peer Interactions: Introduction & Practice

Time Delay: Introduction & Practice

Visual Cues: Introduction & Practice

AFIRM for Toddlers

AFIRM for Toddlers are a set a of modules developed in collaboration with the Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center for early interventionists working with toddlers, families, and early care providers.

AFIRM for Toddlers Introduction

Behavior Supports for Toddlers

Naturalistic Interventions in the Child Care Setting

Parent-Implemented Interventions in the Home Setting

Reinforcement

Prompting

Visual Supports

Available Evidence-Based Practice Modules

The National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice (NCAEP) identified 28 EBPs based upon a systematic review. The EBP modules are designed to help you learn the step-by-step process for planning for, using, and monitoring an EBP with learners with autism from birth to 22 years of age.

Augmentative & Alternative Communication

Antecedent-Based Interventions

Ayres Sensory Integration®

Behavioral Momentum Intervention

Cognitive Behavioral Intervention

Direct Instruction

Differential Reinforcement

Discrete Trial Training

Exercise

Extinction

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Functional Communication Training

Modeling

Music-Mediated Intervention

Naturalistic Intervention

Peer-Mediated Instruction & Intervention

Parent-Implemented Intervention

Prompting

Reinforcement

Response Interruption/ Redirection

Self-Management

Social Narratives

Social Skills Training

Task Analysis

Technology-Aided Instruction & Intervention

Time Delay

Video Modeling

Visual Supports

Available Supplemental Modules

Several EBPs identified in the previous review (Wong et al., 2014) were recategorized or reclassified in the most recent review by the National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence & Practice (see Steinbrenner et al., 2020, p. 30 for details). The four modules below will remain available for AFIRM users as supplemental materials:

Picture Exchange Communication System

Pivotal Response Training

Scripting

Structured Play Groups

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
AFIRM Modules AFIRM Modules are designed to help you learn the step-by-step process of planning for, using, and monitoring an evidence-based practice (EBP) with learners on the spectrum from birth to 22 years of age. Supplemental materials and handouts are available for download.

# data[].attributes.body
Types of Assistive Technology for Autism

AT for Communication

One of the most important uses of AT is in providing the means for people on the spectrum to communicate their thoughts and needs.

According to some estimates, as many as 40% of people with autism are non-verbal.3

While this number may be an exaggeration, a very large percentage of people on the spectrum have difficulty with verbal communication and virtually all people with autism have at least some difficulty with social communication.

Low-Tech

At the low-tech end, there are low-cost, easy-to-use tools such as picture boards and picture cards, including those created by PECS—a highly-regarded organization whose products have been used in schools and by therapists for many years.

Mid-Tech

At the mid-range, there are apps for both augmentative communication and speech therapy. None of these apps were created specifically for people with autism—after all, there are many reasons why a child or adult might not be able to speak—but they are extremely useful and cost-efficient for someone who is unable to use expressive speech effectively.

Two examples of speech-generating apps include:

Proloquo2Go by Assistiveware, which features over 10,000 words, is easy to customize for physical or cognitive needs and can be used in many different languages. Compatible with iOS; costs about $250.

TouchChat HD by Prentke Romich Company, which provides English and Spanish options and allows the user to choose a voice that fits their personality. Compatible with iOS; costs about $150.

Apps for speech therapy are intended not only to substitute for the human voice but are also to help build speech and language skills. Two highly regarded options include Articulation Station and LAMP Words for Life.

AT for Learning and Executive Functioning

According to Autism Speaks, "31% of children with ASD have an intellectual disability (intelligence quotient [IQ] <70) with significant challenges in daily function, 25% are in the borderline range (IQ 71–85)."3

More than 30% are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and up to 40% experience some level of anxiety. These issues, added to the core symptoms of autism (which include speech, social, and sensory challenges) create some significant issues in school and in the workplace.

Most significant are:

Difficulties with processing spoken and written language (including challenges with some types of math such as word problems)

Sensory challenges that can make fluorescent lights, buzzers, and other ordinary noises painful and sitting still particularly difficult

Executive functioning difficulties making it hard to manage schedules, stay on task, and plan projects

Assistive technology can help with all of these issues, whether at school, at home, or in the workplace.

Low-Tech

Low-tech options for handling sensory issues include simple tools for reducing anxiety and increasing focus, such as stress balls, worry beads, weighted vests, and standing desks.

For executive functioning, ordinary written planners, color-coded schedules, and visual reminders can all make a positive difference. Most children with autism do best with hands-on and visual learning, so manipulatives like Cuisenaire rods (which are also available in virtual form) and alphabet blocks are good choices for teaching academic skills.

Mid-Tech

Mid-range options are easily available and relatively low-cost. Some examples include watches with alarms, visual timers, sound-blocking headphones, and calculators.

For many people with autism, audiobooks and recordings can be a great way to replay lectures or instructions. Because many people with autism are very visual learners, videos can be a good alternative to written books or spoken lectures.

High-Tech

At the high end, there are many types of software and apps that are intended to help visual learners think, write, and communicate.

Some are intended for the general market; these include mind mapping software like Lucidchart which are used to make connections among apparently disparate ideas and turn those connections into usable outlines and other products.

Speech to text software can also be useful, as can tools specifically created for students with learning disabilities. Examples include LiveScribe and Dragon Home.

AT for Social Skills and Communication

People with autism are very different from one another, but all share difficulties with social skills and social communication. For some, the challenges are relatively subtle; for others, even basic human interaction can be a struggle. Fortunately, there is a vast range of assistive technologies to help with these issues—some of which are very high tech.

Low-Tech

At the basic, low-tech level, an industry has arisen around teaching children with autism (and adults with more severe challenges) to prepare for and manage new or complex social situations. Among the most popular are:

Social stories: These short, simple, visual stories were first developed by Carol Gray and are used to prepare people with autism to think and behave appropriately in any situation. There are pre-existing social stories for common situations such as getting a hair cut or going to the dentist; therapists and parents can also write and illustrate customized social stories for unique situations such as starting a new school.

Social skills cards and games: Many specialized companies have created cards and games to help build social skills. There are social skills games similar to Chutes and Ladders created to reinforce empathy; Uno cards focused on feelings; and dice games that are intended to reinforce social communication skills.

Mid-Tech

Mid-level technology for social skills focuses largely on video modeling and apps (though many video games intended for preschoolers focus on social-emotional concepts).

Video modeling is a tried and true technique for teaching social skills, and companies like Model Me Kids are dedicated to creating videos to teach everything from polite greetings to joining a conversation to asking someone out on a date.

Apps are more interactive and can allow learners to select areas of interest and actually practice their skills and receive feedback. The Social Express is a social skills tool for middle school learners with autism and related disorders.

High-Tech

Social skills teaching at the high end is truly techie—and can be extremely expensive. That's because the goal is to create interactive artificial intelligence and robots that can literally take the place of human beings.

These tools are being used to help both children and adults build social skills in a risk-free, highly-interactive, and very intriguing way—and preliminary research is encouraging.4 A few of the more advanced projects along these lines include:

Kiwi, a “socially assistive robot” created by a team of researchers from the University of Southern California that teaches autistic children both how to do math and socialize.5

QTrobot, created by a company at the University of Luxembourg, which is intended to "increase children’s willingness to interact with human therapists, and decrease discomfort during therapy sessions."6

Human-shaped robots created at MIT to help develop social skills and empathy in children with autism.7

AT for Sensory Challenges

Sensory challenges in people with autism can result in over- or under-responsiveness to sensory input. In other words, people with autism may under-react to physical injury but find school buzzers to be painful.

Sensory therapists seek to "regulate" the sensory systems using assistive technology while teachers, parents, and adults with autism tend to look for tools to deaden sound and calm the nervous system.

Most adaptive technology for sensory challenges is low or medium-tech. Therapists may use trampolines, swings, brushes, balls, and similar tools to help over-responsive sensory systems become less sensitive.

Classroom teachers and paraprofessionals often use noise-canceling headphones, weighted vests, and tinted glasses to help students avoid excessive sound and light. To calm the nervous system, teachers and parents may use ball pits, weighted blankets and vests, or "squeeze machines" to provide tactile input.

Apps are commonly used for sensory "breaks." These tend to be simple tools that allow you to do things like pop bubbles, meditate, follow images with your eyes, or play repetitive music. While not necessarily created for people on the spectrum, such apps can be very helpful. A few such apps include:

Brainworks

Miracle Modus

Heatpad

AT for Safety

Many children with autism, and some adults with more severe autism, are at risk for eloping (running away). Children with autism can be very good at manipulating locks, and even "babyproofing" may not be enough to keep them indoors.
Thus, in addition to ordinary door chains, baby gates, and latches, many families (and some group homes and schools) use ID bracelets and tracking devices to maintain safety.

There are a number of companies that produce ID bracelets, tags, cards, and trackers. They provide name, address, and contact info and, in some cases, automatically connect with first responders. All are quite similar, however, and the choice depends on your level of need and your budget

A few companies that make such products include:

Alert Me Bands

AWAARE: Autism Wandering Awareness Alerts Response and Education Collaboration

Project Lifesaver International

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Technology Can Help People With Autism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From weighted blankets to socially responsive robots, there is an incredible range of assistive technology available to help those with autism.

# data[].attributes.body
Signs & Symptoms | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC. (2021, March 29). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html

Yum, L. D. (2021, July 15). Autism Spectrum Disorder Checklist: A Tool for Parents and Teachers [downloadable]. CHC Resource Library. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.chconline.org/resourcelibrary/autism-spectrum-disorder-checklist-a-tool-for-parents-and-teachers-downloadable/

Screening and Diagnosis | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD. (2020, March 13). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/screening.html#:%7E:text=Diagnosing%20autism%20spectrum%20disorder%20(ASD,at%2018%20months%20or%20younger.

Classroom adjustments: Autism - Nationally Consistent Collection of Data. (n.d.). Https://Www.Nccd.Edu.Au. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.nccd.edu.au/professional-learning/classroom-adjustments-autism

Lisa Jo Rudy. (2021, February 7). Overview of Assistive Technology for Autism. Verywell Health. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.verywellhealth.com/assistive-technology-for-autism-5076159

1. Harkin T. S.2561 - 100th Congress (1987-1988). Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals With Disabilities Act of 1988.

2. Georgia Tech Tools for Life. What is assistive technology?

3. Autism Speaks. Autism statistics and facts.

4. Alnajjar F, Cappuccio M, Renawi A, et al. Personalized robot interventions for autistic children: An automated methodology for attention assessment. Int J of Soc Robotics. 2020. doi:10.1007/s12369-020-00639-8

5. Dawson C. Socially assistive robot helps children with autism. USC Viterbi School of Engineering.

6. Waltz E. IEEE Spectrum. Therapy robot teaches social skills to children with autism.

7. Ham B. Personalized “deep learning” equips robots for autism therapy. MIT News.

# data[].attributes.body
With so many people effected we should get more trained professionals in the education system to assist and recognize those that need help.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDW2yDhMQBk

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
AAC Devices for Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

# data[].attributes.headline
Helping parents to understand the categories of TBI

# data[].attributes.subject
Helping parents to understand the categories of TBI

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rIblZqKOJVk
Credit to :Your Special Education Rights

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The IDEA's Special Education Categories: Traumatic Brain Injury

# data[].attributes.headline
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Common Assistive Technologies

# data[].attributes.subject
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Common Assistive Technologies

# data[].attributes.body
https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=497977&p=3409451

Thanks to -https://guides.library.illinois.edu/traumaticbraininjury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Technology Related Assistance to Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 described an assistive technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities."

Assistive technologies can be "high tech" and "low tech:" from canes and lever doorknobs to voice recognition software and augmentative communication devices (speech generating devices).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
LibGuides: Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Common Assistive Technologies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Technology Related Assistance to Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 described an assistive technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities."

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Just shows us how careful we need to be on a daily basis. 

# data[].attributes.body
Credit to :Pate Rehabilitation

Traumatic Brain Injury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Specific Learning Disabilities (SpLDs) refer to a group of specific lifelong cognitive impairments identified through the unexpected underachievement in a range of learning processes involving the skills of listening, speaking, spelling, written expression, mathematics, understanding, or reading including decoding and comprehension (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; IDEA, 2004; Hammill, 1990).

Key facts about SpLDs

SpLDs are distinct from intellectual disabilities in that they are specific and not global impairments. This means that SpLDs will only impact particular areas of learning such as spelling or memory whereas an intellectual disability (global impairment) will impact every aspect of an individual's cognitive functioning.

Dyslexia is the most common SpLD comprising 80% of all diagnosed SpLDs. Dyslexia relates primarily to barriers in the acquisition of reading and writing skills (Lerner, 2006).

Aside from academic barriers, people with SpLDs can also experience barriers in time management, organisational skills, social perception and social interaction.

SpLDs have a variety of presentations and range in severity.

The experience of SpLD varies from person to person and can be more disabling when there are greater barriers in the learning environment (Snowling, 2012).

As a hidden disability, the prevalence of SpLDs is frequently underestimated. International estimates indicate that SpLDs impact approximately 10% of the population (Firth, 2008).

Types of SpLDs

SpLDs typically comprise of dyslexia, impacting reading and writing, dyscalculia, impacting processing of numbers and maths, and dysgraphia impacting the mechanics of hand writing.

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is associated with specific barriers in reading, writing, spelling or comprehension. Dyslexia is the most common SpLD, affecting approximately 80% of people with an SpLD (Lee, 2008; Mather and Wendling, 2012; Kalanje, 2011; International Dyslexia Association, 2012). Because dyslexia is related to literacy skills, it is most evident in educational settings. Students with dyslexia can experience barriers in one or a collection of the below:

Visual perception of letters and words and their corresponding sounds and phonemes

Memory

Vocabulary

Spelling of spoken words

Comprehension

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia is associated with barriers in understanding numbers and mathematical concepts. Dyscalculia is estimated to occur in up to 3% of the population. For individuals with dyscalculia, it may be difficult to visualize patterns, different parts of a maths problem or identify critical information needed to solve equations and more complex problems. Dyscalculia can affect a person's ability to think quantitatively, do arithmetic, understand and measure time and space, remember times tables and perform basic calculations.

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is associated with restrictions in handwriting tasks. Dysgraphia can affect skills associated with holding a pen or pencil such as drawing shapes, numbers or letters. Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that typically appears when using the complex collection of motor and information processing skills involved in the activity of writing. Not only does it require the ability to organize and express ideas in the mind. It also requires the ability to get the muscles in the hands and fingers to form those ideas, letter by letter, on paper. A person with dysgraphia may write their letters in reverse, have trouble recalling how letters are formed, or when to use lower or upper case letters.

SpLD terminology

A range of terms are applied to SpLDs including learning disabilities, dyslexia, specific learning disorders, language disorders and learning difficulties. Variations in SpLD nomenclature is thought to expound the difficulty in understanding the defining features of an SpLD. In addition, non-diagnostic terms such as reading disorder or learning difficulty do not provide definitive information about processing barriers for students with SpLDs. This can result in inappropriate support for students with SpLDs (Glazzard, 2010; Macdonald, 2009). As a result, generic non-diagnostic labelling of students with SpLDs is discouraged and students are advised to source an SpLD diagnosis to acquire the most detailed understanding of their strengths, weaknesses and processing preferences.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
OAO. Academics and Teachers: What is a Specific Learning Disability (SpLD)?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Specific Learning Disabilities (SpLDs) refer to a group of specific lifelong cognitive impairments identified through the unexpected underachievement in a range of learning processes involving the skills of listening, speaking, spelling, written expression, mathematics, understanding, or reading including decoding and comprehension (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; IDEA, 2004; Hammill, 1990).

# data[].attributes.headline
Resource for teachers:  Dyslexia in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.subject
Resource for teachers:  Dyslexia in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Playing to Our Strengths: Neurodiversity & Education | Christy Hutton | TEDxSantaCruz

# data[].attributes.body
An excellent resource, explaining Dyslexia as well as offering strategies to help Dyslexic students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The True Gifts of a Dyslexic Mind | Dean Bragonier | TEDxMarthasVineyard

# data[].attributes.headline
Assistive Technology for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.subject
Assistive Technology for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.body
Focusing on technology - both as a way to support learning overall, and also as a way to bypass a certain difficult task for a certain situation/student.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Add to favorites
Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University
Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012). While the phrase assistive technology may make us think of computers and computerized devices, assistive technology can also be very low-tech. For example, pencil-grips (the molded plastic grips that slip over a pencil) are considered assistive technology. Assistive technology that helps students with learning disabilities includes computer programs and tablet applications that provide text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction capabilities (e.g., WordQ), and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration).

