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Educational essentialism is an educational ideology whose advocates think that pupils should master all of the traditional core subjects comprehensively, ensuring that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization, as taught in conventional academic fields, is passed down from teacher to student.

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Perennialism is an educational ideology focusing on timeless ideas and universal truths, and it is taught by teachers. To clarify, Perennialism proposes that education should be centered on ideas that have stood the test of time, believing that these ideas are as relevant and valuable today as they were when they were penned. A perennialist classroom aspires to be a well-organized and disciplined atmosphere in which pupils develop a lifelong search for knowledge.

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Progressivism was developed by John Dewey’s pedagogic theory, being based on Pragmatism, a specific American philosophy, and on instrumentalism, one of its variants to which John Dewey conferred its climax. Experience represented the core concept of his philosophy. After revising this philosophical current, the paper will deal with John Dewey’s pedagogic theory insisting on the method of solving problems as a general method of instruction

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The teacher is at the center of knowledge and in command of learning in teacher-centered instruction. Knowledge is passed down from the instructor to the pupils in such methods. The majority of the time, students are passively receiving information. The emphasis is on learning outside of the environment in which it will be applied.

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The focus of instruction is shifted from the teacher to the learner in a learner-centered method because the student is engaged with the instructor, the subject, and other learners, this shift provides the optimum learning experience. The learner's continuous participation aids in the development of a better grasp of the subject delivered.

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DIFFERENCES OF TEACHER-CENTERED  AND LEARNER-CENTERED

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DIFFERENCES OF TEACHER-CENTERED  AND LEARNER-CENTERED

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The term essentialist first appeared in a book written by Michael John Demiashkevich (Null, 2007). In his book, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, Demiashkevich regards some specific educators, including William C. Bagley, as essentialists. In addition, Demiashkevich compares the views of essentialists with those of the Progressive Education Association. He describes how the Progressives preach a hedonistic, self-indulgent doctrine of change although the essentialists focus on the moral values and responsibilities taking permanent principles of behaviour into consideration.

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https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED593579.pdf

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Perennial means “everlasting,” like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived.

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Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived
Perennialism philosophy of education is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills. Even the national standards that are coming into place emphasize the ideas of Perennialism. As now days we are stressing reading, writing and arithmetic in education but the decline of the music and art. Teaching the students for job and the knowledge is what we need today so Perennialism philosophy of education is what helps in educators is to equip them with "universal knowledge

Perennialists philosophers, despite a variety of minute distinctions, generally feel that they are advocates of the True Philosophy and with it the True Philosophy of Education. They are often unwilling to concede the possible validity of different interpretations of the same data. Adler, in his article aptly titled, "In Defense of The Philosophy of Education," has this to say about the possible validity of any other system of philosophical inquiry:

Education is a preparation for life, not an imitation of life; or as the progressive insist it is not "life itself." Education should be basically the same for all men.The term Perennialism is used when referring to this point of view in education, while in the more general philosophical area it is referred to as Neo-Thomism or Neo-Scholasticism. Perennialism is the preferred educational term because of the insistence of philosophers associated with the position that there are certain everlasting values to which we must return and which much be brought to the attention of all youth in the schools.
HISTORICAL RETROSPECT OF PERENNIALISM 1. Pre-Christian Origins: Aristotle
Perennialism is not rooted in any particular time or place. Perennialism is open to the notion that universal spiritual forms Aristotle contributed to the basis realist position with his conception of form and matter. Form, it will be recalled was viewed as being at the apex of the pyramid or hierarchy while matter was at its base. Matter existed as pure potentiality. It acquired meaning only as from was imposed on it. It was form that was seen as the principle of actuality. All things were composed of form and matter. Man, for example, had a physical being composed of matter and mind composed of form. From was equated with pure rationality while mater was equated with pure materiality.
2. Christianity: The First Thousand Years
One of the great voices during this first thousand years of Christendom was the voice of St. Augustine. Since the works of Aristotle were lost for the first thousand year of Christianity, the great influence on the early medieval thinkers was Plato. Plato, indirectly, and Augustine, directly, set much of the pattern of Christian theology until the time of St. Thomas Aquinas. For Augustine, reason was subservient to religious dogma and the material and practical aspect of life were to play only a minor role as compared with the spiritual aspects. First came faith and then came reason.
3. The Thirteenth Century: St. Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic took the work as Aristotle and after accepting his form and matter thesis, added to it the concept of existence. He reconciled the Christian principles of his faith with the realism of Aristotle by insisting that beyond essence (the combination of form and matter) lay existence. Aristotle, according to St. Thomas, was right in what he said, but had failed to raise the question of the existence of essence. Thus, for Aquinas, essence becomes the principle of potentiality while existence becomes the principle of actuality

Pure Existence or Pure Actuality is, of course, God. We can know Pure Existence only through revelation although we can know about it through reason. In this manner Aquinas postulated a realistic world in which man must make his way while preparing for life in the here after. While reason is able to deal with the world of nature, revelation deals with the world beyond nature. For St. Thomas, the natural world was open to all the tools of the scientist. This natural world was clearly distinguished from the world of theology where faith and revelation hold sway. The two worlds of St. Thomas Aquinas, the world of faith and the world of reason were set apart; as long as there was no interaction between the two, all was well.
4. Contemporary Thinkers : Maritain and Adler
a. Jacques Maritain is usually considered the most prominent contemporary spokesman of the Perennialists position.. As an educator he has written and taught both in his own country and in the United States. Maritain's position is typical of the Neo-Thomists, with a strong reliance on reason and faith. His writings often deal with education and he has been particularly concerned with reconciling the democratic conception of education and the Perennialists point of view.

b. Mortimer Adler Although a non-Catholic, Adler has been welcomed into the perennialist camp with open arms because of his strong support of the philosophical position they espouse. Adler goes on to out that the education of man is not complete without religious education, and that there is a whole realm of knowledge with which this deals which is not attainable through rational means
FORMS OF PERENNIALISM
The Perennialist will generally fall into one of two camps, secular and theistic. The differences between these two camps are small but significant.
Secular perennialism
As promoted primarily by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler,. Secular perennialists espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually developing common western base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical western paradigm shifts or changes in world view. A program of studies which is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated. They firmly believe that exposure of all citizens to the development of thought by those most responsible for the evolution of the Western tradition is integral to the survival of the freedoms, human rights and responsibilities inherent to a true Democracy.

Secular perennialists agree with progressivists that memorization of vast amounts of factual information and a focus on second-hand information in textbooks and lectures does not develop rational thought. They advocate learning through the development of meaningful conceptual thinking and judgement by means of a directed reading list of the profound, aesthetic, and meaningful great books of the Western canon. These books, secular perennialists argue, are written by the world's finest thinkers, and cumulatively comprise the "Great Conversation" of mankind with regard to the central human questions. Their basic argument for the use of original works (abridged translations being acceptable as well) is that these are the products of "genius".
Religious perennialism /Theistic perennialism.
Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work De Magistro (The Teacher).theistic Perennialist believes in a world of Reason, Being, and God (metaphysics) and in truth as Reason and Intuition. Furthermore, ethics is the Rational Act and aesthetics is a matter of Creative Intuition. From this very general philosophical position, the secular Perennialist would tend to view the Learner as a rational and spiritual being, the Teacher as a mental disciplinarian and spiritual leader, the Curriculum as the subject matter of the intellect and spirit (mathematics, languages, logic, Great Books, Dogma, etc.), the Teaching Method as training the intellect, and the Social Policy as transmitting the great ideas, both secular and religious,
PHILOSOPHICAL RATIONALE
This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational thinking
Ontological or Metaphysicsical Position
The perennialist believes that all things are composed of from and matter which make up their essences. But in order for things to Be in the world they must have Existence. Essence is the principle of potentiality while Existence is the principal actuality. For the perennialist, Existence is of a higher order than essence. It stands in the Aristotelian ontology. At the top of the hierarchy is Pure Existence or Being. The essence of Being is Existence. For the ecclesiastical perennialist this Being is equated with God. God cannot be know except through faith and revelation Father William McGucken has summed up the Catholic Church's position nicely when he writes : God is pure actuality

The ontology of the perennialists is a two-sided coin. On the side is the natural world, open to reason. While on other is the supernatural realm open only through intuition, revelation, and fait. Science deals with the first side of the coin, but the spiritual side of the coin is beyond its reach.

The perennialist ontology is teleological, holding that man and of universe are moving toward a prescribed end. This end is realization of the principle of actuality or Absolute Being. The perennialist teleology can be known through faith, dogma, intuition, and revelation. The lay perennialist would find all of the foregoing acceptable. He would not reject the Aristotelian concept of realty. He would agree that the universe has a logic, and he would even accept the concept of Pure Being, as long as it was not given a special religious status or theological stature. The lay perennialist sees not need for equating Being with God, and thus making it something to be feared and worshiped.
Epistemological Position ( Knowledge)
Perennialists see the analytic statement as a self-evident truth that may be know apart from all empirical experience. It is, fro them, a first principal. And according to the perennialists, man is capable of intuiting first principal or having them revealed to him through revelation.

These self-evident truths open, for the perennialist, a whole realm of truth that cannot be reached by science. For the lay perennialist truth can be know through reason and intuition. For the ecclesiastical perennialist there is, added to these two ways of knowing, the certitude of revelation which is given to man. While intuiting is an activity of man, man is simply the recipient of revelation given from a source external to man. Catholic educators rely heavily on the materials of revelation .

To summarize, knowledge is independent of man. Truth can be know by man through reason, but there are certain other truths-... which transcend the "natural" order of the universe - which can only be known through intuition and / or revelation.

Two warnings about the perennialist epistemology might be pointed out. To begin with, first principles should not be confused with clever sayings, with slogans, or with proverbs. While such statements as "a fool and his money are soon parted," may be commonly true, first principles are always and universally true. An example of such a first principles might be, "Either man has free will or he does not have free will." Secondly, there is little justification for the argument that the perennialists use of reason is only to support belief. Revelation is simply an independent way of arriving at some truths. The ecclesiastical lperennialist would argue that faith is not proof of reason, nor is reason proof of faith. They are simply two routes which, on occasion, lead one to the same truth. For example, the existence of God is accepted on faith despite the five logical proofs of the existence of God given by St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theological.
Axiological Position What is Truth
The perennialist believes that to know the truth about something is to know its essence. As he been indicated in the foregoing, in order to know the entire truth about reality we must rely on intuition, faith or revelation. Faith and reason are two different and separate realms.

Since the perennialist ontology is teleological, the hard core of reality is logical, permanent, and unchanging. Truth, therefore, is also logical, permanent, and unchanging. Man tends toward knowledge. His mind is basically curious; thus, he needs little special prodding to start him on his epistemological expedition. The perennialist believes that there are certain things that are self-evident and that the structure of knowledge rests upon those self-evident truths that we know.

A self-evident truth is always an analytic statement or one that contains its predicate in its predicate in its subject. This type of statement is opposed to synthetic statements which depend upon our experience. Analytic statements are logically true. Such statements, however, as the scientific empiricists are quick to point out, although necessarily true by definition, or convention, do not yield knowledge of the experiential universe. This is not imply that they cannot have meaning; it is simply to indicate that they cannot give us new knowledge.
1. What is Good (Ethics)
Just as man tends towards knowledge, so he tends towards the moral life. And, just as knowledge is attained through reason, so the moral life is the life consonant wit reason. The good act is the act controlled by man's rationality. But man does not always act in terms of his rationality; hi is sometimes controlled by his will, which bay err, or his desires. The good man is one whose will is habituated to and subservient to the intellect. The ecclesiastical perennialists hold that where sin exists (the will acting in opposition to the intellect), forgiveness may be attained if the sinner can show his intentions were good. By the same token, if a man dose not know his is wrong, he cannot be held responsible for his acts.
2. What is Beautiful (Aesthetics)
Just as man tends towards knowledge and morality, he tends towards beauty. We know something is beautiful when we respond to it immediately and with pleasure. Man tends to be creative; he desires to give to his material the meaning that is potential in it. Art, therefore, is immediately self-evident. The artist intuits meaning rather than approaching it logically, although he may appreciate a work of art through the pleasure it gives the intellect.
Perennialism in Education
The most conservative, traditional, or inflexible of the five philosophies is perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Perennialists believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. Because the distinguishing characteristic of humans is the ability to reason, education should focus on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is a preparation for life, and students should be taught the world's permanencies through structured study.
Educational Aims
Because human beings are essentially the same, education should be essentially the same for everyone. The function of a citizen may vary from society to society, but the function of man, as a man, is the same in every age and in every society since it results from his nature as a man. "The aim of an educational system ... is to improve man as man

For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. A Perennialist views nature, human nature, and the underlying principles of existence as constant. The principles of knowledge are enduring. Truth never changes

Education should be for the "long-haul," not for the immediate, contemporary fad. It is not the job of the school to meddle in contemporary problems, social reform, and political action. It is the job of the school to provide an education on the basis of which education, students later after graduation can rationally initiate the efforts for social reform, change, and political action.

At least the ultimate aims of educations - are held to be the same for all men in all times and places. But, just what are these aims? They are the development of the intellectual and spiritual capabilities of the individual to their highest level. The lay perennialist is, of course, primarily concerned with developing the intellect. The school need not concern itself wit the social graces or the physical well-being of the student except insofasr as they are necessary for the intellectual training of the child.

