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Loved the organization. Such a bright idea to present your topic.

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The information that you included is very detailed and interesting! Overall, really cool project!

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Love the history and the connections to the book. -Tyler

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Love the history and the connections to the book. -Tyler

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I really like the new format that you used. Very creative and fun to follow along with. -Cheryl

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I like that you included the Missouri Compromise and its impact

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Weird to think of the large black population in the south but makes sense. -Tyler

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The use of the historical connections to explain the novel is a nice way to approach the project. Padlet style is also very interesting.

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Love how creative your project is! The layout is very awesome!

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Wow. I didn’t know that about the Dominican Republic. It truly makes sense but that’s really interesting information.

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Connecting this story to the history of slavery is nice, because you focus on something other than the main characters

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I did not realize it was the first international slave port.

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I didn’t know that about the Dominican Republic. Very interesting information.

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Good organization

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The information about slave rebellions is very interesting.  Good work getting such detailed information!

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Missouri does not seem like it is related to slavery, but it is interesting that it is.

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I remember learning about this in APUSH. This is a very unique way to learn the content!

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The organization of your padlet is different and it’s cool!

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The Battle of Island Mound piece is significant and very interested. Thank you for including that.

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It seems like many rebellions took place in heavy slave states.

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Spanish owned Florida. Nice touch showing the difference between difference countries.

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Your format is really cool!  Awesome work organizing your project!

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I think you did a very good job researching and summarizing the history of slavery.

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The use of real events and connecting them to your topic is helpful for those who haven’t read.

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Weird to think of all the Spanish influence in Florida

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The map was such a cool idea

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I like the map and how it follows Hucks journey.

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The layout of this project is really cool, it adds a cool outline to your presentation

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This is such a cool way to present information!

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Privet comrade

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I love this format! Very unique, and you made it work very well!

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It is weird to think about all the unknown revolutions and who supported who during the slave revolts. -Tyler

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I really like the map idea. It displays your ideas very well.

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This is a really cool way to make a Padlet, very cool way to tell a story

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1862
This battle of the Civil War was the first battle for the USCT, or United States Colored Troops.  This is a monumental event as it is the first battle in American history that included colored soldiers in military combat roles.

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USCT

United States Colored Troops

Active

May 22, 1863 - Oct 1865

Disbanded

October 1865

Allegiance
Union

Branch

Army

Type

infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering

Size

175 regiments; 178,000 men

Motto(s)
Sic semper tyrannis

Engagements
American Civil War

The United States Colored Troops ( USCT) were regiments in the United States Army composed primarily of African-American ( colored) soldiers, although members of other minority groups also served with the units. They were first recruited during the American Civil War, and by the end of that war in April 1865, the 175 USCT regiments constituted about one-tenth of the manpower of the Union Army. About 20% of USCT soldiers died, a rate about 35% higher than that for white Union troops. Despite heavy casualties, many fought with distinction, 15 USCT soldiers receiving the Medal of Honor and numerous others receiving other honors.

The USCT regiments were precursors to the Buffalo Soldier regiments in the American Old West.

The U.S. Congress passed the Confiscation Act of 1862 in July 1862. It freed slaves whose owners were in rebellion against the United States, and the Militia Act of 1862 empowered the President to use former slaves in any capacity in the army. President Abraham Lincoln was concerned with public opinion in the four border states that remained in the Union, as they had numerous slaveholders, as well as with northern Democrats who supported the war but were less supportive of abolition than many northern Republicans. Lincoln opposed early efforts to recruit African-American soldiers, although he accepted the Army using them as paid workers. Native Americans also played a significant role in the colored regiments of the American Civil War. In September 1862, Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, announcing that all slaves in rebellious states would be free as of January 1. Recruitment of colored regiments began in full force following the Proclamation in January 1863.

The United States War Department issued General Order Number 143 on May 22, 1863, establishing the Bureau of Colored Troops to facilitate the recruitment of African-American soldiers to fight for the Union Army. These units became known as the United States Colored Troops (USCT), although other people of color who were not of African descent, such as Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, and Asian Americans also fought under USCT regiments and made significant contributions. Regiments, including infantry, cavalry, engineers, light artillery, and heavy artillery units were recruited from all states of the Union.

Approximately 175 regiments comprising more than 178,000 free blacks and freedmen served during the last two years of the war. Their service bolstered the Union war effort at a critical time. By war's end, the men of the USCT made up nearly one-tenth of all Union troops.