In comparison to other interventions, assistive technology may have a significant effect in helping students with disabilities progress towards the goals outlined on their Individual Education Plans (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010). Assistive technology helps in two ways: it can help the student learn how to complete the task and it can help to bypass an area of difficulty. For example, when a student decides to listen to a digital version of a book, they are bypassing an area of difficulty. However, if the student focuses on the computer screen as highlighted words are read aloud, they can learn unfamiliar words.

Assistive Technology Summary Points

1. Assistive technology ranges from low- to high-tech.

2. Assistive technology can be used in two ways: to support learning and to bypass a challenging task such as handwriting.

3. In order to be effective, assistive technology needs to be embedded within quality instruction.

Laptop Computers and Computerized Devices: Benefits of Assistive Technology

Laptop computers and tablet devices are beneficial for students with learning disabilities because they are portable and lightweight. For students with handwriting difficulties, being able to take notes on a laptop or computerized device (such as an iPad) can improve the quantity and quality of the notes (Vaughn & Bos, 2009). Using a word processor can help students to complete work that is more organized and includes less spelling errors than handwritten work (Hetzroni & Shrieber, 2004). In addition, students may identify and correct more errors when using spell check than when editing by hand (MacArthur, Graham, Haynes, & De La Paz, 1996; McNaughton, Hughes, & Ofiesh, 1997). However, obtaining personal access to laptops and computerized devices does not ensure engagement and increased academic success (Donovan, Green, & Hartley, 2010). For many students, laptop computers and computerized devices can be too distracting. Teachers and students need to be trained in how to meaningfully integrate technology into academic contexts so that the devices don't detract from learning (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

Computer-assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction refers to software and applications that have been designed to provide instruction and practice opportunities on a wide range of devices (e.g., computer, laptop, iPad, mobile technology). Computer-assisted instruction provides immediate and dynamic feedback and students with learning disabilities can benefit from this nonjudgmental computerized drill and practice (Stetter & Hughes, 2010). Computer-assisted instruction has been shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities in spelling and expressive writing skills (Wanzek et al., 2006) as this software can reduce distractibility (Hecker, Burns, Elkind, Elkind, & Katz, 2002), and can help students learn to read (Lee & Vail, 2005) and achieve other academic outcomes (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Computer-assisted instruction is also an effective way for students with learning disabilities to practice math drills (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009), as students who used computer-assisted instruction to practice math skills were able to memorize math facts more easily, and developed a more positive attitude towards math than students who did not use computer-assisted instruction (Adcock et al., 2010).
Computer-assisted Instruction Summary Points Figure 1: Helping students through assistive technology

1. Computer-assisted instruction provides students with dynamic feedback.

2. Computer-assisted instruction can help students practice spelling and multiplication drills.

3. In order to prevent the technology from being a distraction, students need to be taught how to use technology to support their learning

Software Functions

Assistive technology can improve the writing skills of students with learning disabilities (Batorowicz, Missiuna, & Pollock, 2012). Assistive technology can help students to bypass the mechanical aspects of writing. Using spell check and grammar features can help students focus on communicating their ideas and students can write with confidence knowing that they can easily make changes. In addition, being able to submit a final assignment that is neater and better organized supports positive self-esteem. Text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction (e.g., WordQ) and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration) are four useful software functions for students who struggle with language-based learning disabilities.

We may not consider the default functions of word processors to be ground breaking, but for students with learning disabilities, functions such as spell check and text-to-speech can be a tremendous help when composing and decoding words.

Text-to-speech - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text. This is beneficial as students are more likely to understand text when unfamiliar words are read to them (MacArthur, Ferreti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001). Text-to-speech can have a positive effect on decoding and word recognition (Raskind & Higgins, 1999), as well as reading fluency and reading comprehension (Izzo, Yurick, & McArrell, 2009; Montali & Lewandowski, 1996; Stodden, Roberts, Takahishi, Park, & Stodden, 2012). Text-to-speech software can be especially helpful for students who retain more information through listening than reading. This software can assist students with monitoring and revising their typed work, as hearing the text read aloud may assist students in catching grammatical errors that may have otherwise gone unnoticed (Raskind & Higgins, 1995; Rao, Dowrick, Yuen, & Boisvert, 2009; Zhang, 2000).

After reviewing the literature, Strangman and Dalton (2005) reported that the use of text-to-speech software can improve students' sight reading and decoding abilities. In addition, text-to-speech software can improve the reading comprehension of individuals with specific deficits in phonological processing (difficulty hearing letter-sounds) as students can learn to decode new words when they are highlighted as they are read aloud (Fasting & Halaas Lyster, 2005; Holmes & Silvestri, 2009). Kurzweil 3000 provides reading, writing, studying, and organizational support for students who have difficulty reading or writing (e.g., Elkind, 1998). The use of Kurweil 3000 software also improves students' perception of their work and their ability to write expressively (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Programs such as Kurzweil 3000 may decrease the negative emotions students associate with reading and provide students with a more complete comprehension of the text (Young, 2012), and as a result, text-to-speech programs are recommended for use along with research-supported reading intervention practices.

Speech-to-text - Writing involves low-level transcription skills (e.g., handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and grammar), as well as high-level composition skills (e.g., planning, generating content, and revising). Speech-to-text software transcribes spoken word into computer text, allowing the student to bypass the demands of typing or handwriting; freed from these effortful tasks, students may compose stories that are longer, more complex, and contain fewer errors (Graham, 1999). Speech recognition accuracy improves with use; however, new users can become frustrated with the training process, and they may lack the ability to efficiently edit the program's text output. Titles such as XpressLab are licensed by the Ministry of Education and can be used to improve expressive oral language for students in grade 7-12.
Software Summary Point
Voice recognition software can improve word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills for students with learning disabilities (Higgins & Raskind, 2000). MacArthur and Cavalier (2004) found that for students with learning disabilities, essays dictated using Dragon Naturally Speaking were better than handwritten essays, but essays dictated to a scribe were even better. These authors found a differential impact on students with and without disabilities, providing evidence that this technology removes a barrier based on disability.
Click here to access a list of Ministry of Education approved software titles.
Word Prediction - Word prediction software was originally designed for students with physical disabilities who experienced difficulty typing. However, word prediction with text-to-speech is also effective for students with learning disabilities because it reduces the need for handwriting, and improves students' spelling accuracy and writing skills (Cullen, Richards, & Frank, 2008; Evmenova, Graff, Jerome & Behrman, 2010; Handley-More, Dietz, Billingsley & Coggins, 2003; Lewis, Graves, Ashton, & Kieley, 1998; Silió & Barbetta, 2010). In addition, students may find it enjoyable to have the words recommended through word prediction and be able to form sentences without having to worry about spelling and word-choice (Evmenova et al., 2010).

An analysis of 25 years of research found that word prediction increases transcription accuracy and may also increase word fluency and compositional quality of writing for students with learning and academic difficulties (Peterson-Karlan, 2011). In one particular study, children and their families generally found WordQ to be helpful, and reported improved vocabulary use and increased independence, productivity, and motivation to write (Tam, Archer, Mays, & Skidmore, 2005). While there are potential benefits to the use of WordQ, a basic foundation of phonological awareness is required as students who are unable to identify the beginning sound of words will not benefit from using word prediction software because the user has to provide the first letters of the word (MacArthur, 1999). In addition, word prediction demands a fairly high level of attention to make use of the suggested words (MacArthur, 1998); and as a result, each child must be considered on an individual basis in order to select the appropriate technology for his or her learning needs.

1. Text-to-speech software helps students to bypass the task of decoding words. Seeing individual words highlighted as the text is read aloud may help to improve students' sight word vocabulary.

2. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

3. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

Mid-tech Devices

Mid-tech devices such as audio recorders, portable note takers, mp3 players, calculators, and pentop computers (such as LiveScribe smartpen) can be useful without the cost associated with high-tech devices. For example, the AlphaSmart is a note-taking device that can provide basic word-processing, without the cost related to the purchase and maintenance of a laptop. AlphaSmart devices were discontinued in 2013, but NEO Direct still provides support for users.

Figure 2: Exploring technology for students with learning disabilities
While assistive technology can be low or high-tech, most of the assistive technology for students with learning disabilities is high-tech (Lewis, 1998). Teachers should become familiar with assistive technology and understand how it can be incorporated within their teaching to support an inclusive learning environment.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers benefit individuals who experience difficulty expressing their thoughts on paper as well as visual learners who need to see their ideas mapped out. While graphic organizers completed without technology can help students with learning disabilities to improve the quality of writing (Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education, 2003), electronic versions, such as Inspiration, allow students to arrange their thoughts on the computer screen without worrying about order, level of importance or categories because the text can be easily manipulated. Graphic organizers provide an organizational framework to help writers generate topics and content for writing projects and can assist with the planning and organizational stages of writing, and using concept mapping software can increase the quality and quantity of writing (Sturm & Rankin-Erickson, 2002). Using a web-based graphic organizer with procedural prompts enabled students to produce better organized and higher quality papers, than they could produce with handwritten organizers (Englert, Wu & Zhao, 2005; Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, & Woblers, 2007). Being taught a strategy to plan and organize writing can improve the compositions of students with learning disabilities (MacArthur, 2009).

Pentop computers - Pentop computers, such as LiveScribe smart pens, are cheaper than high-tech devices like iPads but can provide text-to-speech, strategy feedback, and other organizational functions. As cost-effective and self-regulated reading aides, pentop computers may be a useful tool for students with reading disabilities (Schmitt, McCallum, Hennessey, Lovelace, & Hawkins, 2012). Pentop computers are also useful because they utilize instruction strategies such as providing auditory feedback during composition or math work. Handheld computerized devices that provide feedback have shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities for essay composition (Bouck, Bassette, Taber-Doughty, Flanagan, & Szwed, 2009), and receptive note-taking and multiplication skills (Bouck, Flanagan, Miller, & Bassette, 2009). For example, pentop computers are able to provide reminders such as "don't forget to carry" during multiplication questions (Doughty, Bouck, Bassette, Szwed, & Flanagan, 2013).

Calculators and math software - Students with learning disabilities may have a history of academic failure, which contributed to their development of learned helplessness in math. For some students, a fear of failure and low academic self-concept can lead to math related anxiety. While the use of calculators can level the playing field for students with learning disabilities, some research has shown that calculators may provide unfair advantage (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009). Graphing calculators may be particularly effective because they provide visual conformation of the graph-shape. The added advantage of visual data can be highly motivating for students with learning disabilities (Bethell & Miller, 1998). Math drill programs can be an effective way for students to learn to mentally solve math questions (Adcock et al., 2010), they are also effective in increasing motivation and the addition and subtraction skills of students with dyscalculia (Amiripour, Bijan-zadeh, Pezeshki, & Najafi, 2011). Math Trek 1,2,3 is an example of software licensed by the Ministry of Education for use in classroom. Click here to find the full list of approved software titles.

1. Concept organizers, whether completed electronically or by hand, may contribute to better writing in students with learning disabilities.

2. Pentop computers can be used for reading (text-to-speech), writing (digitizing written words), and math (strategy feedback).

3. Calculators can help students with learning disabilities demonstrate their understanding of mathematical computations. Graphing calculators can provide additional support as they verify graph shapes and help solve algebraic equations.

Considerations

Much needs to be done to improve the quality of special education technology research (Edyburn, 2009). Little research has been conducted on the use of assistive technology in inclusive schools (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010), and only a few researchers are conducting systematic, well-designed research that can lead to confident conclusions on how the use of assistive technology affects learning (Edyburn & Gersten, 2007; MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Wanzek et al., 2006). In addition, research cannot be produced quickly enough to match the rate of technological innovations, and as a result, educators tend to rely on the claims of the producers of the technologies rather than evidence-based research (Blackhurst, 2005).

Despite the enthusiasm that may surround the application of assistive technology in the classroom, assistive technology is not a panacea. Lack of common vision, limited training, access to support services, insufficient funding, and lack of teacher time are commonly cited problems in regards to the implementation of assistive technology (Ault, Bausch, & McLaren, 2013; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Morrison, 2007; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Researchers have noted that there is still an enormous gap between the potential of assistive technology and how much it actually helps (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011).

Assistive technology can reduce students' dependence on others to read, write, and organize their work (MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Mull & Sitlington, 2003). When provided with effective strategy instruction, outlining programs and concept mapping software can help with planning, and word processing, spell check, word prediction, and speech recognition can offer support for transcription and revision (MacArthur, 2009). While assistive technology can support struggling learners, MacArthur (2009) cautions that technology by itself has little impact on learning. In order for students to benefit from the technology, educators must have an understanding of assistive technology and how to embedded it within quality instruction (Batorowicz, Missiuana, & Pollock, 2012; Lee & Vega, 2005; Marino, Marino, & Shaw, 2006; Michaels & McDermott, 2003).

Staff Training

In a large scale survey study nearly three-quarters of respondents indicated that improved staff training and knowledge were the most important actions that could be taken to promote technology use (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Assistive technology devices and services have to be coupled with context-appropriate instruction from trained teachers (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007), as students' successful implementation of assistive technology is directly related to the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of special education teachers (Michaels & McDermott, 2003). While educators acknowledge the potential of assistive technology, they may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of understanding and using this technology with their students (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001). Many teachers feel that they lack the knowledge and support to more fully integrate assistive technology into the curriculum (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). This is not surprizing given that only a third of special education programs surveyed by Judge and Simms (2009) addressed assistive technology, and few workshops or professional development opportunities exist to continually support teachers' use of assistive technology during instruction (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001; Michaels & McDermott, 2003). Teachers' use and understanding of assistive technology may increase when provided with effective instruction during pre-service education or professional development opportunities (Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Lee & Vega, 2005). General educators and special educators need to become familiar with assistive and instructional technology so that they can embed this technology within their instruction to meet the needs of all their students (Chmiliar, 2007; Chmiliar & Cheung, 2007; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013).

When recommending the use of assistive technology, one must consider how training can be provided for students, parents, and teachers to become competent with the technology, as well as environmental factors that will continue to support the child in using technology (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007). Funding should be allotted for the training of teachers to effectively facilitate assistive technology use (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011), and all educators who support an individual student should be knowledgeable about that child's assistive technology and be able to embed the use of the technology within instruction (Nelson, 2006; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Computers shouldn't be restricted to a specific subject area, and the use of technology should not solely occur within a computer lab; rather, assistive and instructional technology should be an integral part of all subjects and the use of these tools should be built into the curriculum. Schools should encourage teaching staff to assume the role of technology co-ordinators as they understand the demands of the curriculum and may be best equipped to find free or low cost educational solutions to help students meet curricular expectations.

1. Due to the limited evidence-based research, teachers tend to make decision about assistive technology based on claims from the software companies.

2. In order to be effective, assistive technology has to be coupled with quality instruction.

3. Teachers require training to support their implementation of assistive technology.

Examples of Assistive Technology by Domain

Receptive
Notepad - Notepads are an excellent way to record information. Students with learning disabilities (LDs) may appreciate having the information colour-coded based on the purpose, topic, or function of the information.

Audiobooks - Provides a simple way to listen to many of the best classic books and modern titles .

Speaking
Cue cards - Cue cards provide helpful hints for the oral presentation of information, and the process of composing cue cards can help organize the information before-hand.

Prezi - A free 3D graphic organizer which can be used to create presentations. Prezis can be collaborative as students can comment and build upon other Prezis.

ShowMe Interactive Whiteboard -In order to reduce anxiety, students may opt to record presentations on their iPad beforehand. Video recordings can be uploaded on YouTube or a more private domain.

Reading
Highlighter strips - Translucent rectangles of colour can help eliminate extra visual clutter by blocking out the rest of the text. Sticky notes - Students with LDs may find it useful to summarize the main ideas of the text with sticky notes which can be stuck directly on the page.

Kurzweil 3000 - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text.

Storyline Online - A free online streaming video program featuring books read aloud. Each book includes accompanying activities and lesson ideas.

Project Gutenberg - Over 45,000 free e-books.

Wikipedia - The Simple English function on Wikipedia allows content to be "translated" into plain English which is easier to read.

Writing
Pencil grips - For students who struggle with handwriting, pencil grips can provide a surface that is easier to manipulate.

Computerized pens - These pens can automatically transmit handwriting into digital text. Some computerized pens have audio-recording functions that allow the writer to listen to specific sections of the audio file by tapping on the written notes.