The School -

The ecclesiastical perennialists see the school as concerned wit the secular in education and particularly the training of the intellect. But in addition to this they see a second aim carefully interwoven through the fabric of education. They view education as a moral and religious undertaking. The ecclesiastical perennialists believe that the school cannot separate itself from the study of those things that have come to man through faith and revelation. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church in America has continued to maintain a separate school system so that it might permeates its "secular" teachings with its moral and religious convictions. If we were to sum up the whole educational aim of the ecclesiastical perennialists in one sentence it would be, "Catholic," and it is at this that the Catholic parochial schools from kindergarten through graduate school aim.

They believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there-and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies

The student is seen as a rational being with tendencies toward Truth and knowledge. But the learner also has a spiritual side. It is the responsibility of the school to help him develop both. The rational power of the learner tend to be viewed from a position of faculty psychology. Thus, the faculty of reason is trained through the formal discipline of those subjects with the most logical organization. This would include subjects such as mathematic and logic. The faculty of memory is trained by having students memorize. Any foreign language which requires extensive memorization both of forms and content would seem to be desirable. The faculty of will is trained by having the students engage in tasks which are unpleasant enough to require a high degree of perseverance to complete. By engaging in these three types of exercise the student develops to the fullest his basic faculties : reason, memory, and will. The lay perennialists, represented by men such as Adler, have long emphasized the detailed study of the classics in light of their view of the student.

Because man's highest characteristic - the one differentiating him from the lower life forms - is his reason, he must use it to direct his life and control his instincts. Men are free, not determined. They are responsible for their actions. We cannot excuse a child's actions because of his environment or personal problems. Because men are rational, they must live rationally. Hence, children must be held to the standards of reason, and this is one function of education

Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. Discipline in the classroom is essential to learning. A noisy classroom is not a desirable place for learning to take place. Order is vital. Students cannot always think of the future. Consequently, teachers and parents must help students overcome their desire for immediate ends and direct them to future objectives. Self-discipline is fine, but most of the times it is insufficient. Adults therefore must give direction. The classroom is teacher-centered. The teacher as a professional is far more likely to know what her students will need to know in the future than do they. She/he is responsible for the education and intellectual growth of his/her students. Education requires the mastery of content, of subject matter.

Education requires mental discipline. Study is hard work. Concentration and effort is required. Students must therefore being cultured in the process.

The Teacher - Perennialists disapprove of teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of disconnected information. They recommend that schools spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining they are meaningful to students.

The teacher, to the perennialist, is a mental disciplinarian with highly developed logical skills, capable of teaching logical thinking and the use of reason to his students. The teacher must have the ability to work with the natural tendencies of the students toward reason. He must serve as a benevolent taskmaster, exercising the minds of the students in order to help them develop their rational faculties.

Thus, besides having been trained in logic, the teacher must have the proper spiritual orientation. Nor is this all. Since the teacher is to train the students in reason, memory and will power, he must certainly have these three qualities if he is to help the student on the road to knowledge and the development of his faculties.

Education requires hard work and effort. If the student is interested in the subject, well and good, but if not, s/he still must be required to do the tasks. After all, the student does not know what s/he will need in the future. Motivation is fine, and if the teacher can provide it, well and good, but if not, the student must work at the task regardless

Perennialists believe that reading is to be supplemented with mutual investigations (between the teacher and the student) and minimally-directed discussions through the Socratic method in order to develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning distinguishes the developed or educated mind and they thus stress the development of this faculty. A skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic and correct errors in reasoning, but it would be the class, not the teacher, who would reach the conclusions. While not directing or leading the class to a conclusion, the teacher may work to accurately formulate problems within the scope of the texts being studied, Perennialism, typically considered to be teacher-centere. However, since the teachers associated with perennialism are in a sense the authors of the Western masterpieces themselves, these teachers may be open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if carried out as true dialogue, is a balance between students, including the teacher promoting the discussion
Importance of books in education
Perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written. They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's finest thinkers and writers

A number of perennialists, notably Robert Maynard Hutchins, Mortimer Adler,, have supported the idea of a university level curriculum based on the great books. These are the books that are considered great because they have withstood the test of time, it is argued that if they have survived for any length of time, it is because They are applicable through time, and are therefore "truer" than books which have had only as short-term appeal. This is totally in line with the traditional purposes of the university. One of which , as seen by McGucken is , "an interpreter and guardian of values," and the conservation of knowledge. Maritain too feels that the best way to educate is through the reading of great books

Hutchins remarks that Great books are great teachers; they are showing us every day what ordinary people are capable of. These books come out of ignorant, inquiring humanity. They are usually the first announcements for success in learning. Most of them were written for, and addressed to, ordinary people."

It is important to note that the Great Conversation is not static, which is the impression that one might obtain from some descriptions of perennialism, a confusion with religious perennialism, or even the term perennialism itself. The Great Conversation and the set of related great books changes as the representative thought of man changes or progresses, and is therefore representative of an evolution of thought, but is not based upon the whim or fancy of the latest cultural fads.

In the course of history... new books have been written that have won their place in the list. Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of change will continue as long as men can think and write. It is the task of every generation to reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context with the distant and intermediate past the most recent contributions to the Great Conversation. ...the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the discussion that they have carried on.

Perennialism was a solution proposed in response to what was considered by many to be a failing educational system. In this regard John Dewey and Hutchins were in agreement. Hutchins's book The Higher Learning in America deplored the "plight of higher learning" that had turned away from cultivation of the intellect and toward anti-intellectual practicality due in part, to a lust for money. In a highly negative review of the book, Dewey wrote a series of articles in The Social Frontier which began by applauding Hutchins' attack on "the aimlessness of our present educational scheme.

While the standard argument for utilizing a modern text supports distillation of information into a form relevant to modern society, perennialists argue that many of the historical debates and the development of ideas presented by the great books are relevant to any society, at any time, and thus that the suitability of the great books for instructional use is unaffected by their age.

Perennialists freely acknowledge that any particular selection of great books will disagree on many topics; however, they see this as an advantage, rather than a detriment. They believe that the student must learn to recognize such disagreements, which often reflect current debates. The student becomes responsible for thinking about the disagreements and reaching a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of the Socratic discussions. They do not advocate teaching a settled scholarly interpretation of the books, which would cheat the student of the opportunity to learn rational criticism and to know his own mind.

As with the essentialists, perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas, but stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest thinkers as models for discovery. The student should be taught such basic subjects as English, languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts. Adler states: "The three R's, which always signified the formal disciplines, are the essence of liberal or general education."

The perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all human beings possess the same essential nature. Perennialists think it is important that individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may soon be outdated or found to be incorrect

Perennialist believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.

A Perennialist asks, "What are the essential things a student must know?" Within a Perennialist curriculum, activities are tied to the past and not to what is "essential" right now. The Perennialist values the past but he or she likes the back to basics movement inasmuch as the basics are the learnings of the great minds of the past.

For the perennialists there are two broad categories of subject matter : those of the intellect and those of the spirit. The lay perennialist emphasize the first of the these while being somewhat ambivalent about the latter. For the ecclesiastical perennialist there is no conflict; the two are carefully integrated into a cohesive body.

A great proponent of Perennialism is Mortimer Adler, Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University. He wrote the Paidea Proposal. His basic tenant is that an individual learns best by studying the classics. The Paideia program seeks to establish a course of study that is general, not specialized; liberal, not vocational; humanistic, not technical. Only in this way can it fulfill the meaning of the words "paideia" and "humanities," which signify the general learning that should be in the possession of every human being.

For many perennialist the emphasis is on a humanistic education. Maritain, for example, emphasizes the importance of a liberal education for all, no matter what their vocation may be. Among many of the perennialists there is a tendency to emphasize science, mathematics literature, geography, and history. In the later years of schooling the emphasis switches to grammar, rhetoric, as well as mathematics.

Perennialists seek to help students discover those ideas most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition. The study of philosophy is thus a crucial part of the Perennialist curriculum.

Recognizing that enormous strides have been made in our knowledge about the physical universe, Perennialists teach about the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. Perennialists emphasize, though, that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.

Perennialists generalize about what the perennialist would valued in the early education of children. Obviously at the elementary school level the emphasis would be on basis skills (i.e. reading, writing, and arithmetic) as well as the subject matter of reason and the intellect. The latter is any subject matter which has a high degree of structure such as foreign languages. Not only does language develop the ability to reason, it requires memorization and will power.

In addition, Perennialists recommend that students learn directly from reading and analyzing the Great Books. These are the creative works by history's finest thinkers and writers, which Perennialists believe are as profound, beautiful, and meaningful today as when they were written. Perennialists lament the change in universities over the centuries from places where students (and teachers) pursued truth for its own sake to mere glorified training grounds for the students' careers.

The child should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him/her with the world's permanencies: English, languages, history, mathematics, natural sciences, the fine arts, and philosophy. The child should learn reading and writing, how to speak and how to listen. He is a social being and lives in a community of men. Thus he must use his reason - his powers of rationality - to communicate with other men. The three Rs are important.

Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized- the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.

Perennialists hold that subject matter should be the center of the curriculum. They feel that greater educational opportunities have lowered standards in the schools. They are particularly critical of the progressives who have placed emphasis on the interests of the child and teaching through activity and freedom. Education should introduce the pupil to the universal concerns of mankind thorough the study of the great works of literature, philosophy, history, and science. Such works represent man's finest insights into his own nature. The insights presented in these works are eternal. They do not change; they are never dated. In this way, s/he learns truths that are more important than any s/he could find by dipping into this or that in the contemporary scene, or by pursing his own interests.

Method of Teaching .

A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of traditional real science

Because the nature of man is constant - because men as men are everywhere the same - education should be basically the same for all men. This means that children are rational beings, not plastic personalities to be molded to the teacher's whim. Problem-solving is thus a waste of time on the part of pupils

They use tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students' minds The method of teaching for the perennialist is rooted in mental discipline and in the training of the intellect through the discipline inherent in the subject matter. Since the child has a natural tendency to learn, the basis of the perennialist method is cooperation with the natural tendency of the student toward reason. The perennialist methodology relies heavily upon the use of lectures to englishten the student while he follows his natural curiosity under the moral authority of the teacher. Other techniques considered important by the perennialists are memorization of materials, and for the ecclesiastical perennialists, recitation of the Catechism.

Why spend hours to discover a fact or a principle when it can be taught to pupils in a few minutes? Drill, repetition and memorization are vital in the leaning process. Teaching should not be slanted to the "least common denominator." Rather, slow learners must spend more time to learn the same content as do the brilliant students. The quality of education must not be diluted. Promotion chronologically by age promotes a false standard of equality

Perennialists criticize the vast amount of discrete factual information that educators traditionally have required students to absorb. Perennialists urge schools to spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students. Particularly at the high school and university levels, Perennialists decry undue reliance on textbooks and lectures to communicate ideas. Perennialists suggest that a greater emphasis be placed on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in Socratic dialogues, or mutual inquiry sessions, to develop an enhanced understanding of history's most timeless concepts
Education should adjust man to the truth which is eternal, while the contemporary world is not. "Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. Knowledge is truth. The truth everywhere is the same. Hence, education should be everywhere the same." Critical appraisal of Perennialism Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere.
The perennialists, despite their many claims to the contrary, are advocates of a regressive social philosophy. They would have us solve our twentieth century problems by turning back the clock to a system of belief prevalent in the thirteenth century. They would have us turn the clock back to a time when the source of authority was external to man an when man stood in the very center of the universe; to a time when, the perennialists would have us believe, man was at a moral and spiritual peak from which he has since declined. The moral, intellectural, and spiritual reaction that the perennialists advocate is seen as coming, of necessity, from the church and the university. The lower schools have little to do with social change, since the school must transcend society and deal wit the teaching of first principles, the permanent base of Eternal Truth which is true in all times and in all places.
1. Absolute Truth
Perhaps the most openly peresonalistic philosophy we have discussed, perennialism is subject to a variety of criticisms. Certainly there has been a great deal of criticism which can only be categorized as rooted in religious bigotry and which is violently anti - Catholic in nature. On the other hand, there are many criticisms which are valid whether on is discussing lay or ecclesiastical perennialism.

Whenever the question of immutable Truth is raised it is a proper response to ask, "Whose immutable Truth?" The perennialists rely on intuition, revelation and dogma of the Church and at time all three of these have been found wanting. If they were absolute and accurate guides to knowledge and Truth then surely the advocates of other position would long since have been convinced of the futility and error of their positions, and would have been become either lay or ecclesiastical perennialists.
2. Reliance on Intermediaries
It is not that who have rejected the perennialist position are stupid, this would be the easy answer. Even the most convinced perenniailst would not label an Einstein, an Oppenheimer, a Freud, a James, or a Dewey ignorant because they questioned the validity of the revelations or intuitions of the perenniaists.
3. Knowledge as an End in Itself
Aside from the question of whether or not we can trust immutable truth, the perennialist philosophy relies on an intermediary of some sort to explain the supernatural. Thus, the perennialists are dependent upon authority. The authority, whether lay or ecclesiastical, is not open to question. Catholics rely for their authority no the dogma of the church and the body or revelation which the church has sanctioned. But the very fact that the church has argued and fought over what constitutes "correct" dogma raises doubts as to the validity of its absolute authority. One can only remember how close Galileo came to flames of ta heretic's death for supporting a position which subsequently became the accepted norm in the civilized world. The lay perennialist, on the other hand, is somewhat less susceptible to the hierarchical authority of the Church. Nonetheless, he too finds his sources of authority in the great thinkers of the past and their statements as to the body of knowledge and Truth.
4. Focus on Past
Finally, many educators would argue that knowledge as an end in itself is not a sufficient rationale for education. As we shall see in the next section, pragmatists would take immediate exception to statement such as Maritain's that "Knowledge is a value in itself and an end in itself; and truth consists in the conformity of the mind with reality."
In a simpler society there may be no danger is such a regressive social policy, but in an age of automation, over-production, over-abundance for some and starvation for others, in an age of atomic and hydrogen over-kill, and an age of red buttons that could destroy all human life leaving this planet nothing more than a charred ember in the universe, we cannot risk looking only into the past to find solution to problems of the present and the future References
In an increasingly technological society the perennialist philosophy is quite openly regressive. It is a longing not just for the status quo, but rather a desire to return to the good old days. The whole social theory of the perennialist has tended to ignore progress and has, for the most part, focused on a social order which has not existed since the middle ages.