The USCT suffered 2,751 combat casualties during the war, and 68,178 losses from all causes. Disease caused the most fatalities for all troops, both black and white. In the last year-and-a-half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20% of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:

[We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2%. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6%, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5%. In other words, the mortality rate amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.

USCT regiments were led by white officers, while rank advancement was limited for black soldiers. The Supervisory Committee for Recruiting Colored Regiments in Philadelphia opened the Free Military Academy for Applicants for the Command of Colored Troops at the end of 1863. For a time, black soldiers received less pay than their white counterparts, but they and their supporters lobbied and eventually gained equal pay. Notable members of USCT regiments included Martin Robinson Delany and the sons of abolitionist Frederick Douglass.

The USCT engineers built Fort Pocahontas, a Union supply depot, in Charles City, Virginia.

The courage displayed by colored troops during the Civil War played an important role in African Americans gaining new rights. As Frederick Douglass wrote:

Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letter, U.S., let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder and bullets in his pocket, there is no power on earth that can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship.

Before the USCT was formed, several volunteer regiments were raised from free black men, including freedmen in the South. In 1863 a former slave, William Henry Singleton, helped recruit 1,000 former slaves in New Bern, North Carolina for the First North Carolina Colored Volunteers. He became a sergeant in the 35th USCT. Freedmen from the Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony, established in 1863 on the island, also formed part of the Free North Carolina Colored Volunteers (FNCCV) and subsequently the 35th. Nearly all of the volunteer regiments were converted into USCT units.

In 1922 Singleton published his memoir (in a slave narrative) of his journey from slavery to freedom and becoming a Union soldier. Glad to participate in reunions, years later at the age of 95, he marched in a Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) event in 1938.

Four regiments were considered Regular units, rather than auxiliaries. Their veteran status allowed them to get valuable federal government jobs after the war, from which African Americans had usually been excluded in earlier years. However, the men received no formal recognition for combat honors and awards until the turn of the 20th century.

These units were:

Corps d'Afrique

The Corps d'Afrique, one of many Louisiana Union Civil War units, was formed in New Orleans after the city was taken and occupied by Union forces. It was formed in part from the Louisiana Native Guards. The Native Guards were former militia units raised in New Orleans, who were property-owning free people of color ( gens du couleur libres).

Free mixed-race people had developed as a third class in New Orleans since the colonial years. During the Civil War, many of the free men of color wanted to prove their bravery and loyalty to the Confederacy like other Southern property owners, but the Confederates did not allow them to serve and confiscated the arms of those in the militia. The Confederates believed that enlisting black soldiers would hurt agriculture, as most African Americans were enslaved workers.

For later units of the Corps d'Afrique, the Union recruited freedmen from the refugee camps. Liberated from nearby plantations, they and their families had no means to earn a living and no place to go. Local commanders, starved for replacements, started equipping volunteer units with cast-off uniforms and obsolete or captured firearms. The men were treated and paid as auxiliaries, performing guard or picket duties to free up white soldiers for maneuver units. In exchange their families were fed, clothed and housed for free at the Army camps; often schools were set up for them and their children.

Despite class differences between free people of color and freedmen, the troops of the Corps d'Afrique served with distinction, including at the Battle of Port Hudson and throughout the South. Its units included:

4 Regiments of Louisiana Native Guards (renamed the 1st-4th Corps d'Afrique Infantry, later renamed as the 73rd-76th US Colored Infantry on April 4, 1864).

1st and 2nd Brigade Marching Bands, Corps d'Afrique (later made into Nos. 1 and 2 Bands, USCT).

1st Regiment of Cavalry (1st Corps d'Afrique Cavalry, later made into the 4th US Colored Cavalry).

22 Regiments of Infantry (1st-20th, 22nd, and 26th Corps d'Afrique Infantry, later converted into the 77th-79th, 80th-83rd, 84th-88th, and 89th-93rd US Colored Infantry on April 4, 1864).

5 Regiments of Engineers (1st-5th Corps d'Afrique Engineers, later converted into the 95th-99th US Colored Infantry regiments on April 4, 1864) whose work building Bailey's Dam saved the Union navy's Mississippi River Squadron.

1 Regiment of Heavy Artillery (later converted into the 10th US Colored (Heavy) Artillery on May 21, 1864).

Right Wing, XVI Corps (1864)

Colored troops served as laborers in the 16th Army Corps' Quartermaster's Department and Pioneer Corps.