Word processing - Functions such as spell check, dictionary options, synonym support, and word-prediction features are helpful for students with learning disabilities.

Reasoning
Graphic organizers - Organizing ideas visually allows students with LDs to see the connections between ideas. Audio recorders - Many students with LD experience difficulty translating oral language into written text. Recording ideas early in the thinking process can provide a record for later recall and clarification.

SimpleMind+ - This app allows you to brainstorm and organize your ideas. Completed concept maps can be automatically converted to an outline.

Math
4-function calculator - Depending on the type of work being done, a 4-function calculator can be a great help without providing disproportionate advantage to students with LDs.

Graphing calculator - Graphing computers can solve complex equations, and the dynamic display screen allows the student to verify the results before solving on paper.

Math Dictionary for Kids - An animated, interactive online math dictionary that explains over 600 common mathematical terms in simple language.

Braiing Camp - Animated lessons and interactive activities to assess student understanding.

IXL Math - IXL's math practice skills are aligned with pre-K through Grade 8 provincial curricula, and students' performance is assessed on each objective.

Sumdog - Sumdog's learning engine adapts its math questions to each student's ability. Covering number operations through to simple algebra, it is designed for students age 6 to 14.

ShowMe and ScreenChomp - These apps provide an interactive whiteboard interface to solve problems. The actions on the screen and audio can be recorded and shared as a video file.

References

Adcock, W., Luna, E., Parkhurst, J., Poncy, B., Skinner, C., & Yaw, J. (2010). Effective class-wide remediation: Using technology to identify idiosyncratic math facts for additional automaticity drills. The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 6, 111-123.

Amiripour, P., Bijan-zadeh, M. H., Pezeshki, P., & Najafi, M. (2011). Effects of assistive technology instruction on increasing motivation and capacity of mathematical problem solving in dyscalcula student. Educational Research, 2(10), 1611-1618.

Ault, M. J., Bausch, M. E., & McLaren, E. M. (2013). Assistive technology service delivery in rural school districts. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32(2), 15-22. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1420524203?accountid=6180

Batorowicz, B., Missiuna, C. A., & Pollock, N. A. (2012). Technology supporting written productivity in children with learning disabilities: A critical review. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(4), 211-224. doi:10.2182/cjot.2012.79.4.3

Bethell, S. & Miller, N. (1998). From an E to an A in first year algebra with the help of a graphing calculator. Mathematics Teacher, 91, 118-119.

Blackhurst, A. (2005). Perspectives on applications of technology in the field of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 28, 175-178. doi:10.2307/1593622

Bouck, E. C., Bassette, L., Taber-Doughty, T., Flanagan, S. M., & Szwed, K. (2009). Pentop computers as tools for teaching multiplication to students with mild intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 367-380.

Bouck, E. & Flanagan, S. (2009). Assistive technology and mathematics: What is there and where can we go in special education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 24, 24-30.

Bouck, E., Flanagan, S., Miller, B., & Bassette, L. (2012). Technology In Action. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27, 47-57.

Burne, B., Knafelc, V., Melonis, M. & Heyn, P. (2011). The use and application of assistive technology to promote literacy in early childhood: a systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 6, 207-213. doi:10.3109/17483107.2010.522684

Chiang, H., & Jacobs, K. (2009). Effect of computer-based instruction on students' self-perception and functional task performance. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 4(2), 106-118. doi:10.1080/17483100802613693

Chmiliar, L. (2007). Perspectives on assistive technology: What teachers, health professionals and speech language pathologists have to say. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 35(1), 1-17.

Chmiliar, L., & Cheung, B. (2007). Assistive technology training for teachers - Innovation and accessibility online. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 35(1), 18-28.

Cullen, J., Richards, S. B., & Frank, C. L. (2008). Using software to enhance the writing skills of students with special needs. Journal of Special Education Technology, 23, 33-44.

Dell, A., Newton, D., & Petroff, J. (2012). Assistive technology in the classroom: Enhancing the school experiences of students with disabilities (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Donovan, L., Green, T., & Hartley, K. (2010). An examination of one-to-one computing in the middle school: Does increased access bring about increased student engagement? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 42, 423-441. doi:10.2190/EC.42.4.d

Doughty, T., Bouck, E., Bassette, L., Szwed, K. & Flanagan, S. (2013). Spelling on the fly: Investigating a pentop computer to improve the spelling skills of three elementary students with disabilities. Assistive Technology, 25, 166-175. doi:10.1080/10400435.2012.743491

Edyburn, D. (2009). Using research to inform practice. Special Education Technology Practice, 11(5), 21-28. doi:10.1080/09362830902805699

Edyburn, D., Gersten, R. (2007). Defining quality indicators in special education technology research. Journal of Special Education Technology, 22(3), 3-18. doi:10.1598/RRQ.42.1.7

Elkind, J. (1998). Computer reading machines for poor readers. Perspectives International Dyslexia Association, 24, 9-13.

Englert, C. S., Wu, X., & Zhao, Y. (2005). Cognitive tools for writing: Scaffolding the performance of students through technology. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 184-198. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00132.x

Englert, C. S., Zhao, Y., Dunsmore, K., Collings, N. Y., & Woblers, K. (2007). Scaffolding the writing of students with disabilities through procedural facilitation: Using an Internet-based technology to improve performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30, 9-29. doi:10.2307/30035513

Evmenova, A., Graff, H., Jerome, M., & Behrmann, M. (2010). Word prediction programs with phonetic spelling support: Performance comparisons and impact on journal writing for students with writing difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(4), 170-182. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2010.00315.x

Fasting, R. B., & Halaas Lyster, S. (2005). The effects of computer technology in assisting the development of literacy in young struggling readers and spellers. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 20(1), 21-40. doi:10.1080/0885625042000319061

Flanagan, S., Bouck, E. G., & Richardson, J. (2013). Middle school special education teachers' perceptions and use of assistive technology in literacy instruction. Assistive Technology, 25(1), 24-30. doi:10.1080/10400435.2012.682697

Forgrave, K. (2002). Assistive technology empowering students with learning disabilities. Assistive Technology, 75, 122-126. doi:10.1080/00098650209599250

Graham, S. (1999). The role of text production skills in writing development: A special issue. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 22, 75-77. doi:10.2307/1511267

Handley-More, D., Dietz, J., Billingsley, F., & Coggins, T. (2003). Facilitating written work using computer word processing and word prediction. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 57, 139-151. doi:10.5014/ajot.57.2.139

Hecker, L., Burns, L., Elkind, J., Elkind, K., & Katz, L. (2002). Benefits of assistive reading software for students with attention disorders. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 243-272. doi:10.1007/s11881-002-0015-8

Hetzroni, O. E., & Shrieber, B. (2004). Word processing as an assistive technology tool for enhancing academic outcomes of students with writing disabilities in the general classroom. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 143-154. doi:10.1177/0022221940403

Higgins, E. L., & Raskind, M. H. (2000). Speaking to read: A comparison of continuous vs. discrete speech recognition in the remediation of learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15, 19-30.

Holmes, A., & Silvestri, R. (2009). Text-to-voice technology in adult aboriginal sample with reading difficulties: Examination of the efficacy. Toronto, ON: Aboriginal Office of the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Training, Colleges, and Universities.

Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education. (2003). Graphic organizers: A review of scientifically based research. Prepared for Inspiration Software at AEL.

Izzo, M., Yurick, A., & McArrell, B. (2009). Supported eText: Effects of text-to-speech on access and achievement for high school students with disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 24, 9-20.

Judge, S., & Simms, K. A. (2009). Assistive technology at the pre-service level. Teacher Education and Special Education, 32, 33-44.

Langova, Anna. (n.d.) Word help. [Photograph] Retrieved from http://all-free-download.com/free-photos/word_help_185278_download.html

Lee, Y., & Vail, C. O. (2005). Computer-based reading instruction for young children with disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 20, 5-18.

Lee, Y., & Vega, L. A. (2005). Perceived knowledge, attitudes and challenges of AT use in special education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 20, 60-63.

Lewis, R. (1998). Assistive technology and learning disabilities: Today's realities and tomorrow's promises. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 16-26.

Lewis, R., Graves, A., Ashton, T., & Kieley, C. (1998). Word processing tools for students with learning disabilities: A comparison of strategies to increase text entry speed. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 13, 95-108.

Ludlow, B. L. (2001). Technology and teacher education in special education. Disaster or deliverance? Teacher Education and Special Education, 24, 143-163. doi:10.1177/088840640102400209

MacArthur, C.A. (1998). Word processing with speech synthesis and word prediction: Effects on the dialogue journal writing of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 21, 1-16. doi:10.2307/1511342

MacArthur, C. A. (1999). Word prediction for students with severe spelling problems. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 158-172. doi:10.2307/1511283

MacArthur, C. (2009). Reflections on research on writing and technology for struggling writers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(2), 93-103. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00283.x

MacArthur, C., & Cavalier, A. (2004). Dictation and speech recognition technology as test accommodations. Exceptional Children, 71(1), 43-58. doi:10.1177/001440290407100103

MacArthur, C. A., Ferretti, R. P., Okolo, C. M., & Cavalier, A. R. (2001). Technology applications for students with literacy problems: A critical review. The Elementary School Journal, 101(3), 273-301. doi:10.1086/499669

MacArthur, C. A., Graham, S., Haynes, J. B., & De La Paz, S. (1996). Spelling checkers and students with learning disabilities: Performance comparisons and impact on spelling. Journal of Special Education, 21, 22-42. doi:10.1177/002246699603000103

Marino, M. T., Marino, E. C., & Shaw, S. F. (2006). Making informed assistive technology decisions for students with high incidence disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(6), 18-25.

McNaughton, D., Hughes, C., & Ofiesh, N. (1997). Proofreading for students with learning disabilities: Integrating computer and strategy use. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 12, 16-28.

Michaels, C. A., & McDermott, J. (2003). Assistive technology integration in special education teacher preparation: Program coordinators' perceptions of current attainment and importance. Journal of Special Education Technology, 18, 29-41.

Montali, J., & Lewandowski, L. J. (1996). Bimodal reading: Benefits of a talking computer for average and less skilled readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 271-279. doi:10.1177/002221949602900305

Morrison, K. (2007). Implementation of assistive computer technology: A model for school systems. International Journal of Special Education, 22(1), 83-95.

Mull, C. A., & Sitlington, P. L. (2003). The role of technology in the transition to postsecondary education of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 26-32. doi:10.1177/00224669030370010301

Nelson, B. (2006). On your mark, get set, wait! Are your teacher candidates prepared to embed assistive technology in teaching and learning? College Student Journal, 40(3), 485 - 494.

Okolo, C. M., & Diedrich, J. (2014). Twenty-five years later: How is technology used in the education of students with disabilities? Results of a statewide study. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29( 1), 1-20.

Peterson-Karlan, G. R. (2011). Technology to support writing by students with learning and academic disabilities: Recent research trends and findings. Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits, 7(1), 39-62.

Raskind, M. & Higgins, E. (1995). Effects of speech synthesis on the proofreading efficiency of postsecondary students with learning disabilities, Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 141-158. doi:10.2307/1511201

Raskind, M. & Higgins, E. (1999). Speaking to read: The effects of speech recognition technology on the reading and spelling performance of children with learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 251-281. doi:10.1007/s11881-999-0026-9

Rao, K., Dowrick, P., Yuen, J., & Boisvert, P. (2009). Writing in a multimedia environment: Pilot outcomes for high school students in special education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 24, 27-38.

Schmitt, A., McCallum, E., Hennessey, J., Lovelace, T., & Hawkins, R. (2012). Use of reading pen assistive technology to accommodate post-secondary students with reading disabilities. Assistive Technology, 24, 229-239. doi:10.1080/10400435.2012.659956

Silió, M. C., & Barbetta, P. M. (2010). The effects of word prediction and text-to-speech technologies on the narrative writing skills of Hispanic students with specific learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 25, 17-32.

Specht, J., Howell, G., & Young, G. (2007). Students with special education needs and their use of assistive technology during the transition to secondary school. Childhood Education, International Focus Issue, 83, 385-389. doi:10.1080/00094056.2007.10522956

Stetter, M. E., & Hughes, M. T. (2010). Computer-assisted instruction to enhance the reading comprehension of struggling readers: A review of the literature. Journal of Special Education Technology, 25(4), 1-16.

Stodden, R. A., Roberts, K. D., Takahishi, K., Park, H. J., & Stodden, N. J. (2012). The use of text-to-speech software to improve reading skills of high school struggling readers. Procedia Computer Science, 14, 359-362. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.041

Strangman, N., & Dalton, B. (2005). Using technology to support struggling readers: A review of the research. In D. Edyburn, K. Higgins, & R. Boone (Eds.), Handbook of special education technology research and practice (pp. 325-334). Whitefish Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design, Inc.

Sturm, J. M., & Rankin-Erickson, J. L. (2002). Effects of hand-drawn and computer-generated concept mapping on the expository writing of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 17, 124-129. doi:10.1111/1540-5826.00039

Tam, C., Archer, J., Mays, J., & Skidmore, G. (2005). Measuring the outcomes of word cueing technology. The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 72(5), 301-308. doi:10.1177/000841740507200507

Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Swanson, E., Edmonds, M., & Kim, A. (2006). A synthesis of spelling and reading interventions and their effects on the spelling outcomes of students with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 528-543. doi:10.1177/00222194060390060501

Watkins, M. (1989). Computerized drill-and-practice and academic attitudes of learning disabled students. Journal of Special Education Technology, 9, 167-172.

Watson, A. H., Ito, M., Smith, R. O., & Andersen, L. T. (2010). Effect of assistive technology in a public school setting. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 64, 18-29. doi:10.5014/ajot.64.1.18

Vaughn, S. & Bos, C. (2009). Strategies for teaching students with learning and behaviour problems (7thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson.
Dr. Gabrielle Young is an Assistant Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland where she teaches undergraduate courses such as the Nature and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities and Inclusive Practices for Students with Learning Disabilities, as well as graduate courses such as the Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities. While completing her doctoral studies at Western University, Gabrielle was also actively involved with the Learning Disabilities Association - London Region, where she was Vice-President of the Board. Gabrielle's research interests include: the use of assistive technology by students with special learning needs; learners' self-beliefs and the self-esteem of individuals with learning disabilities; and the use of universal design for learning and differentiated instruction to support the inclusion of students with exceptionalities in the general education classroom. Jeffrey MacCormack is a PhD student at the Faculty of Education, Queen's University, with a focus on cognition. He is a teacher certified by the Ontario College of Teachers with 9 years of experience teaching elementary school. He worked as an instructor at Queen's University and has taught and authored online courses for educators. He is currently conducting research on several topics including: learning disabilities, autism, emotional well-being, and youth development.
Young, G. (2012). Examining assistive technology use, self-concept, and motivation, as students with learning disabilities transition from a demonstration school into inclusive classrooms. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2316&context=etd

Zhang, Y. (2000). Technology and the writing skills of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32, 467-478.

Zcool.com.cn. (n.d.) Modern science and technology picture 02 hd pictures [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://all-free-download.com/free-photos/modern_science_and_technology_picture_02_hd_pictures_168754_download.html

-

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

# data[].attributes.headline
Assistive Technology for Helping Students with Dyslexia

# data[].attributes.subject
Assistive Technology for Helping Students with Dyslexia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assistive Technology for dyslexic people - The Dyslexia Association

# data[].attributes.headline
Teaching Strategies for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.subject
Teaching Strategies for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
picture communication cards, songs, games and learning activities for autism, aspergers, fetal alcohol syndrome and disabilities

# data[].attributes.headline
Teaching Strategies for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.subject
Teaching Strategies for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Students with a specific Learning Disability (SpLD) typically benefit from a range of inclusive teaching strategies to support with their sense of educational inclusion. Strategies are best identified in consultation with the individual student and a review of their strengths, weaknesses and processing preferences as identified in their SpLD assessment. The below facts and strategies are not an exhaustive list however serve as a useful starting point for the educational inclusion of students with SpLD-related barriers.