Adler, Mortimer, In Defense of the Philosophy of Education," Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-First yearbook, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942.

Brameld, Theodore, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspective. New York: Dryden Press, 1956.

Butler, J.Donald, Four Philosophies and Their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.

Cotter, A.C. ABC of Scholastic Philosophy. Weston, Massachusetts: Weston College Press, 1949

McGucken, William, "The Philosophy of Catholic Education," Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-first yearbook, Part I Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1942.

Maritain, Jacques," Thomist views on Education," Modern Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Fifty-Fourth yearbook, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955.

Morries, Van Cleve, Philosophy and the American School. Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1961.

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Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived Perennialism philosophy of education is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education.

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Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived
Perennialism philosophy of education is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills. Even the national standards that are coming into place emphasize the ideas of Perennialism. As now days we are stressing reading, writing and arithmetic in education but the decline of the music and art. Teaching the students for job and the knowledge is what we need today so Perennialism philosophy of education is what helps in educators is to equip them with "universal knowledge

Perennialists philosophers, despite a variety of minute distinctions, generally feel that they are advocates of the True Philosophy and with it the True Philosophy of Education. They are often unwilling to concede the possible validity of different interpretations of the same data. Adler, in his article aptly titled, "In Defense of The Philosophy of Education," has this to say about the possible validity of any other system of philosophical inquiry:

Education is a preparation for life, not an imitation of life; or as the progressive insist it is not "life itself." Education should be basically the same for all men.The term Perennialism is used when referring to this point of view in education, while in the more general philosophical area it is referred to as Neo-Thomism or Neo-Scholasticism. Perennialism is the preferred educational term because of the insistence of philosophers associated with the position that there are certain everlasting values to which we must return and which much be brought to the attention of all youth in the schools.
HISTORICAL RETROSPECT OF PERENNIALISM 1. Pre-Christian Origins: Aristotle
Perennialism is not rooted in any particular time or place. Perennialism is open to the notion that universal spiritual forms Aristotle contributed to the basis realist position with his conception of form and matter. Form, it will be recalled was viewed as being at the apex of the pyramid or hierarchy while matter was at its base. Matter existed as pure potentiality. It acquired meaning only as from was imposed on it. It was form that was seen as the principle of actuality. All things were composed of form and matter. Man, for example, had a physical being composed of matter and mind composed of form. From was equated with pure rationality while mater was equated with pure materiality.
2. Christianity: The First Thousand Years
One of the great voices during this first thousand years of Christendom was the voice of St. Augustine. Since the works of Aristotle were lost for the first thousand year of Christianity, the great influence on the early medieval thinkers was Plato. Plato, indirectly, and Augustine, directly, set much of the pattern of Christian theology until the time of St. Thomas Aquinas. For Augustine, reason was subservient to religious dogma and the material and practical aspect of life were to play only a minor role as compared with the spiritual aspects. First came faith and then came reason.
3. The Thirteenth Century: St. Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic took the work as Aristotle and after accepting his form and matter thesis, added to it the concept of existence. He reconciled the Christian principles of his faith with the realism of Aristotle by insisting that beyond essence (the combination of form and matter) lay existence. Aristotle, according to St. Thomas, was right in what he said, but had failed to raise the question of the existence of essence. Thus, for Aquinas, essence becomes the principle of potentiality while existence becomes the principle of actuality

Pure Existence or Pure Actuality is, of course, God. We can know Pure Existence only through revelation although we can know about it through reason. In this manner Aquinas postulated a realistic world in which man must make his way while preparing for life in the here after. While reason is able to deal with the world of nature, revelation deals with the world beyond nature. For St. Thomas, the natural world was open to all the tools of the scientist. This natural world was clearly distinguished from the world of theology where faith and revelation hold sway. The two worlds of St. Thomas Aquinas, the world of faith and the world of reason were set apart; as long as there was no interaction between the two, all was well.
4. Contemporary Thinkers : Maritain and Adler
a. Jacques Maritain is usually considered the most prominent contemporary spokesman of the Perennialists position.. As an educator he has written and taught both in his own country and in the United States. Maritain's position is typical of the Neo-Thomists, with a strong reliance on reason and faith. His writings often deal with education and he has been particularly concerned with reconciling the democratic conception of education and the Perennialists point of view.

b. Mortimer Adler Although a non-Catholic, Adler has been welcomed into the perennialist camp with open arms because of his strong support of the philosophical position they espouse. Adler goes on to out that the education of man is not complete without religious education, and that there is a whole realm of knowledge with which this deals which is not attainable through rational means
FORMS OF PERENNIALISM
The Perennialist will generally fall into one of two camps, secular and theistic. The differences between these two camps are small but significant.
Secular perennialism
As promoted primarily by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler,. Secular perennialists espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually developing common western base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical western paradigm shifts or changes in world view. A program of studies which is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated. They firmly believe that exposure of all citizens to the development of thought by those most responsible for the evolution of the Western tradition is integral to the survival of the freedoms, human rights and responsibilities inherent to a true Democracy.

Secular perennialists agree with progressivists that memorization of vast amounts of factual information and a focus on second-hand information in textbooks and lectures does not develop rational thought. They advocate learning through the development of meaningful conceptual thinking and judgement by means of a directed reading list of the profound, aesthetic, and meaningful great books of the Western canon. These books, secular perennialists argue, are written by the world's finest thinkers, and cumulatively comprise the "Great Conversation" of mankind with regard to the central human questions. Their basic argument for the use of original works (abridged translations being acceptable as well) is that these are the products of "genius".
Religious perennialism /Theistic perennialism.
Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work De Magistro (The Teacher).theistic Perennialist believes in a world of Reason, Being, and God (metaphysics) and in truth as Reason and Intuition. Furthermore, ethics is the Rational Act and aesthetics is a matter of Creative Intuition. From this very general philosophical position, the secular Perennialist would tend to view the Learner as a rational and spiritual being, the Teacher as a mental disciplinarian and spiritual leader, the Curriculum as the subject matter of the intellect and spirit (mathematics, languages, logic, Great Books, Dogma, etc.), the Teaching Method as training the intellect, and the Social Policy as transmitting the great ideas, both secular and religious,
PHILOSOPHICAL RATIONALE
This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational thinking
Ontological or Metaphysicsical Position
The perennialist believes that all things are composed of from and matter which make up their essences. But in order for things to Be in the world they must have Existence. Essence is the principle of potentiality while Existence is the principal actuality. For the perennialist, Existence is of a higher order than essence. It stands in the Aristotelian ontology. At the top of the hierarchy is Pure Existence or Being. The essence of Being is Existence. For the ecclesiastical perennialist this Being is equated with God. God cannot be know except through faith and revelation Father William McGucken has summed up the Catholic Church's position nicely when he writes : God is pure actuality

The ontology of the perennialists is a two-sided coin. On the side is the natural world, open to reason. While on other is the supernatural realm open only through intuition, revelation, and fait. Science deals with the first side of the coin, but the spiritual side of the coin is beyond its reach.

The perennialist ontology is teleological, holding that man and of universe are moving toward a prescribed end. This end is realization of the principle of actuality or Absolute Being. The perennialist teleology can be known through faith, dogma, intuition, and revelation. The lay perennialist would find all of the foregoing acceptable. He would not reject the Aristotelian concept of realty. He would agree that the universe has a logic, and he would even accept the concept of Pure Being, as long as it was not given a special religious status or theological stature. The lay perennialist sees not need for equating Being with God, and thus making it something to be feared and worshiped.
Epistemological Position ( Knowledge)
Perennialists see the analytic statement as a self-evident truth that may be know apart from all empirical experience. It is, fro them, a first principal. And according to the perennialists, man is capable of intuiting first principal or having them revealed to him through revelation.

These self-evident truths open, for the perennialist, a whole realm of truth that cannot be reached by science. For the lay perennialist truth can be know through reason and intuition. For the ecclesiastical perennialist there is, added to these two ways of knowing, the certitude of revelation which is given to man. While intuiting is an activity of man, man is simply the recipient of revelation given from a source external to man. Catholic educators rely heavily on the materials of revelation .

To summarize, knowledge is independent of man. Truth can be know by man through reason, but there are certain other truths-... which transcend the "natural" order of the universe - which can only be known through intuition and / or revelation.

Two warnings about the perennialist epistemology might be pointed out. To begin with, first principles should not be confused with clever sayings, with slogans, or with proverbs. While such statements as "a fool and his money are soon parted," may be commonly true, first principles are always and universally true. An example of such a first principles might be, "Either man has free will or he does not have free will." Secondly, there is little justification for the argument that the perennialists use of reason is only to support belief. Revelation is simply an independent way of arriving at some truths. The ecclesiastical lperennialist would argue that faith is not proof of reason, nor is reason proof of faith. They are simply two routes which, on occasion, lead one to the same truth. For example, the existence of God is accepted on faith despite the five logical proofs of the existence of God given by St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theological.
Axiological Position What is Truth
The perennialist believes that to know the truth about something is to know its essence. As he been indicated in the foregoing, in order to know the entire truth about reality we must rely on intuition, faith or revelation. Faith and reason are two different and separate realms.

Since the perennialist ontology is teleological, the hard core of reality is logical, permanent, and unchanging. Truth, therefore, is also logical, permanent, and unchanging. Man tends toward knowledge. His mind is basically curious; thus, he needs little special prodding to start him on his epistemological expedition. The perennialist believes that there are certain things that are self-evident and that the structure of knowledge rests upon those self-evident truths that we know.

A self-evident truth is always an analytic statement or one that contains its predicate in its predicate in its subject. This type of statement is opposed to synthetic statements which depend upon our experience. Analytic statements are logically true. Such statements, however, as the scientific empiricists are quick to point out, although necessarily true by definition, or convention, do not yield knowledge of the experiential universe. This is not imply that they cannot have meaning; it is simply to indicate that they cannot give us new knowledge.
1. What is Good (Ethics)
Just as man tends towards knowledge, so he tends towards the moral life. And, just as knowledge is attained through reason, so the moral life is the life consonant wit reason. The good act is the act controlled by man's rationality. But man does not always act in terms of his rationality; hi is sometimes controlled by his will, which bay err, or his desires. The good man is one whose will is habituated to and subservient to the intellect. The ecclesiastical perennialists hold that where sin exists (the will acting in opposition to the intellect), forgiveness may be attained if the sinner can show his intentions were good. By the same token, if a man dose not know his is wrong, he cannot be held responsible for his acts.
2. What is Beautiful (Aesthetics)
Just as man tends towards knowledge and morality, he tends towards beauty. We know something is beautiful when we respond to it immediately and with pleasure. Man tends to be creative; he desires to give to his material the meaning that is potential in it. Art, therefore, is immediately self-evident. The artist intuits meaning rather than approaching it logically, although he may appreciate a work of art through the pleasure it gives the intellect.
Perennialism in Education
The most conservative, traditional, or inflexible of the five philosophies is perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Perennialists believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. Because the distinguishing characteristic of humans is the ability to reason, education should focus on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is a preparation for life, and students should be taught the world's permanencies through structured study.
Educational Aims
Because human beings are essentially the same, education should be essentially the same for everyone. The function of a citizen may vary from society to society, but the function of man, as a man, is the same in every age and in every society since it results from his nature as a man. "The aim of an educational system ... is to improve man as man

For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. A Perennialist views nature, human nature, and the underlying principles of existence as constant. The principles of knowledge are enduring. Truth never changes

Education should be for the "long-haul," not for the immediate, contemporary fad. It is not the job of the school to meddle in contemporary problems, social reform, and political action. It is the job of the school to provide an education on the basis of which education, students later after graduation can rationally initiate the efforts for social reform, change, and political action.

At least the ultimate aims of educations - are held to be the same for all men in all times and places. But, just what are these aims? They are the development of the intellectual and spiritual capabilities of the individual to their highest level. The lay perennialist is, of course, primarily concerned with developing the intellect. The school need not concern itself wit the social graces or the physical well-being of the student except insofasr as they are necessary for the intellectual training of the child.

The School -

The ecclesiastical perennialists see the school as concerned wit the secular in education and particularly the training of the intellect. But in addition to this they see a second aim carefully interwoven through the fabric of education. They view education as a moral and religious undertaking. The ecclesiastical perennialists believe that the school cannot separate itself from the study of those things that have come to man through faith and revelation. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church in America has continued to maintain a separate school system so that it might permeates its "secular" teachings with its moral and religious convictions. If we were to sum up the whole educational aim of the ecclesiastical perennialists in one sentence it would be, "Catholic," and it is at this that the Catholic parochial schools from kindergarten through graduate school aim.

They believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there-and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies

The student is seen as a rational being with tendencies toward Truth and knowledge. But the learner also has a spiritual side. It is the responsibility of the school to help him develop both. The rational power of the learner tend to be viewed from a position of faculty psychology. Thus, the faculty of reason is trained through the formal discipline of those subjects with the most logical organization. This would include subjects such as mathematic and logic. The faculty of memory is trained by having students memorize. Any foreign language which requires extensive memorization both of forms and content would seem to be desirable. The faculty of will is trained by having the students engage in tasks which are unpleasant enough to require a high degree of perseverance to complete. By engaging in these three types of exercise the student develops to the fullest his basic faculties : reason, memory, and will. The lay perennialists, represented by men such as Adler, have long emphasized the detailed study of the classics in light of their view of the student.

Because man's highest characteristic - the one differentiating him from the lower life forms - is his reason, he must use it to direct his life and control his instincts. Men are free, not determined. They are responsible for their actions. We cannot excuse a child's actions because of his environment or personal problems. Because men are rational, they must live rationally. Hence, children must be held to the standards of reason, and this is one function of education

Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. Discipline in the classroom is essential to learning. A noisy classroom is not a desirable place for learning to take place. Order is vital. Students cannot always think of the future. Consequently, teachers and parents must help students overcome their desire for immediate ends and direct them to future objectives. Self-discipline is fine, but most of the times it is insufficient. Adults therefore must give direction. The classroom is teacher-centered. The teacher as a professional is far more likely to know what her students will need to know in the future than do they. She/he is responsible for the education and intellectual growth of his/her students. Education requires the mastery of content, of subject matter.

Education requires mental discipline. Study is hard work. Concentration and effort is required. Students must therefore being cultured in the process.

The Teacher - Perennialists disapprove of teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of disconnected information. They recommend that schools spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining they are meaningful to students.

The teacher, to the perennialist, is a mental disciplinarian with highly developed logical skills, capable of teaching logical thinking and the use of reason to his students. The teacher must have the ability to work with the natural tendencies of the students toward reason. He must serve as a benevolent taskmaster, exercising the minds of the students in order to help them develop their rational faculties.

Thus, besides having been trained in logic, the teacher must have the proper spiritual orientation. Nor is this all. Since the teacher is to train the students in reason, memory and will power, he must certainly have these three qualities if he is to help the student on the road to knowledge and the development of his faculties.

Education requires hard work and effort. If the student is interested in the subject, well and good, but if not, s/he still must be required to do the tasks. After all, the student does not know what s/he will need in the future. Motivation is fine, and if the teacher can provide it, well and good, but if not, the student must work at the task regardless

Perennialists believe that reading is to be supplemented with mutual investigations (between the teacher and the student) and minimally-directed discussions through the Socratic method in order to develop a historically oriented understanding of concepts. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning distinguishes the developed or educated mind and they thus stress the development of this faculty. A skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic and correct errors in reasoning, but it would be the class, not the teacher, who would reach the conclusions. While not directing or leading the class to a conclusion, the teacher may work to accurately formulate problems within the scope of the texts being studied, Perennialism, typically considered to be teacher-centere. However, since the teachers associated with perennialism are in a sense the authors of the Western masterpieces themselves, these teachers may be open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if carried out as true dialogue, is a balance between students, including the teacher promoting the discussion
Importance of books in education
Perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written. They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's finest thinkers and writers

A number of perennialists, notably Robert Maynard Hutchins, Mortimer Adler,, have supported the idea of a university level curriculum based on the great books. These are the books that are considered great because they have withstood the test of time, it is argued that if they have survived for any length of time, it is because They are applicable through time, and are therefore "truer" than books which have had only as short-term appeal. This is totally in line with the traditional purposes of the university. One of which , as seen by McGucken is , "an interpreter and guardian of values," and the conservation of knowledge. Maritain too feels that the best way to educate is through the reading of great books

Hutchins remarks that Great books are great teachers; they are showing us every day what ordinary people are capable of. These books come out of ignorant, inquiring humanity. They are usually the first announcements for success in learning. Most of them were written for, and addressed to, ordinary people."

It is important to note that the Great Conversation is not static, which is the impression that one might obtain from some descriptions of perennialism, a confusion with religious perennialism, or even the term perennialism itself. The Great Conversation and the set of related great books changes as the representative thought of man changes or progresses, and is therefore representative of an evolution of thought, but is not based upon the whim or fancy of the latest cultural fads.

In the course of history... new books have been written that have won their place in the list. Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of change will continue as long as men can think and write. It is the task of every generation to reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context with the distant and intermediate past the most recent contributions to the Great Conversation. ...the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the discussion that they have carried on.

Perennialism was a solution proposed in response to what was considered by many to be a failing educational system. In this regard John Dewey and Hutchins were in agreement. Hutchins's book The Higher Learning in America deplored the "plight of higher learning" that had turned away from cultivation of the intellect and toward anti-intellectual practicality due in part, to a lust for money. In a highly negative review of the book, Dewey wrote a series of articles in The Social Frontier which began by applauding Hutchins' attack on "the aimlessness of our present educational scheme.

While the standard argument for utilizing a modern text supports distillation of information into a form relevant to modern society, perennialists argue that many of the historical debates and the development of ideas presented by the great books are relevant to any society, at any time, and thus that the suitability of the great books for instructional use is unaffected by their age.

Perennialists freely acknowledge that any particular selection of great books will disagree on many topics; however, they see this as an advantage, rather than a detriment. They believe that the student must learn to recognize such disagreements, which often reflect current debates. The student becomes responsible for thinking about the disagreements and reaching a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of the Socratic discussions. They do not advocate teaching a settled scholarly interpretation of the books, which would cheat the student of the opportunity to learn rational criticism and to know his own mind.

As with the essentialists, perennialists are educationally conservative in the requirement of a curriculum focused upon fundamental subject areas, but stress that the overall aim should be exposure to history's finest thinkers as models for discovery. The student should be taught such basic subjects as English, languages, history, mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and fine arts. Adler states: "The three R's, which always signified the formal disciplines, are the essence of liberal or general education."

The perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all human beings possess the same essential nature. Perennialists think it is important that individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may soon be outdated or found to be incorrect

Perennialist believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.

A Perennialist asks, "What are the essential things a student must know?" Within a Perennialist curriculum, activities are tied to the past and not to what is "essential" right now. The Perennialist values the past but he or she likes the back to basics movement inasmuch as the basics are the learnings of the great minds of the past.

For the perennialists there are two broad categories of subject matter : those of the intellect and those of the spirit. The lay perennialist emphasize the first of the these while being somewhat ambivalent about the latter. For the ecclesiastical perennialist there is no conflict; the two are carefully integrated into a cohesive body.

A great proponent of Perennialism is Mortimer Adler, Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University. He wrote the Paidea Proposal. His basic tenant is that an individual learns best by studying the classics. The Paideia program seeks to establish a course of study that is general, not specialized; liberal, not vocational; humanistic, not technical. Only in this way can it fulfill the meaning of the words "paideia" and "humanities," which signify the general learning that should be in the possession of every human being.

For many perennialist the emphasis is on a humanistic education. Maritain, for example, emphasizes the importance of a liberal education for all, no matter what their vocation may be. Among many of the perennialists there is a tendency to emphasize science, mathematics literature, geography, and history. In the later years of schooling the emphasis switches to grammar, rhetoric, as well as mathematics.

Perennialists seek to help students discover those ideas most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition. The study of philosophy is thus a crucial part of the Perennialist curriculum.

Recognizing that enormous strides have been made in our knowledge about the physical universe, Perennialists teach about the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. Perennialists emphasize, though, that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.

Perennialists generalize about what the perennialist would valued in the early education of children. Obviously at the elementary school level the emphasis would be on basis skills (i.e. reading, writing, and arithmetic) as well as the subject matter of reason and the intellect. The latter is any subject matter which has a high degree of structure such as foreign languages. Not only does language develop the ability to reason, it requires memorization and will power.

In addition, Perennialists recommend that students learn directly from reading and analyzing the Great Books. These are the creative works by history's finest thinkers and writers, which Perennialists believe are as profound, beautiful, and meaningful today as when they were written. Perennialists lament the change in universities over the centuries from places where students (and teachers) pursued truth for its own sake to mere glorified training grounds for the students' careers.

The child should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him/her with the world's permanencies: English, languages, history, mathematics, natural sciences, the fine arts, and philosophy. The child should learn reading and writing, how to speak and how to listen. He is a social being and lives in a community of men. Thus he must use his reason - his powers of rationality - to communicate with other men. The three Rs are important.

Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized- the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.

Perennialists hold that subject matter should be the center of the curriculum. They feel that greater educational opportunities have lowered standards in the schools. They are particularly critical of the progressives who have placed emphasis on the interests of the child and teaching through activity and freedom. Education should introduce the pupil to the universal concerns of mankind thorough the study of the great works of literature, philosophy, history, and science. Such works represent man's finest insights into his own nature. The insights presented in these works are eternal. They do not change; they are never dated. In this way, s/he learns truths that are more important than any s/he could find by dipping into this or that in the contemporary scene, or by pursing his own interests.

Method of Teaching .

A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of traditional real science

Because the nature of man is constant - because men as men are everywhere the same - education should be basically the same for all men. This means that children are rational beings, not plastic personalities to be molded to the teacher's whim. Problem-solving is thus a waste of time on the part of pupils

They use tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students' minds The method of teaching for the perennialist is rooted in mental discipline and in the training of the intellect through the discipline inherent in the subject matter. Since the child has a natural tendency to learn, the basis of the perennialist method is cooperation with the natural tendency of the student toward reason. The perennialist methodology relies heavily upon the use of lectures to englishten the student while he follows his natural curiosity under the moral authority of the teacher. Other techniques considered important by the perennialists are memorization of materials, and for the ecclesiastical perennialists, recitation of the Catechism.

Why spend hours to discover a fact or a principle when it can be taught to pupils in a few minutes? Drill, repetition and memorization are vital in the leaning process. Teaching should not be slanted to the "least common denominator." Rather, slow learners must spend more time to learn the same content as do the brilliant students. The quality of education must not be diluted. Promotion chronologically by age promotes a false standard of equality

Perennialists criticize the vast amount of discrete factual information that educators traditionally have required students to absorb. Perennialists urge schools to spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students. Particularly at the high school and university levels, Perennialists decry undue reliance on textbooks and lectures to communicate ideas. Perennialists suggest that a greater emphasis be placed on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in Socratic dialogues, or mutual inquiry sessions, to develop an enhanced understanding of history's most timeless concepts
Education should adjust man to the truth which is eternal, while the contemporary world is not. "Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. Knowledge is truth. The truth everywhere is the same. Hence, education should be everywhere the same." Critical appraisal of Perennialism Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere.
The perennialists, despite their many claims to the contrary, are advocates of a regressive social philosophy. They would have us solve our twentieth century problems by turning back the clock to a system of belief prevalent in the thirteenth century. They would have us turn the clock back to a time when the source of authority was external to man an when man stood in the very center of the universe; to a time when, the perennialists would have us believe, man was at a moral and spiritual peak from which he has since declined. The moral, intellectural, and spiritual reaction that the perennialists advocate is seen as coming, of necessity, from the church and the university. The lower schools have little to do with social change, since the school must transcend society and deal wit the teaching of first principles, the permanent base of Eternal Truth which is true in all times and in all places.
1. Absolute Truth
Perhaps the most openly peresonalistic philosophy we have discussed, perennialism is subject to a variety of criticisms. Certainly there has been a great deal of criticism which can only be categorized as rooted in religious bigotry and which is violently anti - Catholic in nature. On the other hand, there are many criticisms which are valid whether on is discussing lay or ecclesiastical perennialism.

Whenever the question of immutable Truth is raised it is a proper response to ask, "Whose immutable Truth?" The perennialists rely on intuition, revelation and dogma of the Church and at time all three of these have been found wanting. If they were absolute and accurate guides to knowledge and Truth then surely the advocates of other position would long since have been convinced of the futility and error of their positions, and would have been become either lay or ecclesiastical perennialists.
2. Reliance on Intermediaries
It is not that who have rejected the perennialist position are stupid, this would be the easy answer. Even the most convinced perenniailst would not label an Einstein, an Oppenheimer, a Freud, a James, or a Dewey ignorant because they questioned the validity of the revelations or intuitions of the perenniaists.
3. Knowledge as an End in Itself
Aside from the question of whether or not we can trust immutable truth, the perennialist philosophy relies on an intermediary of some sort to explain the supernatural. Thus, the perennialists are dependent upon authority. The authority, whether lay or ecclesiastical, is not open to question. Catholics rely for their authority no the dogma of the church and the body or revelation which the church has sanctioned. But the very fact that the church has argued and fought over what constitutes "correct" dogma raises doubts as to the validity of its absolute authority. One can only remember how close Galileo came to flames of ta heretic's death for supporting a position which subsequently became the accepted norm in the civilized world. The lay perennialist, on the other hand, is somewhat less susceptible to the hierarchical authority of the Church. Nonetheless, he too finds his sources of authority in the great thinkers of the past and their statements as to the body of knowledge and Truth.
4. Focus on Past
Finally, many educators would argue that knowledge as an end in itself is not a sufficient rationale for education. As we shall see in the next section, pragmatists would take immediate exception to statement such as Maritain's that "Knowledge is a value in itself and an end in itself; and truth consists in the conformity of the mind with reality."
In a simpler society there may be no danger is such a regressive social policy, but in an age of automation, over-production, over-abundance for some and starvation for others, in an age of atomic and hydrogen over-kill, and an age of red buttons that could destroy all human life leaving this planet nothing more than a charred ember in the universe, we cannot risk looking only into the past to find solution to problems of the present and the future References
In an increasingly technological society the perennialist philosophy is quite openly regressive. It is a longing not just for the status quo, but rather a desire to return to the good old days. The whole social theory of the perennialist has tended to ignore progress and has, for the most part, focused on a social order which has not existed since the middle ages.

Adler, Mortimer, In Defense of the Philosophy of Education," Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-First yearbook, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942.

Brameld, Theodore, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspective. New York: Dryden Press, 1956.

Butler, J.Donald, Four Philosophies and Their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.

Cotter, A.C. ABC of Scholastic Philosophy. Weston, Massachusetts: Weston College Press, 1949

McGucken, William, "The Philosophy of Catholic Education," Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-first yearbook, Part I Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1942.

Maritain, Jacques," Thomist views on Education," Modern Philosophies of Education. National Society for the Study of Education, Fifty-Fourth yearbook, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955.

Morries, Van Cleve, Philosophy and the American School. Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1961.

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Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived Perennialism philosophy of education is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education.

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Inquiry, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity are all valued in the progressive teaching paradigm.
It emphasizes the importance of individual characteristics as well as social context when it comes to learning. It's a learner-centered approach to education, which means that rather than lecturing, teachers should serve as facilitators.

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Humanism is a lifestyle philosophy that emphasizes moral, intellectual, scientific, and artistic excellence. Many people consider it to be a scientific approach to life, as it asserts that the world is created by us and our experiences. Humanism is an atheistic philosophy that promotes the idea of individual and communal responsibility. Humanism claims that there are no supernatural forces at work and that life has no inherent meaning. These things are up to us to create.

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Constructivism is a key learning theory that educators employ to assist pupils in their learning. Constructivism is founded on the premise that people actively create or make their own knowledge, and that your experiences as a learner define your reality. Learners, in general, use their prior knowledge as a foundation and then add to it with new information. As a result, everyone's learning is unique to them due to their distinct experiences.

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The four characteristics of humanism are curiosity, a free mind, belief in good taste, and belief in the human race.
~E. M. Forster

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Metaphysical Position of Humanism The second Humanist Manifesto, published in 1973 states; "

"We find insufficient evidence for belief in the existence of a supernatural; it is either meaningless or irrelevant to the question of the survival and fulfillment of the human race. As nontheists, we begin with humans not God, nature not deity.", there seems a definite decline in the strength of the super naturalistic outlook. The whole tenor of life during the Renaissance was one of indulgence, a catering to nature rather than a subjugation of nature to higher supernatural powers. God was not dethroned. Rather He was viewed as one who was congenial to man's attempts to develop his individuality to the fullest
Concept of the Self
Humanism cultivated a philosophy where in theology is called "speculative metaphysics .According to the Humanists, there is no such thing as the soul. One does not and cannot perceive the soul, and one cannot establish its existence with the help of inference, because inference is not a valid source of knowledge.. Being conscious is a peculiar quality of the living human body. It can keep back the consciousness so long as the physical parts are healthy and stay together in a certain form. Consciousness thus is an emergent quality of the physical parts coming together in specific proportions. For example, when yeast is blended with certain juices, they turn into wine. The property of being wine is a new quality which yeast and juices obtain when blended. Therefore, according to Humanistic metaphysics, life also is only a new configuration of matter. Nothing but matter is real. Therefore the soul or self-awareness is only the physical body with a new emerging quality. The Humanism metaphysics speak of the mind which is different from the soul . But appear to think of mind as the consciousness in its knowing function, which of course is not separate from the body. The body together with its consciousness is the soul and consciousness in its experiencing function is the mind. Mind knows the external world through the senses.

Consciousness arises from the material structure of the body and characterizes the body itself-rather than a soul-and perishes with the body. proclaimed that humans literally go from earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust: When a man dies, his/her consciousness goes away and one cannot prove that it vanishes and exists somewhere else. Being conscious is a peculiar quality of the living human body The Humanists state that consciousness is not due to the soul. When a man dies, his/her consciousness goes away and one cannot prove that it vanishes and exists somewhere else

According to the Humanism the soul is only the body qualified by intelligence. It has no existence apart from the body, only this world exists Humanism metaphysics states that nothing that is not perceived with the senses or consciousness is real and existing". The Humanism state that consciousness is not due to the soul .. It can keep back the consciousness so long as the physical parts are healthy and stay together in a certain form. Consciousness thus is an emergent quality of the physical parts coming together in specific proportions.. Therefore, according to Humanism metaphysics, life also is only a new configuration of matter. Nothing but matter is real. Therefore the atman or self-awareness is only the physical body with a new emerging quality.

The Humanism metaphysics speak of the mind which is different from the soul . But appear to think of mind as the consciousness in its knowing function, which of course is not separate from the body. The body together with its consciousness is the soul and consciousness in its experiencing function is the mind. Mind knows the external world through the senses. The world is the material world only

Humanism metaphysics are of the faith that there is no external cause for the elements coming together and obtaining the qualities of life and consciousness. It is their inherent quality to come together and to have those qualities. However one cannot generalise on this process and establish a law that, whenever these elements come together in certain ratio, life and consciousness will emerge. The elements may alter their nature any time. One cannot, therefore say that Nature comprises some eternal laws. In this school the elements, , when transformed into the body, intelligence is produced" just as the intoxicating power of some herbs is developed from the mixing of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed, intelligence at once perishes also.
Concept of God
The existence of God was a standard topic for rational debate.. The atheists put forward excellent rejoinders, like the following: "If the universe requires a maker because it undergoes change, even God needs a maker because he sometimes creates, sometimes destroys." " They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power. Accepting only perception as the valid source of knowledge, the Humanism disapproved the reality of God. No one has ever seen God and no one can see him in future. There is no heaven, no hell, no God, and there are no objective ethical laws. The only laws binding men are the laws of the state, obedience to which brings rewards and disobedience of which fetches punishment. And the science of the laws of state is the only science worth studying Humanists believed only in the present existing world. They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power.

Epistemological position of Humanism.

The Renaissance scholar contended that man's most elevated natural faculty was reason. Revelation was the basis for sacred science but its source was supernatural. Experience gave knowledge of particulars which did not become true knowledge until reason had abstracted the essence of such particulars.

Of the three important sources of knowledge accepted in common by all the orthodox schools (perception, inference, and verbal testimony), the Humanist accepted only perception as the valid source of knowledge and rejected both inference and verbal testimony. Whatever we know through perception is true and real.

The Humanism believed sense perception alone as a means of valid knowledge.Since inference is not a means of valid knowledge, all supersensible things like "destiny," "soul," or "afterlife," do not exist. To say that such entities exist is regarded as absurd, for no unverifiable assertion of existence is meaningful The Humanists did not deny the difference between the dead and the living and recognized both as realities. A person lives, the same person dies: that is a perceived, and hence the only provable, fact

Humanism theory of knowledge is not exactly skepticism or agnosticism, but a fairly thoroughgoing positivism. They accept the reality of whatever we can perceive with our senses and deny the reality of whatever we cannot so perceive. They did not deny the formal validity of inference, because they used the very laws of inference to show that we could not obtain material truths about the world through inference.

Humanistic theory of knowledge speak that there is no existence of causal laws. Every event is a chance; everything comes into existence and passes out of it according to its own nature. Even this nature is not a universal law; it too is subject to change. The Humanists make a strong attack on verbal testimony. Verbal knowledge is only knowledge of words and their meanings are based upon inference. But it has already been pointed out that inference is a dicey source of knowledge.. For either reason, verbal testimony is not a reliable source of knowledge.

Humanists recognize that intuitive feelings, hunches, speculation, flashes of inspiration, emotion, altered states of consciousness, and even religious experience, possess no valid means to acquire knowledge First, knowledge based on verbal testimony is inferential and so vitiated by all the defects of inference. They saw the scriptures as characterized by three faults: falsity, self-contradiction, and tautology. On the basis of such a theory of knowledge,

The Humanists defended a complete reductive materialism according to which the elements are the only original components of being; all other forms are products of their composition These elements, in turn, were said to be composed of atoms, indivisible units which were conceived as immutable, indestructible and having existed for all time. The properties of any given object were determined by the atoms that comprised it. Likewise, consciousness and the senses were the result of a particular combination of atoms and the proportions in which they were combined. After the death of an organism, this combination disintegrated into elements that then combined with corresponding types of atoms in inanimate nature.. From these alone, when transformed into the body, intelligence is produced-just as the intoxicating power of some herbs is developed from the mixing of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed, intelligence at once perishes also.
Axiological position of Humanism
Humanism is a philosophy for the here and now. Humanists regard human values as making sense only in the context of human life rather than in the promise of a supposed life after death.

Humanism is a philosophy of compassion. Humanist ethics is solely concerned with meeting human needs and answering human problems-for both the individual and society-and devotes no attention to the satisfaction of the desires of supposed theological entities.
Concept of Social Values
Humans evolved as social animals, which is the only reason humanity has developed culture and civilization, and now in fact depends on them. This means that even in the neutral terms of differential reproductive success, humanity's future as a species depends on developing and maintaining a healthy and productive culture and civilization. Any behavior contrary to that end threatens humanity's survival and the survival of one's neighbors, kin, and descendants. Likewise, this means humans have been "designed" by blind natural forces to require a healthy society in order to flourish and feel happy and content. Therefore the pursuit of human happiness requires the pursuit of a healthy society so people can live in it, interact with it, and benefit from it.

Humanism is in tune with today's enlightened social thought. Humanists are committed to civil liberties, human rights, church-state separation, the extension of participatory democracy not only in government but in the workplace and education, an expansion of global consciousness and exchange of products and ideas internationally, and an open-ended approach to solving social problems, an approach that allows for the testing of new alternatives.

Humanism is, in sum, a philosophy for those in love with life. Humanists take responsibility for their own lives and relish the adventure of being part of new discoveries, seeking new knowledge, exploring new options. Instead of finding solace in prefabricated answers to the great questions of life, Humanists enjoy the open-endedness of a quest and the freedom of discovery that this entails.

The Humanist Manifesto goes on to state, "we can discover no divine purpose or providence for the human species. While there is much that we do not know, humans are responsible for what we are or will become. No deity will save us; we must save ourselves."

According to them, if there is a benevolent God supervising humanity, then why is it that a majority of the human population is in the throes of misery and suffering? If there is a just God above us, then why is there so much injustice on the earth, against the poor and deprived sections of society?"

And humanism has a firm position on ethics. "Moral values derive their source from human experience. Ethics is autonomous and situational." In other words, morals are not derived from absolutes given by God, but are determined by the individual from situation to situation. By and large, the humanists deplore any reference to them as being "religious.".
Concept of Truth
Humanism is a realistic philosophy. Humanists recognize the existence of moral dilemmas and the need for careful consideration of immediate and future consequences in moral decision making.

Humanism is in tune with the science of today. Humanists therefore recognize that we live in a natural universe of great size and age, that we evolved on this planet over a long period of time, that there is no compelling evidence for a separable "soul," and that human beings have certain built-in needs that effectively form the basis for any human-oriented value system.

Humanism is in tune with new technological developments. Humanists are willing to take part in emerging scientific and technological discoveries in order to exercise their moral influence on these revolutions as they come about, especially in the interest of protecting the environment
The concept of Beauty ( Aesthetics)
The principal enunciated above regarding the ethical or moral values of the Renaissance hold also for aesthetic values, at least in the sense that these values are rooted in human nature. Art in all its forms, but especially literature, is the most excellent product of the human mind. Following the lead of the Greek and Roman artists and authors the masters of the Renaissance glorified man human nature. The exemplars of style, of form, and the like were from classical masterpieces. In cases where the vernacular was used in literature, such as in Dante's inferno, the ancient writing provided the themes and to some extent the style. The painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance followed closely the realistic form of ancient pieces. The works of Van Eyck, da Vinci, and Michelangelo might be cited as examples.
The Religious Values
The ethical and aesthetic theories described above fostered another development which is to become very important in naturalistic education of succeeding centuries, namely, the supreme value of the individual. The religious doctrines proposed by the reformers lent their support to the individualistic philosophy of the Renaissance. With the demand for religious freedom, by both Catholic and Protestant sects, came the demand for personal freedom. Individual freedom thus emerged as one of the most desirable human values. Thought this freedom was not granted to the pupil in lower schools, it became the mark of the mature scholar.