Key facts:

Approximately 10% of the population present with indicators of an SpLD

Not all students with an SpLD will have a formal diagnosis

Students with an SpLD have average to above average intelligence and typically have well developed strengths that assist in overcoming learning barriers

Many tertiary students with an SpLD have received limited or disempowering support during their primary and secondary education

Each student with an SpLD will present with unique strengths, weaknesses, processing preferences and learning barriers

An SpLD diagnosis provides useful information to explain specific learning barriers, strengths and support strategies. In contrast, students without a diagnosis that have been grouped into the broad non-diagnostic learning difficulty category are often provided with inappropriate interventions due to the lack of clarity in regard to their specific learning barriers (Macdonald, 2009, Taylor et al., 2010; Webber, 2016). The most effective support strategies for students with specific learning disabilities are interventions that are flexible (Fry, 2015, Taylor et al., 2010), harness strengths (van Swet et al., 2011) and build on areas of weakness (Rath & Royer, 2002). With the provision of relevant inclusive supports, students with SpLDs are typically more likely to possess a positive self-identity and experience improved life outcomes (Goldberg, Higgins, Raskind & Herman, 2003; Leveroy, 2013; Raskind et al., 2002; Webber, 2016).

Adjusting teaching strategies to cater for all learners, including those with an SpLD, ensures compliance with the Australian Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005). A reasonable adjustment is best determined in consultation with the student and is implemented to address disability-related barriers in order to create a level playing field for all learners. Adjustments to cater for students with SpLDs are regarded as effective when they do not water down assessable tasks but rather deliver content in a manner that ensures students with SpLDs comprehend knowledge delivered to the entire class. This ensures that the inherent requirements of the course are taught and academic integrity is maintained.

Tips for inclusive teaching strategies that engage students with SpLDs:

Provision of additional time to complete tasks

Leniency on spelling and grammatical errors in exam situations

Extensions to course work due dates

Provision of audio recorded lectures

Class handouts / lecture presentations provided online prior to the scheduled class

Flexibility in assessments i.e. oral presentation, slide presentation, portfolio or project

Opportunity to submit assessment drafts for feedback and guidance

Provision of audio or word processed assessment feedback

Group work activities where students with an SpLD are able to focus on their strengths

Students who are not confident reading excused from reading out loud in class

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching strategies for students with a Specific Learning Disability (SpLD)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students with a specific Learning Disability (SpLD) typically benefit from a range of inclusive teaching strategies to support with their sense of educational inclusion. Strategies are best identified in consultation with the individual student and a review of their strengths, weaknesses and processing preferences as identified in their SpLD assessment.

# data[].attributes.headline
Writing Interventions for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.subject
Writing Interventions for Students with SLD

# data[].attributes.headline
Specific Learning Disability: Categories of Students with Disabilities

# data[].attributes.subject
Specific Learning Disability: Categories of Students with Disabilities

# data[].attributes.body
This brief video gives an overview of SLD, including Prevalence, Teaching Tips, Characteristics, Student Struggles, and Teaching Tips.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Specific Learning Disability: Categories of Students with Disabilities

# data[].attributes.body
"A developmental delay refers to a child who has not gained the developmental skills expected of him or her, compared to others of the same age."

Causes of Developmental Delay

"Genetic or hereditary conditions like Down syndrome

Metabolic disorders like phenylketonuria (PKU)

Trauma to the brain, such as shaken baby syndrome

Severe psychosocial trauma, such as post-traumatic stress disorder

Exposure to certain toxic substances like prenatal alcohol exposure or lead poisoning

Some very serious infections

Deprivation of food or environment"

Signs and Symptoms

"Learning and developing more slowly than other children same age

Rolling over, sitting up, crawling, or walking much later than developmentally appropriate

Difficulty communicating or socializing with others

Lower than average scores on IQ tests

Difficulties talking or talking late

Having problems remembering things

Inability to connect actions with consequences

Difficulty with problem-solving or logical thinking

Trouble learning in school

Inability to do everyday tasks like getting dressed or using the restroom without help"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Developmental Delay: Causes, Symptoms, & Therapies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A developmental delay refers to a child who has not gained the developmental skills expected of him or her, compared to others of the same age.

# data[].attributes.headline
How are Developmental Delays Identified?

# data[].attributes.subject
How are Developmental Delays Identified?

# data[].attributes.body
Developmental Monitoring and Screening
At least in America, "a child’s growth and development are followed through a partnership between parents and health care professionals. At each well-child visit, the doctor looks for developmental delays or problems and talks with the parents about any concerns the parents might have. This is called developmental monitoring.

Any problems noticed during developmental monitoring should be followed up with developmental screening. Developmental screening is a short test to tell if a child is learning basic skills when he or she should, or if there are delays.

If a child has a developmental delay, it is important to get help as soon as possible. Early identification and intervention can have a significant impact on a child’s ability to learn new skills, as well as reduce the need for costly interventions over time."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Facts About Developmental Disabilities | CDC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Developmental disabilities are a group of conditions due to an impairment in physical, learning, language, or behavior areas. Learn more.

# data[].attributes.headline
What technologies can assist children with Developmental Delays?

# data[].attributes.subject
What technologies can assist children with Developmental Delays?

# data[].attributes.body
Part 1 of a 2 part series on 'Assistive Technology for Developmental Delays'

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assistive Technology for Developmental Delays, Part 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assistive Technology for Developmental Delays - Part 2

# data[].attributes.body
Key facts

By 2050 nearly 2.5 billion people are projected to have some degree of hearing loss and at least 700 million will require hearing rehabilitation.

Over 1 billion young adults are at risk of permanent, avoidable hearing loss due to unsafe listening practices.

An annual additional investment of less than US$ 1.40 per person is needed to scale up ear and hearing care services globally.

Over a 10-year period, this promises a return of nearly US$ 16 for every US dollar invested.

Over 5% of the world’s population – or 430 million people – require rehabilitation to address their ‘disabling’ hearing loss (432 million adults and 34 million children). It is estimated that by 2050 over 700 million people – or one in every ten people – will have disabling hearing loss.

‘Disabling’ hearing loss refers to hearing loss greater than 35 decibels (dB) in the better hearing ear. Nearly 80% of people with disabling hearing loss live in low- and middle-income countries. The prevalence of hearing loss increases with age, among those older than 60 years, over 25% are affected by disabling hearing loss.

Hearing loss and deafness

A person who is not able to hear as well as someone with normal hearing – hearing thresholds of 20 dB or better in both ears – is said to have hearing loss. Hearing loss may be mild, moderate, severe, or profound. It can affect one ear or both ears, and leads to difficulty in hearing conversational speech or loud sounds.

'Hard of hearing' refers to people with hearing loss ranging from mild to severe. People who are hard of hearing usually communicate through spoken language and can benefit from hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other assistive devices as well as captioning.

'Deaf' people mostly have profound hearing loss, which implies very little or no hearing. They often use sign language for communication.

Causes of hearing loss and deafness

Although these factors can be encountered at different periods across the life span, individuals are most susceptible to their effects during critical periods in life.

Prenatal Period

Genetic factors - Include hereditary and non-hereditary hearing loss

Intrauterine infections – such as rubella and cytomegalovirus infection

Perinatal period

Birth asphyxia (a lack of oxygen at the time of birth

Hyperbilirubinemia (severe jaundice in the neonatal period)

Low-birth weight

Other perinatal morbidities and their management

Childhood and adolescence

Chronic ear infections (chronic suppurative otitis media)

Collection of fluid in the ear (chronic nonsuppurative otitis media)

Meningitis and other infections

Adulthood and older age

Chronic diseases

Smoking

Otosclerosis

Age-related sensorineural degeneration

Sudden sensorineural hearing loss

Factors across the life span

Cerumen impaction (impacted ear wax)

Trauma to the ear or head

Loud noise/loud sounds

Ototoxic medicines

Work related ototoxic chemicals

Nutritional deficiencies

Viral infections and other ear conditions

Delayed onset or progressive genetic hearing loss

The impact of unaddressed hearing loss

When unaddressed, hearing loss impacts many aspects of life at individual level:

Communication and speech

Cognition

Education and Employment: In developing countries, children with hearing loss and deafness often do not receive schooling. Adults with hearing loss also have a much higher unemployment rate. Among those who are employed, a higher percentage of people with hearing loss are in the lower grades of employment compared with the general workforce.

Social isolation, loneliness and stigma

Impact on society and economy

Years Lived with Disability (YDLs) and Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)

WHO estimates that unaddressed hearing loss poses an annual global cost of US$ 980 billion. This includes health sector costs (excluding the cost of hearing devices), costs of educational support, loss of productivity, and societal costs. 57% of these costs are attributed to low- and middle-income countries.

Prevention

Many of the causes that lead to hearing loss can be avoided through public health strategies and clinical interventions implemented across the life course.

Prevention of hearing loss is essential throughout the life course – from prenatal and perinatal periods to older age. In children, nearly 60% of hearing loss is due to avoidable causes that can be prevented through implementation of public health measures. Likewise, in adults, most common causes of hearing loss, such as exposure to loud sounds and ototoxic medicines, are preventable.

Effective strategies for reducing hearing loss at different stages of the life course include:

immunization;

good maternal and childcare practices;

genetic counselling;

identification and management of common ear conditions;

occupational hearing conservation programmes for noise and chemical exposure;

safe listening strategies for the reduction of exposure to loud sounds in recreational settings; and

rational use of medicines to prevent ototoxic hearing loss.

Identification and management

Early identification of hearing loss and ear diseases is key to effective management.

This requires systematic screening for detection of hearing loss and related ear diseases in those who are most at risk. This includes:

Newborn babies and infants

Pre-school and school-age children

People exposed to noise or chemicals at work

People receiving ototoxic medicines

Older adults

Hearing assessment and ear examination can be conducted in clinical and community settings. Tools such as the WHO “hearWHO” app and other technology-based solutions make it possible to screen for ear diseases and hearing loss with limited training and resources.

Once hearing loss is identified, it is essential that it is addressed as early as possible and in an appropriate manner, to mitigate any adverse impact.

Measures available to rehabilitate people with hearing loss include:

the use of hearing technologies, such as hearing aids, cochlear implants and middle ear implants;

the use of sign language and other means of sensory substitution, such as speech reading, use of print on palm or Tadoma, signed communication; and

rehabilitative therapy to enhance perceptive skills and develop communication and linguistic abilities.

The use of hearing assistive technology, and services such as frequency modulation and loop systems, alerting devices, telecommunication devices, captioning services and sign language interpretation, can further improve access to communication and education for people with hearing loss.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/deafness-and-hearing-loss

Education and learning :

Resources and guidance to help support  deaf child's education, learning and choices from the early years through to their teens, including childcare options and choosing a deaf-friendly school.

https://www.ndcs.org.uk/information-and-support/education-and-learning/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
IDEA Definition of Other Health Impairments

According to IDEA, an Other Health Impairment is defined as:
Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that:

(i) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia; and
(ii) adversely affects a child's educational performance [34 C.F.R. 300.7(c)(9)].

Overview of Other Health Impairments

Many conditions and diseases can significantly affect a child's health and ability to function successfully in school. Most health impairments are chronic conditions; that is, they are always present, or they recur. By contrast, and acute condition develops quickly with intense symptoms that last for a relatively short period of time. To be served under the OHI category, the student's health condition must limit strength, vitality, or alertness to such a degree that the student's educational progress is adversely affected. More than 200 specific health impairments exist, and most are rare (Turnball et al., 2004). Within this category is Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder. Only time will tell whether AD/HD finds its way to another special education category or whether it becomes a category of its own in the future. Presently, the inclusion of AD/HD has caused a significant increase in the size of the category (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

Causes-Etiology of Other Health Impairments

The etiology of specific health impairments varies. Most result from infections, genetic factors, environmental influences, prenatal influences, perinatal influences, and postnatal influences. However, they can be grouped into some general areas (Smith, 2004):

Allergies e.g. Hepatitis

Heredity e.g. Hemophilia

Accidents e.g. seizure disorders

Multiple factors e.g. Epilepsy

Unknown

Prevalence of Other Health Impairments

According to the 26th Annual Report (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), 449,093 students between the ages of 6 to 21 years of age were identified as having other health impairments. This represents approximately 7.5 percent of all students having a classification in special education, or less than 1% of all school-age students.

Age of onset of Other Health Impairments

Due to the various types of health impairments that adversely affect children's performances in school, no specific age of onset can be generalized to the entire school-age population that receives special education services. Some health impairments are congenital (present at birth) and other conditions are acquired during the child's development as a result of accident, illness or unknown cause.

Gender Features of Other Health Impairments

Due to the number and specific types of health impairments covered in this section, no statement concerning gender patterns can be generalized.

Familial Patterns of Other Health Impairments

Due to the number and specific types of health impairments covered in this section, no statement concerning familial patterns can be generalized.

Cultural Features of Other Health Impairments

Although European Americans are proportionately underrepresented among students with disabilities, their highest representation is in the "Other Health Impairments" category.

Characteristics of Other Health Impairments

According to the Starbright Foundation (2002; cited in Turnball et al., 2004), there are numerous complex challenges facing children with health impairments. Common issues are: "loss of sense of control, lack of understanding about the condition, fear, worry, anxiety, stress, anger, and guilt, changes in family dynamics, isolation, isolation, medical noncompliance, boredom, depression, pain, decreased self-esteem, negative body image, and impact on identity and social interactions, including those at school" (p. 313).
Some general characteristics faced by individuals with other health impairments may include but not limited to:

Fatigue

Mobility issues

Issues involving attention

Coordination difficulties

Muscle weakness

Frequent absences or lateness's to school

Stamina

Inability to concentrate for long periods of time

Educational Implications of Other Health Impairments

When responsible educators encounter diseases and conditions they know little about, they seek out all the information they need to provide an appropriate education to students involved (Smith, 2004). One of the main considerations in the education of these students is the use of the team approach in developing and carrying out a child's educational program. The team generally includes the parents, teachers, medical professionals, and health-related professionals such as a physical therapist. Parents are critical members of the team and should be involved in all educational decisions. Sirvis (1988) noted that the team should design a program that meets the needs of the student in five basic goal areas: "(a) physical independence, including mastery of daily living skills; (b) self-awareness and social maturation; (c) communication; (d) academic growth; and (e) life skills training" (p. 400). Interdisciplinary services such as occupational and physical therapy and speech and language therapy are of prime importance for youngsters who have physical disabilities.

It is often necessary to modify and adapt the school environment to make it accessible, safe, and less restrictive since discriminating architecture doesn't have to discriminate (Leibrock & Terry, 1999, p.17). Accessibility guidelines are readily available, and when these guidelines are followed the environment becomes easier for the child to manage independently.

It is important that modifications be no more restrictive than absolutely necessary so that the student's school experiences can be as normal as possible. While it is necessary to stress the importance of avoiding overprotection of students with physical or health impairments, it is also important to permit students with disabilities to take risks just as their able-bodied cohorts do.
Recent advances in technology have helped to make life more nearly normal for students with physical disabilities. For example, students with cerebral palsy can use computer terminals to aid in communication. Through technology, even a person with the most severe handicaps can have greater control over communication and daily living skills.

Modifying the environment may mean providing special adaptive equipment such as specially designed desks, positioning devices, wedges, or standing tables. Adaptations also may include establishing procedures for dealing with medical emergencies when students have serious medical problems.

Finally, what role teachers should play in the medical management of children is an ongoing and contentious issue (Temple, 2000) since teachers are being called on to assume more responsibilities for the medical management of their students (Heller et al., 2000).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
curriculum for children with disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
summer camps for children with disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
family educational rights and privacy act

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Comprehensive Overview of Other Health Impairments

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
According to IDEA, an Other Health Impairment is defined as:Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that: (i) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia; and(ii) adversely affects a child's educational performance [34 C.F.R.

# data[].attributes.body
The disability of deaf-blindness presents unique challenges to families, teachers, and caregivers, who must make sure that the person who is deaf-blind has access to the world beyond the limited reach of his or her eyes, ears, and fingertips. The people in the environment of children or adults who are deaf-blind must seek to include them—moment-by-moment—in the flow of life and in the physical environments that surround them.

- Barbara Miles

# data[].attributes.body
Assistive technology used by deaf-blind people

Assistive technology (AT) is a broad term that refers to hardware and software that enable people with disabilities to access technology. Those who are deaf-blind use a combination of AT for blind users and AT for deaf users, depending on their individual needs.

AT for visual disabilities

Screen readers: A program that analyzes the layout and content of a website and provides a text to speech translation. The playback speed can be set by the user and commands allow them to skip from heading to heading, click links, and do other important tasks.

Braille displays: A device that translates digital text into braille dots that can be read with the fingers. (More on braille below, as it is very important to many deaf-blind people.)

Dictation: Speech recognition software allows a user to navigate, type, and interact with websites using their voice.

Credit to -
ExploreHealthCareers.org

Deaf/Blind Demographics in the United States - Gender | ExploreHealthCareers.org

https://www.levelaccess.com/understanding-assistive-technology-how-do-deaf-blind-people-use-technology/

# data[].attributes.body
AT for hearing disabilities

Alerting devices: A device that converts an audio alert (e.g., doorbell, alarm clock) into a visual or physical alert that the person can perceive.

Telecommunications: Many different options are available for those who are D/deaf or HoH, including amplified telephones, TTY / TDD, Text-to-911, and video chat.

Enhanced listening: Systems can be used to connect an audio feed directly to someone’s hearing aid or cochlear implant.

Visual communication: Captions and transcripts (with the ability to enlarge or zoom in!) provide audio information in a visual format.

Credit to -
FAVI Deaf-Blind Collaborative - University of Florida

# data[].attributes.headline
Problems found with some assistive technology

# data[].attributes.subject
Problems found with some assistive technology

# data[].attributes.body
Accessibility barriers for deaf-blind users

Here are some accessibility issues that restrict access to people who are deaf-blind. Since each deaf-blind person is a different amount of deaf and blind, accessibility issues can come from both sides!

Accessibility issues for visual disabilities

No keyboard navigation: Can you use your website or program without a mouse? Use the tab key, arrows, and enter to navigate.

Pop-ups: If sites fail to set reading focus appropriately, a pop-up dialog can prevent a blind user from moving forward… or even knowing how to get back to where they were.

Cluttered pages and carousels: Cluttered pages with carousels and moving text aren’t user friendly for blind users. (Spoiler alert: They aren’t user friendly for many people.)

ARIA mistakes: If sites misuse ARIA markup, it changes a screen reader’s behavior in a way that interferes with navigation and operability.

Document heading and labeling: Without proper heading tags, a screen reader user cannot quickly locate what they want to read.

Alt text: Images that convey meaning need to be tagged with alt text so the person who is reading your website can hear a description of the image.

Accessibility issues for hearing disabilities

Inaccurate captions: Automated captions are a blessing and a curse. It can be great to have captions, but AI is far from perfect and sometimes automated captions are worse than no captions at all.

No transcripts: For a deaf-blind person who uses braille, transcripts are a must-have in order to access information presented in video or audio format.

Phone-only customer support: Nothing is more frustrating than trying to contact a business and finding out the only option to do so is a phone number.

Low-quality audio: Poor quality audio becomes even worse at high volume. It can also be difficult to transcribe accurately.

The bottom line: Design to include deaf-blind people

You can design your websites, software, and hardware with people with disabilities in mind and you can retrofit existing technology to be accessible. It’s a win-win situation for your organization (more clients, more revenue, more contracts) and people with disabilities (less confusion, less frustration, less isolation). Some fixes, like ensuring your video and audio files have accessible transcripts, are quick to implement and make a big impact on the user experience.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GrK3P15TYU

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Other Health Impairment | Center for Parent Information and Resources

# data[].attributes.body
- Students often exhibit withdrawn or anxious behaviors, pervasive unhappiness, depression, severe problems with mood or feelings of self-worth as defined by certain behaviors (IDEA Comparison of State Eligibility Criteria, 2020)

- An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers

- An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors

# data[].attributes.body
According to the U.S. Department of Education, Orthopedic Impairments represent approximately 1.0 percent of all students having a classification in special education. Orthopedic impairment is defined as a child's disability relating to a bone, joint, or muscle, that is severe enough to directly affect the child's educational performance. The extent to which a child's education is affected can vary greatly, depending on the level of impairment. The orthopedic impairment must interfere with the student's ability to perform in an educational environment in order to qualify for special services. This disability may interfere with a student's ability to walk, write, or perform other physical tasks in the classroom and laboratory setting.

U.S. Department of Education’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

# data[].attributes.body
- Usually a combination of medication and psychosocial interventions

- Social skills training, relaxation training, and cognitive-behavioral therapy have also been successfully employed

- Students often benefit from clear and simple rules

- Positive behavior should be rewarded

- Allow these students to take breaks

- Make sure your treatment for ALL students is fair and inclusive

- Motivation and engagement is key

Source: resilienteducator.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Orthopedic Impairment - The IDEA's Special Education Categories on the LVC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Special Needs Resource and Training Blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The definition of orthopedic impairment under IDEA means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's education performance. Causes include:

There are 3 classifications that an orthopedic impairment can fall under:

1. Neuromotor impairment, this would include cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, spina bifida, and seizure disorders

2. Degenerative Disease such as muscular dystrophy and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

3. Musculoskeletal Disorders including scoliosis and deformed limbs.

Students with orthopedic impairments often qualify for therapy including physical and occupational therapy. assistive technology should be included for accommodating the students needs.

The following links provide resources on teaching assessment, modifications, and teaching information.
Orthopedic impairment: A guide for parents and teachers Orthopedic impairment characteristics: Classroom modification and assistive technology Orthopedic impairment and special needs students Orthopedic impairment disability Teaching strategies for mobility impaired students Teaching strategies for orthopedic impairment Teaching students with disabilities: Orthopedic impairment Teaching students with orthopedic impairment Understanding individuals with physical, health, and multiple disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Strategies for Students with Orthopedic Impairments - Special Needs Resource and Training Blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The definition of orthopedic impairment under IDEA means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's education performance. Causes include: genetic disease injury birth trauma burns fractures cerebral palsy amputation There are 3 classifications that an orthopedic impairment can fall under: Neuromotor impairment, this would include cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, spina bifida, and [...]

# data[].attributes.body
Impact on Learning

The specific impact on learning of an individual is contingent upon the disease, its severity, and individual factors. Two individuals with identical diagnoses may be quite different in terms of their capabilities.

Many students with orthopedic impairments have no cognitive, learning, perceptual, language, or sensory issues. However, individuals with neuromotor impairments have a higher incidence of additional impairments, especially when there has been brain involvement. For most students with orthopedic impairments, the impact on learning is focused on accommodations necessary for students to have access to academic instruction.

Teaching Strategies

As with most students with disabilities, the classroom accommodations for students with orthopedic impairments will vary dependent on the individual needs of the student. Since many students with orthopedic impairments have no cognitive impairments, the general educator and special educator should collaborate to include the student in the general curriculum as much as possible.

In order for the student to access the general curriculum, the student may require these accommodations:

Special seating arrangements to develop useful posture and movements

Instruction focused on development of gross and fine motor skills

Securing suitable augmentative communication and other assistive devices

Awareness of medical condition and its affect on the student (such as getting tired quickly)

Because of the multi-faceted nature of orthopedic impairments, other specialists may be involved in developing and implementing an appropriate educational program for the student. These specialists can include:

Physical Therapists who work on gross motor skills (focusing on the legs, back, neck and torso)

Occupational Therapists who work on fine motor skills (focusing on the arms and hands as well as daily living activities such as dressing and bathing)

Speech-Language Pathologists who work with the student on problems with speech and language

Adapted Physical Education Teachers, who are specially trained PE teachers who work along with the OT and PT to develop an exercise program to help students with disabilities

Other Therapists (Massage Therapists, Music Therapists,

etc.http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/orthopedic-impairments/

# data[].attributes.body
Calm iOS App and other meditative apps have been shown to be a great resource for students with high anxiety (not just students also, great for everyone). Here is a review from a psychologist.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Calm App Review 2020: A Psychologist's Honest Opinion

# data[].attributes.body
Here is a low tech option for assisting students. These social stories help students become more involved in learning what kind of behaviors are acceptable. The pros here are that you can create your own social stories to cater to your needs. The site offers tons of examples and guidance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When a student fails to grasp social norms, routines, and expectations, like walking down the hall, using restroom facilities, following lunch procedure, using manners, using greetings, asking for help properly, etc

# data[].attributes.body
Time Timer is a great tool to allow for more regulation and structure in a struggling student's life. It can:

Set clear expectations for the session or appointment

Break up work into manageable chunks of time.

Set a Time Timer until you start a fun activity during the session to ease transitions and give the students something to work towards.

Promote self-regulation when working with students, they can take what they learn during the sessions and apply it when they are in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Home / Time Management for All Abilities

Intuitive Assistive Technology

Time Timer believes in creating products that truly help people of all ages and abilities to conquer time - in the classroom, in the home, and in the office. While time can be a challenge for everyone, we aim to provide intuitive and innovative solutions that make a real difference.

Recommended by Autism and ADHD experts, the Time Timer displays the passage of time with a disappearing colored disk. This is a powerful tool for visual thinkers and differently wired brains.

"I think the best part for me when utilizing (the Time Timer) with kids with all different special needs is the visual component...it is hard for younger kids to understand something abstract like time, so having a dial slowly fade out is helpful to understand time."
- Jen O'Brien, Occupational Therapist

Time Timer is a proven tool to increase self-regulation.

A recent study conducted by the Department of Exceptional Student Education at Florida Atlantic University found that children ages 2-4 years old showed a significant increase in self-regulation skills when the Time Timer® was used to facilitate their activity.

View the Results

Recommended Time Timer Products for All Abilities

MOD + Dry Erase Board

$51.95

The Time Timer MOD + Dry Erase Board gives empowers by giving the ability to track schedules, tasks, and routines in proximity of the Time Timer. With a single glance, users can track their tasks as well as how much time they have left to complete. This product is great for easing transitions, and setting expectations for what comes next.

PLUS 120 Minute

$40.95

Sometimes one hour is just not enough time. The Time Timer PLUS 120 Minute is ideal for independent learning stations at home, time blocking for large projects, and long-duration activities. Depending on the age of the user and activity needs, you can explore the entire Time Timer PLUS Family, available in 5-Minute, 20-Minute, 60-Minute, and 120-Minute versions, to find the perfect duration.

Original 12"

$41.95

The size of the Time Timer Original 12 inch allows it to be seen anywhere in the room. This is perfect if you need to keep the Time Timer out of reach. Its versatile placement options mean it can be hung on the wall, stood on a desktop with its foldable feet, or placed on anything magnetic. The Dry Erase Activity Card slots into the top of the timer, allowing you to write or draw the timed activity for visual schedules.

Ways that Time Timer® visual timers can be used for all abilities

Easing stressful transitions by showing "how much longer".

By pairing with a visual schedule, it can help set expectations of what comes next.

Helping visitors and new caregivers stick to the family routine.

Increasing confidence and independence.

Promoting/Supporting natural strengths/skills/abilities, such as visual thinking.

Providing visual stimuli accommodations in various workplace environments, aiding in maintaining presence and knowing how much time is left for a specific task.

Read more about Time Timer for Autism

Use the Time Timer anywhere to help "manage life" and develop a reliable internal clock.

Break big challenges into small tasks.

The visual nature of Time Timer visual timers provides a great external cue to stay on task.

Use the Time Timer during sensory breaks.

By pairing with a visual schedule, you can keep track of the tasks you need to complete for the day and stay on track.

Get out the door on time by setting the Time Timer while getting ready for the day.

Read more about Time Timer for ADHD

Therapy Services

Including, but not limited to: Occupational Therapy, Behavioral Therapy, Speech Language Pathologists, and Physical Therapy

Set clear expectations for the session or appointment

Break up work into manageable chunks of time.

Set a Time Timer until you start a fun activity during the session to ease transitions and give the students something to work towards.

Promotes self-regulation when working with students, they can take what they learn during the sessions and apply it when they are in the classroom.

Down Syndrome

Support oral communications of the time with the visual aspect of the Time Timer visual timer.

Provides static information that allows longer processing time.

Use Time Timer to help individuals keep a schedule and ease transitions between activities.

By pairing a Time Timer with an if/then board you can help manage expectations.

Use Time Timer to help set parameters, for example "you only have 5 more minutes of this activity.

Dyslexia

Keeping track of time during tutoring sessions.

Setting short term goals for reading so a challenging task feels manageable.

By separating students with dyslexia's homework into short bursts of time can help them complete tasks.

Keeping track of accommodations included with an IEP.

Keeping track of extra time given to complete tests in the classroom.

Vision and Hearing Impairments

The Time Timer visual timer's high contrast colored disk remains readily visible in helping those with low vision see the time elapsing.

With a variety of sizes, you can select a larger timer for those who are visually impaired so they can tell the time remaining with just a glance.

Optional alarms make it easy to know when the time has ended for visual impaired.

The visual aspect of the disk can help those with hearing impairment track and manage tasks without having to worry about missing the alarm.

With a simple glance you can see how much longer until you need to transition to your next task.

What People Are Saying

How the Time Timer Works

Easy to Set: To set a Time Timer, move the colored disk to the desired amount of time.

No Loud Ticking: The time automatically begins to count down with no loud ticking.

Time Visually Disappears: As time elapses, the colored disk disappears. The Time Timer operates in a clockwise direction.

Make Every Moment Count: Time is up when the disk is gone!

Hand Hygiene for All Abilities

The Time Timer WASH makes meeting the CDC ( Center for Disease Control) and WHO ( World Health Organization) handwashing requirements accessible to all ages and abilities. The elapsing disk of Time Timer can be easily understood by all cognitive abilities and the touchless operation creates a simple start for various physical abilities. The music and beep can be turned off for sound-sensitive individuals or turned on for those that benefit from audible alerts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Time Management For All Abilities | Visual Timer | Time Timer

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Home / Time Management for All Abilities Time Timer believes in creating products that truly help people of all ages and abilities to conquer time - in the classroom, in the home, and in the office. While time can be a challenge for everyone, we aim to provide intuitive and innovative solutions that make a real difference.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
WHO and UNICEF partner to bring quality assistive devices to people living with disabilities

# data[].attributes.body
...is a disability of intellectual capacity. It develops and manifests before the age of 18. This limited intellectual functionality coexists with deficits in adaptive behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
Learning, reasoning and problem solving.

# data[].attributes.body
...the collection of conceptual (literacy and language, money, time numbers; self direction , social (interpesional skills, self esteem, social responsibility problem solving and rule following  and practical skills (dailiy living activities, occupational skills, health care, schedules and routines, safety)

# data[].attributes.body
Can be identified or diagnosed with an IQ test

An IQ of 70-75 shows intellectual disability.

In 2013 the term changed from mental retardation to intellectual disability.

Changes in policy have allowed people with Intellectual disability to live in a community and with a reasonable degree of freedom

# data[].attributes.headline
Individuals with intellectual disability will:

# data[].attributes.subject
Individuals with intellectual disability will:

# data[].attributes.body
Struggle with memory

Struggle to transfer behaviors from one task to another

Teach them the skills you want them to learn in the environment they will be practicing it

# data[].attributes.body
Assistive technologies are a piece of technology used to help a person in their day-to-day life

Used to increase, maintain or improve the function of the individual

Some examples of aids for students with Intellectual disability are:

Talk to text software

Wide lined paper

Touch control devices text

AT visualizers

Graphic organizers

# data[].attributes.body
Use clear, simplified language and try speaking slower, not louder

Set expectations

Clear boundaries

Expect questions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Assistive Technology Supports Students With Disabilities

# data[].attributes.body
Denver Public Schools. “How Assistive Technology Supports Students with ... - YoutubeDenver Public Schools.” How Assistive Technology Supports Students With Disabilities, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CThsnREAcf4.

“How to Speak with People with Intellectual Disabilities.” SpecialOlympics.org, https://www.specialolympics.org/about/intellectual-disabilities/how-to-speak.

Singh, Manpreet. “Assistive Technology for Students with Intellectual Disabilities.” Number Dyslexia, 4 Feb. 2022, https://numberdyslexia.com/assistive-technology-for-students-with-intellectual-disabilities/.

Special Olympics. “Intellectual Disability - Youtube.” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6WmGhY8Q4I.

“Special Olympics.” SpecialOlympics.org, https://www.specialolympics.org/.

Wilkerson, B. “Llectual Disabilities - IDEA 13 Disabilities: A General Educators Guide.” YouTube, YouTube, 10 May 2018, https://www.youtube.com/?gl=NL.

# data[].attributes.headline
Difference in Hearing Impaired and Deafness

# data[].attributes.subject
Difference in Hearing Impaired and Deafness

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition

Hearing impairment as a disability category is similar to the category of deafness, but it is not the same. The official definition of a hearing impairment by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but is not included under the definition of 'deafness.'" Thus, knowing the definition of deafness is necessary to understand what sort of disabilities are considered hearing impairments. A hearing loss above 90 decibels is generally considered deafness, which means that a hearing loss below 90 decibels is classified as a hearing impairment.