To summarize the value orientation of this period, it seems correct to assert that the revival of human values (as opposed to supernatural values) is the most significant development. Of these human values, those involving the intellect of man received the greatest emphasis. Education and culture were measured by one's elegance of style, eloquence, and knowledge of classical lore. The personal pride in individual acumen fostered the search for freedom from the restrictive control of the Church and temporal rulers. The seeds of the hedonism of Rousseau and the rugged individual of later centuries took root during the Renaissance and Reformation. Humanism in Education

Teachers who hold a more humanistic view of the purpose of education often experience stress because the meaning they assign to education differs greatly from the meaning assigned by society or their institution. It is clear in listening to the language of education that its primary focus is on knowledge and teaching rather than on the learner. Students are expected to conform to schools rather than schools serving the needs of students

The Humanism has brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Humanism in education dragged the education from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.

In the field of education and especially in society today, "humanistic education" is thesubject of considerable interest and controversy. Many people of good will immediately react "for it" or "against it," depending on previous experience with the term...Actually, the term means many different things to different people. What follows is a very brief attempt by a number of educators to clarify the term "humanistic education" by describing what it is and what it is not...
Fundamental Principles of Education in Humanism
Most educators who advocate humanistic education typically intend this approach to mean one or more of three things:

Humanistic education teaches a wide variety of skillswhich are needed to function in today's world-basic skills such as reading, writing and computation, as well as skills in communicating, thinking, decision-making, problem-solving and knowing oneself.

Humanistic education is a humane approach to education -one that helps students believe in themselves and their potential, that encourages compassion and understanding, that fosters self-respect and respect for others.

Humanistic education deals with basic human concerns-with the issues throughout history and today that are of concern to human beings trying to improve the quality of life-to pursue knowledge, to grow, to love, to find meaning for one's existence.

According to Gage and Berliner (1991) some basic principles of the humanistic approach that were used to develop the objectives are:

Students will learn best what they want and need to know. That is, when they have developed the skills of analyzing what is important to them and why as well as the skills of directing their behavior towards those wants and needs, they will learn more easily and quickly.

Knowing how to learn is more important than acquiring a lot of knowledge. In our present society where knowledge is changing rapidly, this view is shared by many educators, especially those from a cognitive perspective.

Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a student's work. The emphasis here is on internal development and self-regulation. While most educators would likely agree that this is important, they would also advocate a need to develop a student's ability to meet external expectations..

Feelings are as important as facts. Much work from the humanistic view seems to validate this point and is one area where humanistically-oriented educators are making significant contributions to our knowledge base.

Students learn best in a non-threatening environment. This is one area where humanistic educators have had an impact on current educational practice. The orientation espoused today is that the environment should by psychologically and emotionally, as well as physically, non-threatening
Humanism and Aims of Education
The "Epistemology" gives the clue to determining humanistic education aims. Since reason or intellect is man's noblest quality it behooves educators to concentrate their efforts on the development of intellectual power.

It is true that noted humanists, such as Vives and Erasmus, mentioned character formation as a goal of education. Within the context of classroom instruction, however, moral education was definitely allotted a minor role. classroom activities were directed almost exclusively to the building of intellectual-verbal skills within the student. .

It seems, then, that for the humanist, the primary aim of the Education as distinct from the broad notion of education carried on in the home, church, and social institutions, was the cultivation of the intellect of the student

The goal of education should be to foster students' desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own

As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education:

promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system);

develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems);

develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition);

curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems);

and an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system). .

Humanism and Concept of teacher
The role of the teacher is important in successfully educating children. Theteacher must capture the child's interest and build on the natural motivation that exists. Teachers need to remember to vary their teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning style. Not all children learn at the same pace or are at the same point; therefore, the teacher must vary his/her style. knowledge should be organized and relate to current experiences Teacher is a facilitator; helper; partner; promotes, but does not direct learning, sets mood for learning, acts as a flexible resource for learners

There are a variety of ways teachers can implement the humanist view towards education. Some of these include:

Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever possible.

Help students learn to set realistic goals.

Have students participate in group work, especially cooperative learning, in order to develop social and affective skills.

Act as a facilitator for group discussions when appropriate.

Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work on becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.

Humanism and Curriculum
Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains:

The humanist's complete absorption in the classics had far-reaching effects on educational theory and practice. Literary style and eloquence (in Latin, of course) became the outward sign of the educated gentleman. The "kitchen Latin" of the medieval writer was ridiculed. The closer one came to perfect imitation of classical style, the nearer one approached intellectual perfection. Thus, the schools of the Renaissance and Reformation era became centers for linguistic training. There was no place for vocational or health education.

Thus, beyond the very rudimentary training given in basic skills, the curriculum of the times was almost exclusively made up of the study of Latin and Greek grammar and the classics. Mathematics, history and astronomy and a few other subjects were allotted very little school time. Vocational education was school function at all since it was given by the skilled tradesman as on the job training.

The Jesuits divide the curriculum into five levels or grades The first level was devoted to study of elementary Greek and Latin grammar and supplemented by easy readings from Latin literature. Intermediate grammar was taught at the second level. More difficult selections such as Aesop's Fables in Greek, and Cicero, Caesar, and Ovid in Latin made up the reading lists. The third level covered advanced grammar and composition using more difficult selections from the classics as models.At the fourth level the study of rhetoric was introduced along with a complete review of grammar and syntax to assure their mastery. At the time the student was expected to be able to handle the most difficult pagan and Christian classics with relative ease. The highest (fifth ) level in the course of studies was intended to produce perfect classical style in speaking a writing Latin. The measure of the student's success in this endeavor was the imitation of Cicero's style. The classical literature studied was chose for its lofty style and beauty.

The classical part of the curriculum made up at least two-thirds or the program. History, philosophy, and mythology were normally treated in the context of the classical literature. Religion was taught as a separate subject. Physical education was extracurricular and usually part of organized sport activates. Attendance at Mass and devotional exercises were required at boarding schools and sometimes of day students.
Humanism and Concept of Student
The intellectualistic orientation of this humanistic curriculum is obvious. These schools were no place for "intellectual lightweights." Satisfactory completion of this course of studies opened the door to the universities and to positions of leadership in the government. Any student whose mind had been disciplined by the classical curriculum was intellectually prepared for the challenges of statesmanship an responsibilities of the learner professions.

Learner is highly motivated and self-directed; assumes responsibility for learning and self-development He has continuity formal structure antecedents in the past and a yearning toward the future. His experience has some continuity throughout changing events and places and in order to explain this we must recognize that the self is a common factor in all of these experiences. The self has form as well as continuity.

The learner possess a unique selfhood, self-realization supplements freedom as such with value concerns. Freedom does not carry built-in guarantees that it will be turned to good ends. In order to be freedom it must be free to make us miserable. The how of choosing, as well as the what which is chosen is a necessary ingredient of the good life.

The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its problems. He learns as he experiences; as he dose and as he undergoes. As a thinking organism his experiences, and his reflections upon those experiences become a part of him determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction of his learning. The Humanist views the student as a whole organism constantly interacting with the environment
Instructional Methodology
"Humanism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these can not be overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regard at the time of planning education. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. Child has to be given as much freedom as possible. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts, The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning."

Even though some scholars of the Renaissance discussed the problems of methodology, the teachers in the lower schools failed to make any significant changes in their approach to teaching. As we mentioned above, the Renaissance scholar clamored for freedom and creativity - for himself, but not for school boys. Instead they demanded perfect imitation, on the part of students, of the classical style of the ancients. Teachers even employed the exact methods of the ancient educationists, especially Quintilian's

Later on, the Jesuits, develop a new teaching method.. This method, called the prelection, was devised by experienced classroom teachers At the highest level, where the teacher sought to perfect style and eloquence, the teacher explained a selection chosen from the classics until he was quite certain his students understood it. He then analyzed the selection for its artistic structure, pointing up the basic principles or art, narration, and persuasion. If the passage contained any material of an ethical, theological, or historical nature, it was brought up at this time. Finally ,the teacher analyzed each word or phrase and pointed out its grammatical and syntactical structure, its beauty, variety, and rhythm in the context of the whole passage. At this level, the method proceeded from the general to the specific - from an entries selection to each word in it.

At the next level down the educational ladder the teacher spent more time on etymology, the beauty and forcefulness of Latin style, and the many variations possible in writing and speaking Latin. Attention was given to explaining the historical context of such writers as Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. All of these teacher activities were considered necessary so that the student imitated the style of the classical author.

At the lower levels the technique was reversed. The analysis proceeded from individual words to the whole passage. This approach was considered essential since, at he lower level, the purpose of the lesson was mastery of grammar. Thus the teaches would first translate each world and sentence, explaining subjects, predicates, and modifiers. Exact meanings of words, proper word sequence in sentences, correct placement of modifiers were "drilled into" the students. Students were expected to copy the teacher's explanation and assigned themes based on the most beautiful passages in the material translated. When this procedure was completed the teacher culminated the lesson by translating the whole passage. If need be the teacher would repeat the entire lesson one or more times until the student had mastered the material.
Humanism and Concept of Disciplene
Several other points about this method, especially at lower levels, are worth noting. The method was mainly teacher centered. The teacher introduced each new passage : the student not permitted to go ahead on his own lest he make mistakes. The teacher conducted the many vocabulary and grammar drills. Students were to write only the items in their notebooks which the teacher dictated. Students were expected to repeat verbatim what the teacher had given in the lesson. This approach, it was believed, would provide the student with the mental discipline imposed by the subject matter itself (grammar and syntax) coupled with that of the teacher's logical analysis of the material.
Humanism and achievement Evaluation
Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Humanism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.
Agencies of Education
Very vigorous oral and written exams were administered to determine whether the student should pass on to the next level. For these tests the student was expected to know all the vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and literary selections of each level. But now the Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that onlyself-evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a gradeand not for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student's ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student

During the medieval period and for many centuries prior to it, the family and church were the primary educational agencies. Public educating passed out of the educational scene with the collapse of the Roman empire. During the Dark Ages education was kept alive only in the monastic schools.

At the height of the Renaissance many schools flourished under private auspices, usually that of a scholar.. Also there were many schools in the court of the nobles and aristocracy. The complete break with church-controlled education came with the Reformation.
Critical Appraisal of Humanism Merits of Humanism
The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus, one finds the first completely independent public school system in the Protestant district of Wurtemberg, Germany about the middle of the sixteenth century..

Humanistic education is essential for preparing young people to be citizens in a democracy. If democracy is to work, its citizens must be educated. They must know how to gather information, distinguish fact from opinion, analyze propaganda, understand many different viewpoints, understand justice, think for themselves, communicate their opinions clearly, and work with others for the common good. These are among the most important skills that humanistic education seeks to teach our youth.

Humanistic education enhances the teaching of the basics. Many of the major books and articles on humanistic education show teachers how to do a more effective job of teaching reading, writing, math, social studies, etc. Many of the best traditional-subject-matter teachers integrate humanistic education methods and materials into their basic curriculum. Rather than ignoring the basics, humanistic educators seek to expand our concept of what basic education is, saying that basic skills for surviving in today's world go beyond reading, writing, computation, and vocational skills and include other skills for communicating, problem-solving and decision-making.

Humanistic education is not psychotherapy. It is not the goal of humanistic education to help students overcome deep-seated emotional problems. Rather, humanistic education seeks to help students to lean useful skills for living and to deepen their understanding of issues relevant to their academic and social development. Teachers do not need to be trained psychologists to conduct humanistic education activities. They do require sensitivity to students, classroom management skills, and the ability to conduct a class discussion. These skills are within the grasp of all good teachers.

Humanistic education is supported by years of research and experience. One of the strongest reasons for supporting humanistic education is that, when done effectively, students learn! Considerable evidence shows that cooperative learning structures higher self-concepts, and the student's motivation and interest in learning all are related to greater academic achievement. Studies also show that humanistic education can lead to fewer discipline problems, less vandalism and reduced use of illegal drugs...Such research findings do not prove that particular humanistic education methods should be used in all situation.

Humanistic education encourages parent involvement in the schools. What parent does not sometimes wish his or her children would listen more respectfully, choose less impulsively, calm down when overexcited, learn to be assertive without being aggressive, or make better use of their time? Many humanistic education methods teach students how to do these things.. Several humanistic education approaches teach students to relax and control their nervous energy and to plan and take more responsibility for their time
Limitations and Drawbacks
Humanistic educators believe that schools have a role to play in the "values education" of students. While the home and religion have the major responsibility in the value development and moral development of children, the school also has a legitimate role. Few parents have ever questioned the school's role in encouraging the values of punctuality, fairness, health, courtesy, respect for property, neatness and the like. Humanistic educators believe schools also should encourage the democratic and humanitarian values of tolerance, self-respect, freedom of thought, respect for others, social responsibility and the like. Schools cannot and should not be "value-free."

Humanism is often depicted as denying spiritual values and is accordingly "represented as discarding morality, and preaching what is reproachfully described as the principle of 'good and no conscience". However, some scholars believe, however, that this is a misunderstanding of the Humanism position since "no serious thinker could have included such a teaching" Humanism believes not in the notion of stringent philosophy, but in liberal beliefs. Hence, they refute most of the already-established rules in the context of philosophy

Another criticism often leveled at the Humanism movement is that it is essentially anti-intellectual. While this is perhaps an overstatement, it is true that the main area of concern for Humanists is the marketplace of daily life. Thus, those philosophies oriented toward a rather rationalistic a priori type of thought will find the Humanists empirical and anti-intellectual.
References
The weakest points in the Humanist's chain of thought, and the one that has probably subjected the Humanists to more valid and invalid criticism than any other is their theory of truth. If truth is seen as constantly being changed and tested, rather than as a stable body of knowledge, the whole stability of the universe is previous experience, which has been oriented toward finding and cataloging such truths, will go for naught. All other major philosophical systems are concerned with the nature of truth, and historically the vast majority have found a core of stable, unchanging, absolute values on which they could rely. The very fact that Humanism challenges the existence of this core makes it, for many, a dangerous and radical philosophy

Adams, "The Educational Theory" Macmillan &Co.

Broudy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.

Butler, J.Donald, Four Philosophies and Their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.

Cunningham, J.K., "Problems of Philosophy, p-05.

Frank Thilly, "A History of philosophy", Central Publishing House, Allahabad

John Dewey, "Reconstruction in Philosophy," p-38. London, University of London Press Ltd. 1921

John Locke, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1960, Introduction.

Rusk, R.R., "Philosophical Basis of Education" p-68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition, III. Impression, 1976, p-868.

Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston : D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.

Weber, Christian O., Basic Philosophies of Education. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960

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Metaphysical Position of Humanism The second Humanist Manifesto, published in 1973 states; " "We find insufficient evidence for belief in the existence of a supernatural; it is either meaningless or irrelevant to the question of the survival and fulfillment of the human race.

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Metaphysical Position of Humanism The second Humanist Manifesto, published in 1973 states; "

"We find insufficient evidence for belief in the existence of a supernatural; it is either meaningless or irrelevant to the question of the survival and fulfillment of the human race. As nontheists, we begin with humans not God, nature not deity.", there seems a definite decline in the strength of the super naturalistic outlook. The whole tenor of life during the Renaissance was one of indulgence, a catering to nature rather than a subjugation of nature to higher supernatural powers. God was not dethroned. Rather He was viewed as one who was congenial to man's attempts to develop his individuality to the fullest
Concept of the Self
Humanism cultivated a philosophy where in theology is called "speculative metaphysics .According to the Humanists, there is no such thing as the soul. One does not and cannot perceive the soul, and one cannot establish its existence with the help of inference, because inference is not a valid source of knowledge.. Being conscious is a peculiar quality of the living human body. It can keep back the consciousness so long as the physical parts are healthy and stay together in a certain form. Consciousness thus is an emergent quality of the physical parts coming together in specific proportions. For example, when yeast is blended with certain juices, they turn into wine. The property of being wine is a new quality which yeast and juices obtain when blended. Therefore, according to Humanistic metaphysics, life also is only a new configuration of matter. Nothing but matter is real. Therefore the soul or self-awareness is only the physical body with a new emerging quality. The Humanism metaphysics speak of the mind which is different from the soul . But appear to think of mind as the consciousness in its knowing function, which of course is not separate from the body. The body together with its consciousness is the soul and consciousness in its experiencing function is the mind. Mind knows the external world through the senses.

Consciousness arises from the material structure of the body and characterizes the body itself-rather than a soul-and perishes with the body. proclaimed that humans literally go from earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust: When a man dies, his/her consciousness goes away and one cannot prove that it vanishes and exists somewhere else. Being conscious is a peculiar quality of the living human body The Humanists state that consciousness is not due to the soul. When a man dies, his/her consciousness goes away and one cannot prove that it vanishes and exists somewhere else

According to the Humanism the soul is only the body qualified by intelligence. It has no existence apart from the body, only this world exists Humanism metaphysics states that nothing that is not perceived with the senses or consciousness is real and existing". The Humanism state that consciousness is not due to the soul .. It can keep back the consciousness so long as the physical parts are healthy and stay together in a certain form. Consciousness thus is an emergent quality of the physical parts coming together in specific proportions.. Therefore, according to Humanism metaphysics, life also is only a new configuration of matter. Nothing but matter is real. Therefore the atman or self-awareness is only the physical body with a new emerging quality.

The Humanism metaphysics speak of the mind which is different from the soul . But appear to think of mind as the consciousness in its knowing function, which of course is not separate from the body. The body together with its consciousness is the soul and consciousness in its experiencing function is the mind. Mind knows the external world through the senses. The world is the material world only

Humanism metaphysics are of the faith that there is no external cause for the elements coming together and obtaining the qualities of life and consciousness. It is their inherent quality to come together and to have those qualities. However one cannot generalise on this process and establish a law that, whenever these elements come together in certain ratio, life and consciousness will emerge. The elements may alter their nature any time. One cannot, therefore say that Nature comprises some eternal laws. In this school the elements, , when transformed into the body, intelligence is produced" just as the intoxicating power of some herbs is developed from the mixing of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed, intelligence at once perishes also.
Concept of God
The existence of God was a standard topic for rational debate.. The atheists put forward excellent rejoinders, like the following: "If the universe requires a maker because it undergoes change, even God needs a maker because he sometimes creates, sometimes destroys." " They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power. Accepting only perception as the valid source of knowledge, the Humanism disapproved the reality of God. No one has ever seen God and no one can see him in future. There is no heaven, no hell, no God, and there are no objective ethical laws. The only laws binding men are the laws of the state, obedience to which brings rewards and disobedience of which fetches punishment. And the science of the laws of state is the only science worth studying Humanists believed only in the present existing world. They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power.

Epistemological position of Humanism.

The Renaissance scholar contended that man's most elevated natural faculty was reason. Revelation was the basis for sacred science but its source was supernatural. Experience gave knowledge of particulars which did not become true knowledge until reason had abstracted the essence of such particulars.

Of the three important sources of knowledge accepted in common by all the orthodox schools (perception, inference, and verbal testimony), the Humanist accepted only perception as the valid source of knowledge and rejected both inference and verbal testimony. Whatever we know through perception is true and real.

The Humanism believed sense perception alone as a means of valid knowledge.Since inference is not a means of valid knowledge, all supersensible things like "destiny," "soul," or "afterlife," do not exist. To say that such entities exist is regarded as absurd, for no unverifiable assertion of existence is meaningful The Humanists did not deny the difference between the dead and the living and recognized both as realities. A person lives, the same person dies: that is a perceived, and hence the only provable, fact

Humanism theory of knowledge is not exactly skepticism or agnosticism, but a fairly thoroughgoing positivism. They accept the reality of whatever we can perceive with our senses and deny the reality of whatever we cannot so perceive. They did not deny the formal validity of inference, because they used the very laws of inference to show that we could not obtain material truths about the world through inference.

Humanistic theory of knowledge speak that there is no existence of causal laws. Every event is a chance; everything comes into existence and passes out of it according to its own nature. Even this nature is not a universal law; it too is subject to change. The Humanists make a strong attack on verbal testimony. Verbal knowledge is only knowledge of words and their meanings are based upon inference. But it has already been pointed out that inference is a dicey source of knowledge.. For either reason, verbal testimony is not a reliable source of knowledge.

Humanists recognize that intuitive feelings, hunches, speculation, flashes of inspiration, emotion, altered states of consciousness, and even religious experience, possess no valid means to acquire knowledge First, knowledge based on verbal testimony is inferential and so vitiated by all the defects of inference. They saw the scriptures as characterized by three faults: falsity, self-contradiction, and tautology. On the basis of such a theory of knowledge,

The Humanists defended a complete reductive materialism according to which the elements are the only original components of being; all other forms are products of their composition These elements, in turn, were said to be composed of atoms, indivisible units which were conceived as immutable, indestructible and having existed for all time. The properties of any given object were determined by the atoms that comprised it. Likewise, consciousness and the senses were the result of a particular combination of atoms and the proportions in which they were combined. After the death of an organism, this combination disintegrated into elements that then combined with corresponding types of atoms in inanimate nature.. From these alone, when transformed into the body, intelligence is produced-just as the intoxicating power of some herbs is developed from the mixing of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed, intelligence at once perishes also.
Axiological position of Humanism
Humanism is a philosophy for the here and now. Humanists regard human values as making sense only in the context of human life rather than in the promise of a supposed life after death.

Humanism is a philosophy of compassion. Humanist ethics is solely concerned with meeting human needs and answering human problems-for both the individual and society-and devotes no attention to the satisfaction of the desires of supposed theological entities.
Concept of Social Values
Humans evolved as social animals, which is the only reason humanity has developed culture and civilization, and now in fact depends on them. This means that even in the neutral terms of differential reproductive success, humanity's future as a species depends on developing and maintaining a healthy and productive culture and civilization. Any behavior contrary to that end threatens humanity's survival and the survival of one's neighbors, kin, and descendants. Likewise, this means humans have been "designed" by blind natural forces to require a healthy society in order to flourish and feel happy and content. Therefore the pursuit of human happiness requires the pursuit of a healthy society so people can live in it, interact with it, and benefit from it.

Humanism is in tune with today's enlightened social thought. Humanists are committed to civil liberties, human rights, church-state separation, the extension of participatory democracy not only in government but in the workplace and education, an expansion of global consciousness and exchange of products and ideas internationally, and an open-ended approach to solving social problems, an approach that allows for the testing of new alternatives.

Humanism is, in sum, a philosophy for those in love with life. Humanists take responsibility for their own lives and relish the adventure of being part of new discoveries, seeking new knowledge, exploring new options. Instead of finding solace in prefabricated answers to the great questions of life, Humanists enjoy the open-endedness of a quest and the freedom of discovery that this entails.

The Humanist Manifesto goes on to state, "we can discover no divine purpose or providence for the human species. While there is much that we do not know, humans are responsible for what we are or will become. No deity will save us; we must save ourselves."

According to them, if there is a benevolent God supervising humanity, then why is it that a majority of the human population is in the throes of misery and suffering? If there is a just God above us, then why is there so much injustice on the earth, against the poor and deprived sections of society?"

And humanism has a firm position on ethics. "Moral values derive their source from human experience. Ethics is autonomous and situational." In other words, morals are not derived from absolutes given by God, but are determined by the individual from situation to situation. By and large, the humanists deplore any reference to them as being "religious.".
Concept of Truth
Humanism is a realistic philosophy. Humanists recognize the existence of moral dilemmas and the need for careful consideration of immediate and future consequences in moral decision making.

Humanism is in tune with the science of today. Humanists therefore recognize that we live in a natural universe of great size and age, that we evolved on this planet over a long period of time, that there is no compelling evidence for a separable "soul," and that human beings have certain built-in needs that effectively form the basis for any human-oriented value system.

Humanism is in tune with new technological developments. Humanists are willing to take part in emerging scientific and technological discoveries in order to exercise their moral influence on these revolutions as they come about, especially in the interest of protecting the environment
The concept of Beauty ( Aesthetics)
The principal enunciated above regarding the ethical or moral values of the Renaissance hold also for aesthetic values, at least in the sense that these values are rooted in human nature. Art in all its forms, but especially literature, is the most excellent product of the human mind. Following the lead of the Greek and Roman artists and authors the masters of the Renaissance glorified man human nature. The exemplars of style, of form, and the like were from classical masterpieces. In cases where the vernacular was used in literature, such as in Dante's inferno, the ancient writing provided the themes and to some extent the style. The painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance followed closely the realistic form of ancient pieces. The works of Van Eyck, da Vinci, and Michelangelo might be cited as examples.
The Religious Values
The ethical and aesthetic theories described above fostered another development which is to become very important in naturalistic education of succeeding centuries, namely, the supreme value of the individual. The religious doctrines proposed by the reformers lent their support to the individualistic philosophy of the Renaissance. With the demand for religious freedom, by both Catholic and Protestant sects, came the demand for personal freedom. Individual freedom thus emerged as one of the most desirable human values. Thought this freedom was not granted to the pupil in lower schools, it became the mark of the mature scholar.

To summarize the value orientation of this period, it seems correct to assert that the revival of human values (as opposed to supernatural values) is the most significant development. Of these human values, those involving the intellect of man received the greatest emphasis. Education and culture were measured by one's elegance of style, eloquence, and knowledge of classical lore. The personal pride in individual acumen fostered the search for freedom from the restrictive control of the Church and temporal rulers. The seeds of the hedonism of Rousseau and the rugged individual of later centuries took root during the Renaissance and Reformation. Humanism in Education

Teachers who hold a more humanistic view of the purpose of education often experience stress because the meaning they assign to education differs greatly from the meaning assigned by society or their institution. It is clear in listening to the language of education that its primary focus is on knowledge and teaching rather than on the learner. Students are expected to conform to schools rather than schools serving the needs of students

The Humanism has brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Humanism in education dragged the education from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.

In the field of education and especially in society today, "humanistic education" is thesubject of considerable interest and controversy. Many people of good will immediately react "for it" or "against it," depending on previous experience with the term...Actually, the term means many different things to different people. What follows is a very brief attempt by a number of educators to clarify the term "humanistic education" by describing what it is and what it is not...
Fundamental Principles of Education in Humanism
Most educators who advocate humanistic education typically intend this approach to mean one or more of three things:

Humanistic education teaches a wide variety of skillswhich are needed to function in today's world-basic skills such as reading, writing and computation, as well as skills in communicating, thinking, decision-making, problem-solving and knowing oneself.

Humanistic education is a humane approach to education -one that helps students believe in themselves and their potential, that encourages compassion and understanding, that fosters self-respect and respect for others.

Humanistic education deals with basic human concerns-with the issues throughout history and today that are of concern to human beings trying to improve the quality of life-to pursue knowledge, to grow, to love, to find meaning for one's existence.

According to Gage and Berliner (1991) some basic principles of the humanistic approach that were used to develop the objectives are:

Students will learn best what they want and need to know. That is, when they have developed the skills of analyzing what is important to them and why as well as the skills of directing their behavior towards those wants and needs, they will learn more easily and quickly.