Common Traits

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) explains that hearing loss falls into four subcategories: conductive, sensorineural, mixed and central. These identify the location in the body in which the hearing impairment occurs. Hearing aids and other sound amplifying assistive technologies (AT) often work for students with conductive hearing loss, as their impairments stem from the outer or middle ear. Such does not hold true with sensorineural, mixed and central hearing losses, as these impairments stem from the inner ear, the central nervous system or a combination of the two. Typically, hearing loss is categorized as slight, mild, moderate, severe or profound, depending on how well an individual can hear the frequencies that are commonly associated with speech.

Educational Challenges

Educational obstacles related to hearing impairments stem around communication. A student with a hearing impairment may experience difficulty in:

the subjects of grammar, spelling and vocabulary

taking notes while listening to lectures

participating in classroom discussions

watching educational videos

presenting oral reports

Underscoring the difficulty that students with hearing impairments may have in presenting oral reports are the potential language development problems linked to hearing impairments. Arizona's Department of Education's Parent Information Network notes that, "Since children with hearing impairments are unable to receive some sounds accurately, they often cannot articulate words clearly."

Tips for Teachers and Parents

The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) strongly endorses early intervention. This can limit communication hurdles. Typically, both oral (speech, lip reading and use of residual hearing) and manual (sign language) communication are used with and taught to children with hearing impairments. Voice and articulation training is often recommended to help students learn to form the sounds which they cannot hear.

Designating a note taker can allow a student with a hearing impairment to concentrate fully on listening to a lecture. A combination of traditional communication, lip reading, sign language and assistive technology can compensate for issues which make listening to lectures and participating in class discussions challenging. Children who read lips often need to sit close to the teacher, while those who use sign language may use an interpreter. Turning on captions during a video can reiterate what a student may pick up from his or her amplifying device.

Finally, it's important that parents and teachers don't underestimate a child's intelligence based on a hearing impairment. Arizona's Department of Education's Parent Information Network warns, "For most children with hearing impairments, language acquisition and language development are significantly delayed. As a result, some may incorrectly estimate the child's intelligence as low." Avoid this mistake!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is a Hearing Impairment? Special Education Guide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hearing impairment as a disability category is similar to the category of deafness, but it is not the same. The official definition of a hearing impairment by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but is not included under the definition of 'deafness.'" Thus, knowing the definition of deafness is necessary to understand what sort of disabilities are considered hearing impairments.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Going through school with a hearing impairment or deafness can be a frustrating, isolating and ultimately unproductive experience for a child without the right support. As a teacher, it can be equally challenging to teach a hearing-impaired child effectively without adequate tools or training. For both it can sometimes feel like there's an imaginary pane of glass keeping each from communicating effectively with the other. The ideal environment for many hearing-impaired children to learn is one in which they are not singled out as different, but instead benefit from the kind of adjustments which go unnoticed by others but are truly transformative for the child. At Engage Education we want to provide the information you need to handle hearing impairments with confidence.

What is a hearing impairment?

Hearing impairment and deafness are not necessarily the same thing. Hearing loss greater than 90 decibels is generally categorised as deafness, but any impediment to hearing - whether temporary, permanent or fluctuating - impacts not only a child's experience in the classroom but their social and emotional development, literacy skills and speech and language abilities.

What types of hearing impairment are there?

According to the National Deaf Children's Society there are over 50,000 children and young people in the UK with hearing impairments, but this does not mean that they all have the same conditions or needs. There are three main types of hearing impairment that you may come across in children:

Sensorineural deafness (nerve deafness)
A permanent hearing loss in the inner ear usually caused by the cochlea not working effectively

Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder (ANSD)
A problem occuring more deeply within the ear, where sounds are received normally by the cochlea, then become disrupted as they travel to the brain

Conductive deafness
Usually temporary, sometimes permanent. Sound can't pass effectively through the outer and middle ear to the inner ear. Caused by blockages such as wax or fluid. The latter is known as - can last for up to three months and very common in pre-school children

How can I spot signs of hearing impairment in a child?

While hearing impairments are often identified in babies, they may not develop or make themselves known for several years. This means that it's important to keep an eye out for the signs of hearing impairment in the classroom, particularly in young children - as at some point in your career you could find that you are teaching a child with an undiagnosed hearing impairment.

Here are some of the common signs of hearing impairments that you can look for in young children:

Not responding when their name is called

Problems with concentration, excessive tiredness and frustration with work that starts to affect their behaviour

Watching your lips intently as you speak

Speaking too loudly or too quietly

Watching others do something before attempting it themselves

Becoming increasingly withdrawn from others in the classroom

Delayed speech and communication development

Mishearing or mispronouncing words

Not being able to hear what's happening if there is any background noise

Making minimal contributions to classroom discussion

Difficulty with reading and linking it to speech

How does hearing impairment affect learning?

Hearing-impaired children struggle at every stage of their education , with only 44% leaving school with two or more A Levels, and 43% reaching the expected standard for reading, writing and maths at key stage 2 (KS2) when finishing primary school. Hearing and learning go hand-in-hand, so the impairment of this function means much more for a child than simply struggling to hear. Any hearing impairment which is not handled effectively has an adverse effect on a child's development, preventing them not only from taking in new information but learning to interact, relating to others and making friends.

A child whose hearing impairment negatively affects their learning is likely to withdraw further into themselves throughout their education, which has a knock-on effect throughout the rest of their life. The frustration of being unable to express themselves and communicate both inwardly and outwardly is highly damaging and can impact future employment and their relationships with both others and themselves.

Everyday frustrations in the classroom are not as simple as an absence of individual attention from the teacher. A child with a hearing impairment does not necessarily require constant additional help but rather a mindful and sensitive approach to teaching the whole class - not facing the whiteboard to speak, minimising background noise and using visual aids as much as possible.

Strategies for supporting a child with a hearing impairment in school

It's vital that children with hearing impairments are given the right support from as early a stage as possible. If you have a child with a hearing impairment in your class, teaching in a way that fully supports them may seem a daunting prospect, but there is plenty of support and many ideas available.

Classroom equipment

A radio aid is a microphone worn by the teacher that connects to a hearing aid, and can also be passed to other pupils during activities such as group reading. This will help the child to feel part of the class and ensure that they don't miss any important information.

Dedicated staff

For schools that have the budget to employ one, a communication support worker or learning support assistant can provide hugely valuable help. Whether in the classroom all or some of the time, they can ensure the child is supported while you are able to give proportionate attention to other pupils.

Make sure that you don't turn away from the class while talking and ensure that the child has understood every task or instruction (and they aren't automatically looking to copy others after you have spoken). You can also sit the child right at the front of the class to give them the best possible chance of learning as hearing technologies only have an optimal range of one to three metres.

Meet with parents regularly

Having an open line of communication with the child's parents will help to ensure that the child has consistent support both at school and home. Meeting with the parents face-to-face will enable you both to discuss any concerns you may have and track the child's progress. Often the child may be confiding in the parents about issues that they are struggling with which they are too embarrassed to bring up in the classroom.

A 'hearing buddy'

If the child has to take off their hearing aid at any point during the day (for example during a sports lesson) you can allocate them a 'hearing buddy' (perhaps their closest friend) who can help to repeat any information that the child may have missed.

Preventing bullying

Although being bullied can happen to any child, children who are considered different in some way can be targeted by bullies. This can be because the hearing-impaired child's teaching arrangements are different, because they look different due to wearing a hearing aid, or because they are less able to pick up on social cues from their peers. The child could also find it harder to make friends and have a reduced ability to stand up for themselves. Childline has lots of advice and support available for children who are deaf or hard of hearing in their 'Deaf Zone' which you can refer children to who are old enough to use the website.

There are also ways in which a teacher can prevent bullying:

Raising awareness in the school - empathy and kindness can be taught. For example celebrating Deaf Awareness Week at school will open up discussions about the challenges faced by hard of hearing children and increase understanding. Your class could hold a school assembly in mime to the rest of the school. Your students could also put themselves in the child with hearing impairments shoes by learning to sign their names or by taking part in a sponsored silence.

Foster a sense of community in the classroom - in this way, other students will watch out for bullying and make a stand against it. You could have class morning meetings where students are encouraged to share their experiences and you can establish any class rules together including anti-bullying ideas.

Be aware of 'gateway behaviours' and nip them in the bud - things like eye rolling and ignoring, cruel laughter, excluding or staring can signal bullying or lead to escalated bullying. The child laughing cruelly may not realise the deep and lasting psychological impact they could be having on the child they are laughing at (especially if the child who is being bullied is pretending to laugh back) so class discussion, rather than focusing on one child's behaviour, can be helpful.

Using Makaton

is a simplified form of sign language, incorporating symbols and gestures, and is normally used with children with additional needs.

Makaton is usually taught at Nursery, Reception and Year 1 level. The actions are fun so that it helps shy children as well as those with special educational needs. Children who have trouble communicating can often be moody, quick to anger or simply retreat into themselves, so Makaton allows them to better communicate and relieves any stress they may be feeling. Given the importance of ensuring that deaf children have access to a rich language environment, Makaton should not be seen as an alternative or substitute for British Sign Language (BSL) or Sign Supported English .

Helpful links:

NHS hearing loss - https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hearing-loss/symptoms/

British Sign website - https://www.british-sign.co.uk/

The Makaton Charity - https://www.makaton.org/

National Deaf Children's Society - https://www.ndcs.org.uk/

SEND Careers with Engage

If you would like a new role teaching in a SEND setting on a permanent, long-term, or short-term basis, full or part-time, our expert SEND team will be able to find the perfect role for you at one of our wonderful partner schools. You can register with the SEND team here .

Newsletter Sign up

Never miss a thing. Subscribe to updates from Engage. All this content is inspired and informed by our in-house education experts, school leadership, and of course the thousands of teachers who we've already helped find their ideal teaching job.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to support a child with a hearing impairment in school | Engage

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Going through school with a hearing impairment or deafness can be a frustrating, isolating and ultimately unproductive experience for a child without the right support. As a teacher, it can be equally challenging to teach a hearing-impaired child effectively without adequate tools or training.

# data[].attributes.headline
On demand Captioning and Transcription Product

# data[].attributes.subject
On demand Captioning and Transcription Product

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Academic Transcription Services & Disability Coordination | Verbit

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An ideal solution for overall student engagement and disability requirements for live courses & recorded media. Learn More!

# data[].attributes.headline
Resource to find hearing consultant to purchase fm or caption equipment

# data[].attributes.subject
Resource to find hearing consultant to purchase fm or caption equipment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hearing aids, audiologists and tinnitus specialists near me

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Search Healthy Hearing's directory to find trusted hearing clinics, specialists and audiologists for help with hearing loss, tinnitus and hearing aids.

# data[].attributes.headline
How hearing impairment can be discovered or misdiagnosed.

# data[].attributes.subject
How hearing impairment can be discovered or misdiagnosed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
During her years teaching, former Oklahoma teacher Bonnie Stone encountered several students who were flagged as having learning, language and behavioral challenges when in reality, they had hearing loss.

"I taught first grade and discovered six children in three years with hearing loss," Stone said. "One was a Spanish-speaking boy who was profoundly deaf, but his lack of oral speech was dismissed because 'he doesn't know English.'"

Another student was about to undergo testing for learning disabilities when Stone suggested to the mom that her daughter get her hearing checked first.

"The next day, the mom comes in and tells me her daughter had impacted earwax in both ears and had them cleaned. By the end of the year, the girl tested in the top quartile for first grade," Stone said.

Misdiagnosis leads to real learning problems

When treated with pediatric hearing aids or cochlear implants, kids with hearing loss are just as capable as their peers. However, if childhood hearing loss is left undiagnosed and untreated, it can have an impact that's similar to a learning or behavioral disorder.

A child who can't hear well will struggle to keep up, may get restless and act out in class, or disengage from lessons. Unfortunately, this may lead to getting screened for other conditions, such as learning disabilities or ADD and ADHD. Eventually, this can affect their self-esteem, too, leading to behavioral problems.

"Hearing loss is a real and possible cause of behavioral and learning problems," she explained in a blog post about her experience. "ALWAYS assume hearing loss first and have the child screened."

Even a mild hearing loss can affect
academic performance.

How common is childhood hearing loss?

According to the CDC, about 15% of children ages 6 to 19 have hearing loss of at least 16 decibels in one or both ears. Around .1% have severe hearing loss.

Even hearing loss in only one ear has a tremendous impact on school performance; research shows anywhere from 25 to 35% of children with unilateral hearing loss are at risk of failing at least one grade level.

Hearing and learning are connected

Untreated hearing loss causes delays in the development of speech and language, and those delays then lead to learning problems, often resulting in poor school performance.

Even mild hearing loss can make it hard to keep up-yet mild hearing loss is the hardest to detect and diagnose, because kids learn quite early how to compensate for their hearing loss, and the milder it is, the easier it is to compensate. And parents may not realize that their child can hear but not understand. Over time, though, this catches up to them in school.

Untreated hearing loss leads to a very real learning gap

According to the American Speech-Language Hearing Association ( ASHA), children who have mild to moderate hearing loss but do not get help are very likely to be behind their hearing peers by anywhere from one to four grade levels.

And for those with more severe hearing loss, intervention services are even more crucial; those who do not receive intervention usually do not progress beyond the third-grade level.

What are the reasons behind this education gap? It's certainly not a question of intelligence; just because a child has hearing loss doesn't mean he is any less capable of doing well in school than his hearing peers. Sometimes the classroom environment itself doesn't support a child with hearing loss. A busy teacher who has many students to tend to, or a teacher with a poor understanding of hearing loss, often is unable to alter his teaching style or keep a student's hearing loss in mind while teaching a lesson or assigning homework.

Speech, language and vocabulary development

For example, if a teacher turns his back on the students while teaching, his voice will be directed toward the blackboard, causing a student with hearing loss to miss part of the lesson. Oral changes to homework assignments, an unfamiliar accent or a teacher who talks too rapidly can all hinder the learning progress of a student with hearing loss.

In addition to the classroom environment, certain subjects are just intrinsically more difficult for a child with hearing loss. While the ability to hear affects all aspects of academic achievement, perhaps the areas most affected are those involving language concepts. Vocabulary, language arts, sentence structure and idiomatic expressions are extremely difficult for a child affected by hearing loss to grasp.

New vocabulary, language arts, sentence structure and idiomatic expressions are extremely difficult for a child affected by hearing loss to grasp.

Frustration and confusion can also play a big part in poor academic performance. Though he might have perfectly normal speech, a child with only mild hearing loss can still have trouble hearing a teacher from a distance or amid background noise. Imagine the difficulty and confusion of not being able to hear the high-frequency consonants that impart meaning in the English language (ch, f, k, p, s, sh, t and th) and you can begin to understand some of the academic struggles a child with hearing loss faces on a daily basis. "Chick" and "thick" may sound identical to a child with hearing loss, for example.

Social struggles due to communication challenges

In addition to academic struggles in school, children with hearing loss can also experience trouble socially. Communication is vital to social interactions and healthy peer relationships; without the ability to communicate effectively they often experience feelings of isolation and unhappiness.

If a child with hearing loss is excluded from social interactions or is unwilling to participate in group activities due to fear of embarrassment, the result is that she can become socially withdrawn, leading to further unhappiness. Children with hearing loss are also slower to mature socially, which hinders peer relationships.

Hearing aids and other interventions make all the difference

The good news? Hearing aids help language development in kids with hearing loss.

Children who receive hearing aids or devices like cochlear implants can make great strides and perform just as well as their peers, according to research.

How to help hearing-impaired students in the classroom

Teachers are in a unique position to help learners with hearing impairments by arming themselves with the knowledge as to how a student with a hearing loss receives and understands information, as well as comprehensive knowledge of an individual student's capabilities and level of comprehension. Since early intervention is key, signs teachers can watch for in the classroom include:

Inattentiveness

Inappropriate responses to questions

Daydreaming

Trouble following directions

Speech problems

A child who is struggling in school, especially if she has a family history of hearing loss or has had r ecurring ear infections, should be seen by a hearing care professional for an evaluation.

Depending on the results a proper course of intervention and hearing loss student accommodations can then be recommended. Intervention is crucial because a child who is supported both at school and at home has the best chance of success, academic and otherwise.

If you believe your child is suffering from hearing loss, take her to a pediatrician or your local hearing healthcare professional today. Check out our hearing care directory for one near you.

Hearing loss is invisible and kids may not know they have it

Hearing loss in kids can be mistaken for many different problems, but is easily diagnosed with a hearing evaluation, either at school or with a doctor. Stone, the retired first grade teacher, can't stress doing this enough.

"Unlike vision, it cannot be recognized by a student who squints or tells you they can't see the board. Children with hearing loss may not even realize they aren't hearing properly," Stone, the former teacher, said. "So it is up to us, as their teachers and parents and caregivers, to be observant, educated, and aware of the signs. And to offer support and help."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hearing loss can mimic learning disorder in kids, leading to school problems

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
During her years teaching, former Oklahoma teacher Bonnie Stone encountered several students who were flagged as having learning, language and behavioral challenges when in reality, they had hearing loss. "I taught first grade and discovered six children in three years with hearing loss," Stone said.

# data[].attributes.headline
How to identify hearing loss in babies, the causes and the incidence rates

# data[].attributes.subject
How to identify hearing loss in babies, the causes and the incidence rates

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hearing loss in children can lead to speech and language delays. Learn more about the causes, symptoms and treatments available to children.

# data[].attributes.headline
OHI teaching strategies and assistive technology

# data[].attributes.subject
OHI teaching strategies and assistive technology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition

Other health impairment exists as an umbrella term encompassing hundreds of types of impairments that may result in a chronic condition limiting the individual's ability to effectively access the educational environment. This category is determined by limitations in the three areas of strength, vitality, and alertness, and these students may be cognitively intact. Three leading classifications under other health impairment include epilepsy, asthma, and diabetes.

However, it is the subcategory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) that will probably impact your classroom most frequently. According to the DSM-IV, AD/HD is defined as a "persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more frequently displayed and severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development." (p. 85)

Because of the wide parameters of the other health impairment category, the bulk of this section will be devoted to those students with AD/HD, as they are the highest incidence condition in this category. They are also the students most likely to be impacted negatively by their condition; students with epilepsy, asthma and other conditions in the other health impairment category may have little or no adverse impact on educational performance when their conditions are properly medicated.

Prevalence

The U.S. Department of Education reports 5,971,945 students receiving special education services in the 2003-2004 school year. Of that number, 7.6% or 452,045 students, received special education services based on a classification of other heath impairments.

Because IDEA does not specifically define or count incidence of AD/HD, the exact prevalence of the condition is difficult to determine. However, it is estimated that from 2 to 9% of all children are identified as having the condition.

Characteristics

IDEA lists a number of different chronic health problems as possible reasons for the other health impairment label, including asthma, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, cardiac conditions, hemophilia, leukemia, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and nephritis. It would be impossible to list all of the possible characteristics under such a large disability category. The primary issue in other health impairments, whatever the condition, the resulting symptoms could adversely impact the student's educational performance. If a child has diabetes, but it is controlled through medication and does not impact learning, special education services are not appropriate for that child.

Students with AD/HD are categorized according to their characteristics into three distinct subtypes: predominantly inattentive AD/HD, predominately hyperactive-impulsive AD/HD and combined type AD/HD.

Students with the predominately inattentive type of AD/HD will exhibit six or more of the following characteristics:

Does not pay attention to detail and often makes mistakes across a number of activities

Has difficulty maintaining attention during activities

Does not complete schoolwork or other assigned activities

Has difficulty with organization of activities

Avoids activities that require mental effort or concentration

Loses materials necessary to complete assignments

Easily distracted

Forgetful in many activities

Students with the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type of AD/HD will exhibit six or more of the following characteristics:

Fidgets or squirms in seat

Gets up or leaves seat frequently during class

Runs about or climbs when inappropriate, and is generally restless

Difficulty in engaging in play activities quietly

Talks excessively

Blurts out answers

Has difficulty waiting for their turn

Interrupts others

Students with the combined type of AD/HD will have some features of both the inattentive type and the hyperactive-impulsive type of AD/HD. This is the largest population of students carrying the AD/HD label.

Impact on Learning

Students with AD/HD, no matter what subtype, can have deficits in three areas that may impact their educational performance. These three areas are executive functioning, intellectual functioning, and social/emotional functioning.

Executive functioning is the ability to process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Students with AD/HD display deficits in a number of executive functions, including working memory, internalization of speech, self-regulation, and reconstitution. These students often have an inability to learn from the experiences of the past and can repeatedly make the same mistakes. This problem with memory is often impacted by issues with self-regulation, as these students also have difficulty understanding the effect that their behavior can have on others. In addition, students with AD/HD have trouble internalizing their thoughts and can blurt out inappropriate comments. Reconstitution is the skill of analyzing thoughts and behaviors. It is this deficit in executive functioning that can be the most frustrating to these students: they may know exactly what is expected of them, but are unable to act accordingly.

The average level of intellectual functioning of students with AD/HD is a matter of controversy, but what is certain is that these students frequently have problems with academic achievement. Ten to forty percent of these students are also diagnosed with a learning disability of some type, and 30% have a reading disability. However, these students also can display a high degree of creativity and can display intense levels of focused concentration on a task of interest.

Students with AD/HD often exhibit a number of emotional issues as well, and as many as 25% of these students have some type of anxiety disorder. These emotional issues can lead to conflict with parents, teachers and peers; low self-esteem; difficulty making social connections; and higher rates of alcohol and substance abuse.

Teaching Strategies

Without the appropriate supports, students with AD/HD may experience long-term difficulties in academic, social, and emotional functioning. However, there are a number of strategies that can be taught to these students to enable them to have more control over their own educational outcomes:

Allow extra time for these students to shift from one activity or environment to the next.

Teach these students specific techniques for organizing their thoughts and materials. Organize the classroom accordingly, and keep all materials in permanent locations for easy access.

Allow extra time for finishing assignments or for testing.

For more complex activities, simplify steps to make them more manageable.

Seat the student close to the teacher and away from any peers that might be distracting.

Post a daily and weekly schedule that clearly delineates each activity. These schedules can then be used as prompts to direct the student back on task.

Keep these schedules as consistent as possible, and keep unstructured time at a minimum.

In a more global sense, teaching these students to create their own goals and objectives can help them learn to manage their lives across any number of environments and activities. This process includes the following steps:

Clearly define your goal.

Develop objectives to achieve this goal.

Define the actions necessary to achieve the desired outcome.

Teaching this process gives control back to the individual, allowing for greater motivation and self-awareness.

Assistive Technology:

There are no specific technological devices that are recommended for students with AD/HD, but there are a number of tools that can be helpful in strengthening and supporting the organizational abilities of these individuals. Low tech devices such as notebooks and dividers can be utilized to record and organize assigned homework and classroom tasks. For older students, personal digital assistants, dictating machines, and a variety of computer programs can perform the same task.

For most students in the other health impairment category, it is the needs of the individual that drive the designation of appropriate assistive technology. For the most part, the majority of these students can access and benefit from the same technological supports that are used with their normally developing peers.

Important Information

The following two publications from the U.S. Department of Education address important issues related to the instruction of children with ADHD:

Organizations

A.D.D. Warehouse

ADD Warehouse has built the world's largest collection of ADHD-related books, videos, training programs, games, professional texts and assessment products. They are a leading resource for the understanding and treatment of all developmental disorders, including ADHD and related problems.

300 Northwest 70th Avenue, Suite 102
Plantation, FL 33317

Web: www.addwarehouse.org

Adults, adolescents, and children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD)

CHADD provides education, advocacy and support to individuals with ADHD. They publish a variety of printed materials to keep members and professionals current on research advances, medications, and treatments affecting individuals with ADHD.

8181 Professional Place, Suite 150
Landover, MD 20785

Web: chadd.org

American Diabetes Association

The American Diabetes Association funds research to prevent, cure, and manage diabetes and delivers services at the community level.

1707 North Beauregard Street Alexandria, VA 22311

Web: www.diabetes.org

Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA)

The Asthma and Allergy foundation of America works to develop and implement public policies to improve the quality of life for people with asthma and allergies.

Web: aafa.org

Center for Disability and Development

Dept. of Educational Psychology
4225 Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-4225

Council for Exceptional Children

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is the largest international professional organization dedicated to improving educational outcomes for individuals with exceptionalities, students with disabilities, and/or the gifted. CEC advocates for appropriate governmental policies, sets professional standards, provides continual professional development, advocates for newly and historically underserved individuals with exceptionalities, and helps professionals obtain conditions and resources necessary for effective professional practice.

1110 North Glebe Road, Suite 300
Arlington, VA 22201-5704

Email: service@cec.sped.org
Web: www.cec.sped.org

Epilepsy Foundation-National Office

The Epilepsy Foundation of America® is the national voluntary agency solely dedicated to the welfare of the more than 3 million people with epilepsy in the U.S. and their families. The organization works to ensure that people with seizures are able to participate in all life experiences; to improve how people with epilepsy are perceived, accepted and valued in society; and to promote research for a cure.

4351 Garden City Drive, Suite 500
Landover, MD 20785-7223

Web: epilepsyfoundation.org

Epilepsy Foundation of Southeast Texas

2630 Fountain View, Suite 210
Houston, TX 77057

8802 Harry Hines Boulevard
Dallas, TX 75235

Email: dstahlhut@efset.org
Web: www.efset.org

Epilepsy Foundation, Central and South Texas

10615 Perrin Beitel, Suite 602
San Antonio, TX 78217

Email: staff@efcst.org

Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)

LDA is the largest non-profit volunteer organization advocating for individuals with learning disabilities and has over 200 state and local affiliates in 42 states and Puerto Rico. The membership, composed of individuals with learning disabilities, family members and concerned professionals, advocates for the almost three million students of school age with learning disabilities and for adults affected with learning disabilities. LDA's mission is to create opportunities for success for all individuals affected by learning disabilities and to reduce the incidence of learning disabilities in future generations.

4156 Library Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15234-1349

E-mail: info@ldaamerica.org
Web: www.ldaamerica.org

National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems, Inc

The National Disability Rights Network (NDRN) is the nonprofit membership organization for the federally mandated Protection and Advocacy (P&A) Systems and Client Assistance Programs (CAP) for individuals with disabilities. Collectively, the P&A/CAP network is the largest provider of legally based advocacy services to people with disabilities in the United States. Through training and technical assistance, legal support, and legislative advocacy, the National Disability Rights Network works to create a society in which people with disabilities are afforded equality of opportunity and are able to fully participate by exercising choice and self-etermination.

900 Second Street, NE, Suite 211
Washington, DC 20002

Web: www.napas.org

National Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA)

The mission of ADDA is to provide information, resources and networking to adults with AD/HD and to the professionals who work with them. In doing so, ADDA generates hope, awareness, empowerment and connections worldwide in the field of AD/HD. Bringing together scientific perspectives and the human experience, the information and resources provided to individuals and families affected by AD/HD and professionals in the field focuses on diagnoses, treatments, strategies and techniques for helping adults with AD/HD lead better lives.

P.O. Box 543
Pottstown, PA 19464

Web: www.add.org

National Center for Learning Disabilities

The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) has developed this comprehensive site to help: parents make informed decisions affecting their children who have a learning disability or who may be at risk for learning disabilities; educators gain access to authoritative information about research-based instruction, assessment and support services; child care providers and early childhood teachers understand early literacy skill development, recognize warning signs and respond to young children's needs; and advocates promote educational rights and opportunities for all individuals with learning disabilities.

381 Park Avenue South, Suite 1401
New York, NY 10016

Web: www.ld.org

References

American Psychiatric Association (2000). (DSM-IV-TR) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.

Hunt, N., and Marshall, K. (2006). Exceptional children and youth. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R. & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Exceptional lives. Special education in today's schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Other health impairment exists as an umbrella term encompassing hundreds of types of impairments that may result in a chronic condition limiting the individual's ability to effectively access the educational environment. This category is determined by limitations in the three areas of strength, vitality, and alertness, and these students may be cognitively intact.

# data[].attributes.body
"According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’s (IDEA), multiple disabilities refers to “concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness.”"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act's (IDEA), multiple disabilities refers to "concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness."

In other words, a student whose special needs are categorized under multiple disabilities requires coinciding adaptions for more than one disability. The exception is the combination deafness and blindness, as this pair of impairments has its own classification under IDEA.

Common Traits

Given the numerous disability category combinations possible, the designation multiple disabilities encompasses a broad range of traits. However, the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (usually referred to as NICHCY) lists several common characteristics, including hampered speech and communication skills, challenges with mobility and a need for assistance in performing everyday activities. It's also worth noting that medical conditions such as seizures and "water on the brain" (hydrocephalus) can accompany multiple disabilities.

Educational Challenges

Without a doubt, the aforementioned traits can create numerous educational challenges. For instance, a student prone to seizures raises safety concerns inside a classroom. Other common educational challenges revolve around the following issues:

Finding a setting suitable to the child's intelligence level

A child's ability to effectively communicate with teachers, support staff and peers

A student's capability to function in the classroom

Assessing and compensating for visual or hearing impairments

Tips for Teachers and Parents

Triumphing over the educational challenges associated with multiple disabilities is a complex task headed by the student's individualized education program (IEP) team. Project IDEAL, a project of the Texas Council of Developmental Disabilities, advises, "Of course, at the center of the planning process should be the student, and the strengths and desires of the student should guide the entire process."

Staying mindful about medical conditions can assist with classroom placement, as can being aware of a student's intelligence level. Assistive technology (AT) and alternative communication methods, including text-to-speech technologies, hearing aids and sign language, can neutralize communication problems.

Physical therapy and occupational therapy can ease physical challenges, and in turn, they can improve a student's ability to function inside the classroom. Assistive technology and special education aids can be helpful here as well. Meanwhile, an assigned aid can provide assistance in cases in which functioning independently is difficult or impossible.

Finally, solutions ranging from priority seating to alternative textbooks (braille, audio, etc.) to hearing aids and sign language can compensate for visual and hearing impairments. A closer look at the specific disability categories which comprise a student's multiple disabilities can supply further suggestions for overcoming educational challenges.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Understanding "Multiple Disabilities" | A Guide to the IDEA

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find out when a child with special needs is categorized as having "multiple disabilities," and how special education teachers can support these students.

# data[].attributes.headline
UNDERSTANDING AND SUPPORTING LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES

# data[].attributes.subject
UNDERSTANDING AND SUPPORTING LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES

# data[].attributes.body
This web page has a wealth of information including;
-Causes of Multiple Disabilities

-The Evaluation Process
-Supporting Children with Multiple Disabilities
-Tips for Teachers
-Evidence-Based Practices for Students with Severe Disabilities - a large amount of research presented here

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Multiple Disabilities – Understanding and Supporting Learners with Disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
…means concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairme…

# data[].attributes.body
An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.  (IDEA, 2018)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Strategies for the Visually Impaired by Priscilla and Cristina

# data[].attributes.body
There are lots of great ideas in this video resource.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Assistive Technology and Aids for the Blind and Visually Impaired | What we use Part 1

# data[].attributes.body
http://sinche.uom.gr/sites/default/files/14_disability_categories_under_idea.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9huTVJYBFdU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=68B5X3XJkqQ

https://ldaamerica.org/info/successful-strategies-for-teaching-students-with-learning-disabilities/

# data[].attributes.headline
Dyslexia: Speakers and Assistive Technology

# data[].attributes.subject
Dyslexia: Speakers and Assistive Technology

# data[].attributes.body
Dyslexia has long been seen as a classic learning disability.  While some people with Dyslexia have high intelligence levels, they have traditionally struggled with academics, or were even labeled as "dumb" or "slow" by teachers and students.

The Cosby Show's main character of Theo, played by Malcom-Jamal Warner, is later found to have dyslexia on the show.  The real life actor also claims to have dyslexia, and has been involved in numerous causes promoting.

Some classical examples of the show can be seen as ways of increasing public awareness of this condition.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOB5rq_cAMs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIktcAVy2Os

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Snuh09zq_Fc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJvzkx6bq8I

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 8:18•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Cosby Show: Theo talks to Stanley about growing up being dyslexic (Part1)

# data[].attributes.body
Each of the other posters did an excellent job at diagnosis and prognosis of autism.

Yes, autism is screened more for these days. Better diagnostic methods and an increase in screening allow for the number diagnosed to rapidly increase.

While more is being done on the "yes, I agree" side, let us make sure to also balance with skepticism, caution, and other similar feelings.

The only thing worse than no diagnosis at all for someone who clearly has a problem is someone who does not have a problem, but people start labeling that person, treating them differently, and affecting their confidence. I saw this happen in special education programs, learning skills programs, and other well-intentioned, but poorly executed, programs.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272735820300775

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537802/

https://www.amazon.com/Saving-Normal-Allen-Frances-MD-audiobook/dp/B071G1VTW1/ref=sr_1_1?crid=99DTTWVCGGO9&keywords=saving+normal&qid=1659785141&sprefix=saving+norml%2Caps%2C953&sr=8-1

The real issue is that there are no biomarkers in psychiatry.