Knowing how to learn is more important than acquiring a lot of knowledge. In our present society where knowledge is changing rapidly, this view is shared by many educators, especially those from a cognitive perspective.

Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a student's work. The emphasis here is on internal development and self-regulation. While most educators would likely agree that this is important, they would also advocate a need to develop a student's ability to meet external expectations..

Feelings are as important as facts. Much work from the humanistic view seems to validate this point and is one area where humanistically-oriented educators are making significant contributions to our knowledge base.

Students learn best in a non-threatening environment. This is one area where humanistic educators have had an impact on current educational practice. The orientation espoused today is that the environment should by psychologically and emotionally, as well as physically, non-threatening
Humanism and Aims of Education
The "Epistemology" gives the clue to determining humanistic education aims. Since reason or intellect is man's noblest quality it behooves educators to concentrate their efforts on the development of intellectual power.

It is true that noted humanists, such as Vives and Erasmus, mentioned character formation as a goal of education. Within the context of classroom instruction, however, moral education was definitely allotted a minor role. classroom activities were directed almost exclusively to the building of intellectual-verbal skills within the student. .

It seems, then, that for the humanist, the primary aim of the Education as distinct from the broad notion of education carried on in the home, church, and social institutions, was the cultivation of the intellect of the student

The goal of education should be to foster students' desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own

As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education:

promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system);

develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems);

develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition);

curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems);

and an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system). .

Humanism and Concept of teacher
The role of the teacher is important in successfully educating children. Theteacher must capture the child's interest and build on the natural motivation that exists. Teachers need to remember to vary their teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning style. Not all children learn at the same pace or are at the same point; therefore, the teacher must vary his/her style. knowledge should be organized and relate to current experiences Teacher is a facilitator; helper; partner; promotes, but does not direct learning, sets mood for learning, acts as a flexible resource for learners

There are a variety of ways teachers can implement the humanist view towards education. Some of these include:

Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever possible.

Help students learn to set realistic goals.

Have students participate in group work, especially cooperative learning, in order to develop social and affective skills.

Act as a facilitator for group discussions when appropriate.

Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work on becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.

Humanism and Curriculum
Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains:

The humanist's complete absorption in the classics had far-reaching effects on educational theory and practice. Literary style and eloquence (in Latin, of course) became the outward sign of the educated gentleman. The "kitchen Latin" of the medieval writer was ridiculed. The closer one came to perfect imitation of classical style, the nearer one approached intellectual perfection. Thus, the schools of the Renaissance and Reformation era became centers for linguistic training. There was no place for vocational or health education.

Thus, beyond the very rudimentary training given in basic skills, the curriculum of the times was almost exclusively made up of the study of Latin and Greek grammar and the classics. Mathematics, history and astronomy and a few other subjects were allotted very little school time. Vocational education was school function at all since it was given by the skilled tradesman as on the job training.

The Jesuits divide the curriculum into five levels or grades The first level was devoted to study of elementary Greek and Latin grammar and supplemented by easy readings from Latin literature. Intermediate grammar was taught at the second level. More difficult selections such as Aesop's Fables in Greek, and Cicero, Caesar, and Ovid in Latin made up the reading lists. The third level covered advanced grammar and composition using more difficult selections from the classics as models.At the fourth level the study of rhetoric was introduced along with a complete review of grammar and syntax to assure their mastery. At the time the student was expected to be able to handle the most difficult pagan and Christian classics with relative ease. The highest (fifth ) level in the course of studies was intended to produce perfect classical style in speaking a writing Latin. The measure of the student's success in this endeavor was the imitation of Cicero's style. The classical literature studied was chose for its lofty style and beauty.

The classical part of the curriculum made up at least two-thirds or the program. History, philosophy, and mythology were normally treated in the context of the classical literature. Religion was taught as a separate subject. Physical education was extracurricular and usually part of organized sport activates. Attendance at Mass and devotional exercises were required at boarding schools and sometimes of day students.
Humanism and Concept of Student
The intellectualistic orientation of this humanistic curriculum is obvious. These schools were no place for "intellectual lightweights." Satisfactory completion of this course of studies opened the door to the universities and to positions of leadership in the government. Any student whose mind had been disciplined by the classical curriculum was intellectually prepared for the challenges of statesmanship an responsibilities of the learner professions.

Learner is highly motivated and self-directed; assumes responsibility for learning and self-development He has continuity formal structure antecedents in the past and a yearning toward the future. His experience has some continuity throughout changing events and places and in order to explain this we must recognize that the self is a common factor in all of these experiences. The self has form as well as continuity.

The learner possess a unique selfhood, self-realization supplements freedom as such with value concerns. Freedom does not carry built-in guarantees that it will be turned to good ends. In order to be freedom it must be free to make us miserable. The how of choosing, as well as the what which is chosen is a necessary ingredient of the good life.

The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its problems. He learns as he experiences; as he dose and as he undergoes. As a thinking organism his experiences, and his reflections upon those experiences become a part of him determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction of his learning. The Humanist views the student as a whole organism constantly interacting with the environment
Instructional Methodology
"Humanism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these can not be overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regard at the time of planning education. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. Child has to be given as much freedom as possible. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts, The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning."

Even though some scholars of the Renaissance discussed the problems of methodology, the teachers in the lower schools failed to make any significant changes in their approach to teaching. As we mentioned above, the Renaissance scholar clamored for freedom and creativity - for himself, but not for school boys. Instead they demanded perfect imitation, on the part of students, of the classical style of the ancients. Teachers even employed the exact methods of the ancient educationists, especially Quintilian's

Later on, the Jesuits, develop a new teaching method.. This method, called the prelection, was devised by experienced classroom teachers At the highest level, where the teacher sought to perfect style and eloquence, the teacher explained a selection chosen from the classics until he was quite certain his students understood it. He then analyzed the selection for its artistic structure, pointing up the basic principles or art, narration, and persuasion. If the passage contained any material of an ethical, theological, or historical nature, it was brought up at this time. Finally ,the teacher analyzed each word or phrase and pointed out its grammatical and syntactical structure, its beauty, variety, and rhythm in the context of the whole passage. At this level, the method proceeded from the general to the specific - from an entries selection to each word in it.

At the next level down the educational ladder the teacher spent more time on etymology, the beauty and forcefulness of Latin style, and the many variations possible in writing and speaking Latin. Attention was given to explaining the historical context of such writers as Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. All of these teacher activities were considered necessary so that the student imitated the style of the classical author.

At the lower levels the technique was reversed. The analysis proceeded from individual words to the whole passage. This approach was considered essential since, at he lower level, the purpose of the lesson was mastery of grammar. Thus the teaches would first translate each world and sentence, explaining subjects, predicates, and modifiers. Exact meanings of words, proper word sequence in sentences, correct placement of modifiers were "drilled into" the students. Students were expected to copy the teacher's explanation and assigned themes based on the most beautiful passages in the material translated. When this procedure was completed the teacher culminated the lesson by translating the whole passage. If need be the teacher would repeat the entire lesson one or more times until the student had mastered the material.
Humanism and Concept of Disciplene
Several other points about this method, especially at lower levels, are worth noting. The method was mainly teacher centered. The teacher introduced each new passage : the student not permitted to go ahead on his own lest he make mistakes. The teacher conducted the many vocabulary and grammar drills. Students were to write only the items in their notebooks which the teacher dictated. Students were expected to repeat verbatim what the teacher had given in the lesson. This approach, it was believed, would provide the student with the mental discipline imposed by the subject matter itself (grammar and syntax) coupled with that of the teacher's logical analysis of the material.
Humanism and achievement Evaluation
Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Humanism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.
Agencies of Education
Very vigorous oral and written exams were administered to determine whether the student should pass on to the next level. For these tests the student was expected to know all the vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and literary selections of each level. But now the Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that onlyself-evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a gradeand not for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student's ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student

During the medieval period and for many centuries prior to it, the family and church were the primary educational agencies. Public educating passed out of the educational scene with the collapse of the Roman empire. During the Dark Ages education was kept alive only in the monastic schools.

At the height of the Renaissance many schools flourished under private auspices, usually that of a scholar.. Also there were many schools in the court of the nobles and aristocracy. The complete break with church-controlled education came with the Reformation.
Critical Appraisal of Humanism Merits of Humanism
The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus, one finds the first completely independent public school system in the Protestant district of Wurtemberg, Germany about the middle of the sixteenth century..

Humanistic education is essential for preparing young people to be citizens in a democracy. If democracy is to work, its citizens must be educated. They must know how to gather information, distinguish fact from opinion, analyze propaganda, understand many different viewpoints, understand justice, think for themselves, communicate their opinions clearly, and work with others for the common good. These are among the most important skills that humanistic education seeks to teach our youth.

Humanistic education enhances the teaching of the basics. Many of the major books and articles on humanistic education show teachers how to do a more effective job of teaching reading, writing, math, social studies, etc. Many of the best traditional-subject-matter teachers integrate humanistic education methods and materials into their basic curriculum. Rather than ignoring the basics, humanistic educators seek to expand our concept of what basic education is, saying that basic skills for surviving in today's world go beyond reading, writing, computation, and vocational skills and include other skills for communicating, problem-solving and decision-making.

Humanistic education is not psychotherapy. It is not the goal of humanistic education to help students overcome deep-seated emotional problems. Rather, humanistic education seeks to help students to lean useful skills for living and to deepen their understanding of issues relevant to their academic and social development. Teachers do not need to be trained psychologists to conduct humanistic education activities. They do require sensitivity to students, classroom management skills, and the ability to conduct a class discussion. These skills are within the grasp of all good teachers.

Humanistic education is supported by years of research and experience. One of the strongest reasons for supporting humanistic education is that, when done effectively, students learn! Considerable evidence shows that cooperative learning structures higher self-concepts, and the student's motivation and interest in learning all are related to greater academic achievement. Studies also show that humanistic education can lead to fewer discipline problems, less vandalism and reduced use of illegal drugs...Such research findings do not prove that particular humanistic education methods should be used in all situation.

Humanistic education encourages parent involvement in the schools. What parent does not sometimes wish his or her children would listen more respectfully, choose less impulsively, calm down when overexcited, learn to be assertive without being aggressive, or make better use of their time? Many humanistic education methods teach students how to do these things.. Several humanistic education approaches teach students to relax and control their nervous energy and to plan and take more responsibility for their time
Limitations and Drawbacks
Humanistic educators believe that schools have a role to play in the "values education" of students. While the home and religion have the major responsibility in the value development and moral development of children, the school also has a legitimate role. Few parents have ever questioned the school's role in encouraging the values of punctuality, fairness, health, courtesy, respect for property, neatness and the like. Humanistic educators believe schools also should encourage the democratic and humanitarian values of tolerance, self-respect, freedom of thought, respect for others, social responsibility and the like. Schools cannot and should not be "value-free."

Humanism is often depicted as denying spiritual values and is accordingly "represented as discarding morality, and preaching what is reproachfully described as the principle of 'good and no conscience". However, some scholars believe, however, that this is a misunderstanding of the Humanism position since "no serious thinker could have included such a teaching" Humanism believes not in the notion of stringent philosophy, but in liberal beliefs. Hence, they refute most of the already-established rules in the context of philosophy

Another criticism often leveled at the Humanism movement is that it is essentially anti-intellectual. While this is perhaps an overstatement, it is true that the main area of concern for Humanists is the marketplace of daily life. Thus, those philosophies oriented toward a rather rationalistic a priori type of thought will find the Humanists empirical and anti-intellectual.
References
The weakest points in the Humanist's chain of thought, and the one that has probably subjected the Humanists to more valid and invalid criticism than any other is their theory of truth. If truth is seen as constantly being changed and tested, rather than as a stable body of knowledge, the whole stability of the universe is previous experience, which has been oriented toward finding and cataloging such truths, will go for naught. All other major philosophical systems are concerned with the nature of truth, and historically the vast majority have found a core of stable, unchanging, absolute values on which they could rely. The very fact that Humanism challenges the existence of this core makes it, for many, a dangerous and radical philosophy

Adams, "The Educational Theory" Macmillan &Co.

Broudy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.

Butler, J.Donald, Four Philosophies and Their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1957.

Cunningham, J.K., "Problems of Philosophy, p-05.

Frank Thilly, "A History of philosophy", Central Publishing House, Allahabad

John Dewey, "Reconstruction in Philosophy," p-38. London, University of London Press Ltd. 1921

John Locke, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1960, Introduction.

Rusk, R.R., "Philosophical Basis of Education" p-68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition, III. Impression, 1976, p-868.

Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston : D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.

Weber, Christian O., Basic Philosophies of Education. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960

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Metaphysical Position of Humanism The second Humanist Manifesto, published in 1973 states; " "We find insufficient evidence for belief in the existence of a supernatural; it is either meaningless or irrelevant to the question of the survival and fulfillment of the human race.

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Constructivism Learning Theory: A Paradigm for Teaching andLearning

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Constructivism Learning Theory: A Paradigm for Teaching andLearning

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Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. Its implications for how teachers teach and learn to teach are enormous. If our efforts in reforming education for all students are to succeed, then we must focus on students. To date, a focus on student-centered learning may well be the most important contribution of constructivism. This article, therefore, discusses constructivism learning theory as a paradigm for teaching and learning