Even for the most brilliant people in the field, it is still guesswork, trial-and-error.

Many doctors think they understand medicine better than everyone; many therapists, etc. think they have a deeper understanding of the emotional struggles of others. As much as I love psychology, much of it is wishful thinking.

Personally, this is difficult for me. Any symptoms of autism, Asperger's, etc. could probably be applied to me. I certainly am the "Star Trekkie" type at school. For anyone to even suggest it, and be proven wrong, shows more about their ability to understand than whatever personality quirks I have.

I am only one unique individual; but, we can see the principle: autism is something hard to diagnose and treat well. Make sure people are treated with humanity, dignity, respect, kindness, and be willing to admit errors.

Autistic people have feelings too. Although they may not show it, each one is probably more sensitive than the general population. We can at least be humanistic, and not label so fast.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

It is often argued that successive editions of the (DSM) have relaxed diagnostic criteria and thereby inflated rates of diagnosis. This claim has yet to be examined systematically. We quantitatively reviewed 123 studies in which one sample was concurrently diagnosed using two consecutive DSM editions (i.e., DSM-III & DSM-III-R, DSM-III-R & DSM-IV, or DSM-IV & DSM-5). Meta-analysis of 476 risk ratios enabled 123 comparisons of diagnostic rates for specific disorders. Comparisons demonstrating diagnostic inflation (i.e., higher diagnostic rate in the later edition) did not exceed those demonstrating deflation. The average risk ratio was 1.00, indicating no overall change in diagnostic stringency from DSM-III to DSM-5, and there were no reliable tendencies for particular DSM revisions to be more inflationary or deflationary than others. Specific disorders showing reliable evidence of diagnostic inflation or deflation were identified. Notable examples of diagnostic inflation included Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders autism, eating disorders, and substance dependence. Although serious concerns have been raised about diagnostic inflation or "concept creep" in the DSM, these concerns may have been overstated.

Introduction

Revisions to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) have generated intense public and professional scrutiny of psychiatric diagnosis in recent decades. Especially since the publication of DSM-III (APA, 1980), critics have charged the DSM with proliferating diagnoses and pathologizing normal human behavior and experience. These critiques of diagnostic expansion have been renewed with each successive edition: DSM-III-R (APA, 1987), DSM-IV (APA, 1994), and DSM-5 (APA, 2013).

Some critiques of diagnostic expansion have come from within the mental health professions. In addition to criticisms about the increasing number of disorders (Houts, 2002), a common complaint is that new DSM editions have invalidly increased the prevalence of mental disorder, either by adding new conditions or by loosening the diagnostic criteria for existing conditions. The controversial removal of the bereavement exclusion from the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for major depression is a case in point (Wakefield & First, 2012). This apparent broadening of definitions of mental disorder is often described as "diagnostic inflation." If inflation occurs, diagnoses become less stringently defined and their prevalence increases as a result. Such increases can be viewed negatively as sources of over-diagnosis and over-treatment (Wakefield & First, 2003) or positively as expanding professional concern to previously under-recognized and under-treated problems (Michels, 2013; Regier, Kühl, & Kupfer, 2013). Concerns about diagnostic inflation, or about negative impacts of relaxed diagnostic criteria such as increased heterogeneity within diagnostic categories, have been raised about numerous conditions, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD: Dalsgaard, 2013), autism (Wing & Potter, 2002), major depression (Horwitz & Wakefield, 2007), anxiety disorders (Horwitz & Wakefield, 2012), and post-traumatic stress disorder (McNally, 2003).

Debate surrounding diagnostic inflation was especially intense in the lead-up to the publication of DSM-5 in 2013. Led by Allen Frances (Frances, 2009, Frances, 2013a, Frances, 2013b), Chair of the DSM-IV Task Force, critics expressed concerns that the new edition heralded a period of "diagnostic hyperinflation." Frances and colleagues argued that a combination of loosened diagnostic criteria and the addition of proposed new high-prevalence conditions such as mild neurocognitive disorder, mixed anxiety-depression, and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder would produce burgeoning rates of psychiatric diagnosis. They instituted a campaign to "save normality" from DSM's expansionism and interpreted the rising prevalence of mental disorders in recent years as evidence that normality is endangered (Batstra & Frances, 2012).

Evaluating possible diagnostic inflation is important because it may help to clarify whether over-diagnosis and misdirection of treatment resources is taking place. It is also crucial for evaluating historical changes in rates of psychiatric diagnosis. As the DSM-5 manual (APA, 2013) observes, in reference to autism, "It remains unclear whether higher rates reflect an expansion of the diagnostic criteria of DSM-IV to include subthreshold cases, increased awareness, differences in study methodology, or a true increase in the frequency of autism spectrum disorder" (p. 55). Without solid evidence regarding the presence or absence of diagnostic inflation, it is impossible to determine whether prevalence changes are real or artifactual or to estimate the magnitude of any real underlying changes.

Despite the importance of evaluating possible diagnostic inflation across editions of the DSM, systematic research has been scarce. Boysen (2011) carried out detailed conceptual analysis of diagnostic criteria for 81 disorders that remained in the DSM over the three revisions from DSM-III (1980) to DSM-IV-TR (2000), coding criteria for evidence of increased or decreased stringency (i.e., deflation or inflation). He found consistent evidence of diagnostic inflation in every revision: disorders showing loosened criteria outnumbered those that tightened by 43 to 10 in DSM-III-R, by 26 to 15 in DSM-IV, and by 4 to 0 in DSM-IV-TR. Overall, 51 disorders demonstrated net inflation, 13 demonstrated net deflation, and 17 had no net change. Boysen and Ebersole (2014) found that diagnostic inflation continued in DSM-5, judging that diagnostic criteria for 30 out of 83 DSM-IV-TR disorders inflated compared to 21 that deflated.

This research provides preliminary evidence for widespread diagnostic inflation in the DSM but it also has limitations. As the researchers acknowledged, their coding methodology was subjective and by weighting multiple factors equally when judging whether diagnoses had expanded or contracted overall, they may have been insensitive to differences in the importance of these factors. The ultimate test of diagnostic inflation is whether more people warrant diagnosis when the revised criteria are applied than before. A stronger test for the presence of diagnostic inflation would therefore involve comparing rates of diagnosis between successive DSM editions. However, direct comparisons of diagnostic rates between studies based on different DSM editions are problematic. Numerous potentially confounding differences in sampling and methodology make it risky to infer diagnostic inflation from increasing rates of diagnosis, and because different editions have been employed in different time periods such comparisons tend to have an intrinsic historical confound.

One methodological solution to this problem is to review studies that use diagnostic criteria from successive DSM editions to diagnose a single sample at a single time. By holding the sample and time constant in this manner, differences in rates of diagnosis between the respective criteria sets can be confidently attributed to diagnostic inflation or deflation. The present investigation adopted this approach, conducting a meta-analytic review of research studies that reported diagnostic rates for any DSM mental disorder in a single sample concurrently using two consecutive editions of the DSM from DSM-III (1980) to DSM-5 (2013), excluding DSM-IV-TR because its revisions were minimal. The meta-analysis therefore examined three possible occasions for diagnostic inflation by comparing rates of diagnosis between DSM-III and DSM-III-R, DSM-III-R and DSM-IV, and DSM-IV and DSM-5. In addition to testing whether diagnostic inflation or deflation had occurred in each revision and comparing their magnitude between revisions, the meta-analysis aimed to assess whether overall diagnostic inflation had occurred and to identify disorders that had inflated or deflated significantly.

Section snippets

Search process

A thorough literature search was carried out in October 2019 seeking studies in which diagnostic criteria from successive editions of the DSM from DSM-III to DSM-5 were used concurrently to diagnose one or more mental disorders in the same sample. To ensure comprehensiveness, an iteratively optimized search process was repeated in five databases: PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO. Searches were run separately for each of the three edition comparisons, searching article titles

Results

A total of 476 RR values could be extracted from the 123 studies, each representing the ratio of one DSM disorder diagnosed using two successive DSM editions in a single sample. These 476 values were aggregated to generate 123 meta-analytic estimates of diagnostic risk ratios for specific disorders in particular DSM edition pairs. Estimates were obtained for a total of 62 disorders, although only 14 disorders yielded estimates for all three DSM edition pairs. The 123 estimates were based on a

Discussion

The findings of this meta-analytic review demonstrate that diagnostic inflation and deflation, defined as systematic increase or decrease in rates of diagnosis based on changes in diagnostic criteria alone, have been a common feature of the successive revisions of the DSM. Of 123 comparisons of the diagnostic rates of a disorder from one edition to the next, 26.8% were significantly different - despite the limited quantity of data for many comparisons - and 76.4% indicated a > 10% change in

Role of funding sources

Funding for this study was provided by Australian Research Council grant DP170104948. The funding agency had no role in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Contributors

FF and NH designed the study. FF conducted the literature searches under the supervision of NH. FF conducted the statistical analysis. NH wrote the first draft of the manuscript and both authors contributed to and have approved the final manuscript.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.

Fabian Fabiano is a research assistant in the Brain and Mind group at the Murdoch Children's Research Institute in Melbourne, Australia. He received his honours degree in psychology from the University of Melbourne.

Saving normal: An insider's revolt against out-of- control psychiatric diagnosis, DSM-5, big pharma, and the medicalization of ordinary life

View full text

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Diagnostic inflation in the DSM: A meta-analysis of changes in the stringency of psychiatric diagnosis from DSM-III to DSM-5

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It is often argued that successive editions of the (DSM) have relaxed diagnostic criteria and thereby inflated rates of diagnosis. This claim has yet to be examined systematically. We quantitatively reviewed 123 studies in which one sample was concurrently diagnosed using two consecutive DSM editions (i.e., DSM-III & DSM-III-R, DSM-III-R & DSM-IV, or DSM-IV & DSM-5).

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/deafness-and-hearing-loss

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249285

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hearing-loss/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20373077

Laypeople understand what deafness is: a person who cannot hear can be labeled as deaf, and hopefully get treatment.

A deeper definition requires looking at by a doctor. If a general doctor sees a problem, they can refer to a specialist.

To be fair, there are people who have a hearing problem, and many more at risk for a hearing problem, but cannot admit it. Conversely, there are people who are hyper-vigilant and often use self-tests, apps, etc.

Nothing beats a real doctor, with training and experience in this specific area.

Treatments can include surgery, (commonly) hearing aids, or even things like cleaning ears better

The real untapped issue lies in prevention: many people could prevent hearing problems by not listening to loud headphones, excessive sound, or using safety precautions, such as wearing ear protection when at a gun firing range.

Although some people are born with ear problems, a far greater share of the population can prevent hearing loss at a later age, by prevention now. This seems to be the greater area: helping young people find a way to avoid future trouble, by being more careful in specific areas, specific ways.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Overview

Over 5% of the world's population - or 430 million people - require rehabilitation to address their disabling hearing loss (432 million adults and 34 million children). It is estimated that by 2050 over 700 million people - or 1 in every 10 people - will have disabling hearing loss.

'Disabling' hearing loss refers to hearing loss greater than 35 decibels (dB) in the better hearing ear. Nearly 80% of people with disabling hearing loss live in low- and middle-income countries. The prevalence of hearing loss increases with age, among those older than 60 years, over 25% are affected by disabling hearing loss.

Hearing loss and deafness

A person who is not able to hear as well as someone with normal hearing - hearing thresholds of 20 dB or better in both ears - is said to have hearing loss. Hearing loss may be mild, moderate, severe, or profound. It can affect one ear or both ears and leads to difficulty in hearing conversational speech or loud sounds.

'Hard of hearing' refers to people with hearing loss ranging from mild to severe. People who are hard of hearing usually communicate through spoken language and can benefit from hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other assistive devices as well as captioning.

'Deaf' people mostly have profound hearing loss, which implies very little or no hearing. They often use sign language for communication.

Causes of hearing loss and deafness

Although these factors can be encountered at different periods across the life span, individuals are most susceptible to their effects during critical periods in life.

Prenatal period

genetic factors including hereditary and non-hereditary hearing loss

intrauterine infections - such as rubella and cytomegalovirus infection.

Perinatal period

birth asphyxia (a lack of oxygen at the time of birth

hyperbilirubinemia (severe jaundice in the neonatal period)

low-birth weight

other perinatal morbidities and their management.

Childhood and adolescence

chronic ear infections (chronic suppurative otitis media)

collection of fluid in the ear (chronic nonsuppurativeotitis media)

meningitis and other infections.

Adulthood and older age

chronic diseases

smoking

otosclerosis

age-related sensorineural degeneration

sudden sensorineural hearing loss.

Factors across the life span

cerumen impaction (impacted ear wax)

trauma to the ear or head

loud noise/loud sounds

ototoxic medicines

work related ototoxic chemicals

nutritional deficiencies

viral infections and other ear conditions

delayed onset or progressive genetic hearing loss.

The impact of unaddressed hearing loss

When unaddressed, hearing loss impacts many aspects of life at individual level:

communication and speech

cognition

education and employment: In developing countries, children with hearing loss and deafness often do not receive schooling. Adults with hearing loss also have a much higher unemployment rate. Among those who are employed, a higher percentage of people with hearing loss are in the lower grades of employment compared with the general workforce.

social isolation, loneliness and stigma

impact on society and economy

effects on years lived with disability (YDLs) and disability adjusted life years (DALYs).

WHO estimates that unaddressed hearing loss poses an annual global cost of US$ 980 billion. This includes health sector costs (excluding the cost of hearing devices), costs of educational support, loss of productivity, and societal costs. Of these costs, 57% are attributed to low- and middle-income countries.

Prevention

Many of the causes that lead to hearing loss can be avoided through public health strategies and clinical interventions implemented across the life course.

Prevention of hearing loss is essential throughout the life course, from prenatal and perinatal periods to older age. In children, nearly 60% of hearing loss is due to avoidable causes that can be prevented through implementation of public health measures. Likewise, most common causes of hearing loss in adults, such as exposure to loud sounds and ototoxic medicines, are preventable.

Effective strategies for reducing hearing loss at different stages of the life course include:

immunization;

good maternal and childcare practices;

genetic counselling;

identification and management of common ear conditions;

occupational hearing conservation programmes for noise and chemical exposure;

safe listening strategies for the reduction of exposure to loud sounds in recreational settings; and

rational use of medicines to prevent ototoxic hearing loss.

Identification and management

Early identification of hearing loss and ear diseases is key to effective management.

This requires systematic screening for detection of hearing loss and related ear diseases in those who are most at risk. This includes:

newborn babies and infants

pre-school and school-age children

people exposed to noise or chemicals at work

people receiving ototoxic medicines

older adults.

Hearing assessment and ear examination can be conducted in clinical and community settings. Tools such as the WHO "hearWHO" app and other technology-based solutions make it possible to screen for ear diseases and hearing loss with limited training and resources.

Once hearing loss is identified, it is essential that it is addressed as early as possible and in an appropriate manner, to mitigate any adverse impact.

Measures available to rehabilitate people with hearing loss include:

the use of hearing technologies, such as hearing aids, cochlear implants and middle ear implants;

the use of sign language and other means of sensory substitution,such as speech reading, use of print on palm or Tadoma, signed communication; and

rehabilitative therapy to enhance perceptive skills and develop communication and linguistic abilities.

The use of hearing assistive technology, and services such as frequency modulation and loop systems, alerting devices, telecommunication devices,captioning services and sign language interpretation, can further improve access to communication and education for people with hearing loss.

WHO response

WHO's work on ear and hearing care is to promote integrated people-centred ear and hearing care (IPC-EHHC).

WHO's work is guided by the recommendations of the WHO World report on hearing (2021) and the World Health Assembly resolution on prevention of deafness and hearing loss.

WHO's work includes:

guiding, assisting and supporting Member States to increase awareness on EHC issues;

facilitating data generation and dissemination of ear and hearing care related data and information;

providing technical resources and guidance to facilitate planning and health systems capacity building for ear and hearing care;

supporting heath workforce training in ear and hearing care;

promoting safe listening to reduce the risk of recreational noise-induced hearing loss through the WHO Make Listening Safe initiative;

observing and promoting World Hearing Day as an annual advocacy event;

building partnerships to develop strong hearing care programmes, including initiatives for affordable hearing aids, cochlear implants and services; and

advocating for ear and hearing care through the World Hearing Forum.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Deafness and hearing loss fact sheet from WHO: providing key facts and information on causes, impact, prevention, identification, management and WHO response.