6 Regiments of Cavalry [1st-6th USC Cavalry]

1 Regiment of Light Artillery [2nd USC (Light) Artillery]

1 Independent USC (Heavy) Artillery Battery

13 Heavy Artillery Regiments [1st and 3rd-14th USC (Heavy) Artillery]

1 unassigned Company of Infantry [Company A, US Colored Infantry]

1 Independent USC Company of Infantry (Southard's Independent Company, Pennsylvania (Colored) Infantry)

1 Independent USC Regiment of Infantry [Powell's Regiment, US Colored Infantry]

135 Regiments of Infantry [1st-138th USC Infantry] (The 94th, 105th, and 126th USC Infantry regiments were never fully formed)

The 2nd USC (Light) Artillery Regiment (2nd USCA) was made up of nine separate batteries grouped into three nominal battalions of three batteries each. The batteries were usually detached.

I Battalion: A,B & C Batteries.

II Battalion: D, E & F Batteries.

III Battalion: G, H & I Batteries.

The second raising of the 11th USC Infantry (USCI) was created by converting the 7th USC (Heavy) Artillery into an infantry unit.

The second raising of the 79th USC Infantry (USCI) was formed from the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry.

The second raising of the 83rd USC Infantry (USCI) was formed from the 2nd Kansas Colored Infantry.

The second raising of the 87th USCI was formed from merging the first raisings of the 87th and 96th USCI.

The second raising of the 113th USCI was formed by merging the first raisings of the 11th, 112th, and 113th USCI.

The first engagement by African-American soldiers against Confederate forces during the Civil War was at the Battle of Island Mound in Bates County, Missouri on October 28-29, 1862. African Americans, mostly escaped slaves, had been recruited into the 1st Kansas Colored Volunteers. They accompanied white troops to Missouri to break up Confederate guerrilla activities based at Hog Island near Butler, Missouri. Although outnumbered, the African-American soldiers fought valiantly, and the Union forces won the engagement. The conflict was reported by The New York Times and Harper's Weekly. In 2012 the state established the Battle of Island Mound State Historic Site to preserve this area; the eight Union men killed were buried near the battleground.

USCT regiments fought in all theaters of the war, but mainly served as garrison troops in rear areas. The most famous USCT action took place at the Battle of the Crater during the Siege of Petersburg. Regiments of USCT suffered heavy casualties attempting to break through Confederate lines. Other notable engagements include Fort Wagner, one of their first major tests, and the Battle of Nashville.

USCT soldiers were among the first Union forces to enter Richmond, Virginia, after its fall in April 1865. The 41st USCT regiment was among those present at the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox. Following the war, USCT regiments served among the occupation troops in former Confederate states.

U.S. Army General Ulysses S. Grant praised the competent performance and bearing of the USCT, saying at Vicksburg that:

Negro troops are easier to preserve discipline among than our white troops ... All that have been tried have fought bravely.

USCT soldiers suffered extra violence at the hands of Confederate soldiers, who singled them out for mistreatment. They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates, most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee, at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia, and at the Battle of Olustee in Florida. They were often murdered when captured by Confederate soldiers, as the Confederacy announced that former slaves fighting for the Union were traitors and would be immediately executed.

The prisoner exchange protocol broke down over the Confederacy's position on black prisoners-of-war. The Confederacy had passed a law stating that blacks captured in uniform would be tried as rebellious slave insurrectionists in civil courts - a capital offense with automatic sentence of death. In practice, USCT soldiers were often murdered by Confederate troops without being taken to court. The law became a stumbling block for prisoner exchange, as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code objected to such discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of ethnicity. The Republican Party's platform of the 1864 presidential election also condemned the Confederacy's mistreatment of black U.S. soldiers. In response to such mistreatment, Ulysses S. Grant, in a letter to Confederate officer Richard Taylor, urged the Confederates to treat captured black U.S. soldiers humanely and professionally and not to murder them. He stated the U.S. government's official position, that black U.S. soldiers were sworn military men and not slaves, as the Confederacy asserted they were.

Numbers of Colored Troops by state, North and South

The soldiers are classified by the state where they were enrolled; Northern states often sent agents to enroll ex-slaves from the South. Note that many soldiers from Delaware, D.C., Kentucky, Missouri, and West Virginia were ex-slaves as well. Most of the troops credited to West Virginia, however, were not actually from that state.

The USCT was disbanded in the fall of 1865. In 1867, the Regular Army was set at ten regiments of cavalry and 45 regiments of infantry. The Army was authorized to raise two regiments of black cavalry (the 9th and 10th (Colored) Cavalry) and four regiments of black infantry (the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st (Colored) Infantry), who were mostly drawn from USCT veterans. The first draft of the bill that the House Committee on Military Affairs sent to the full chamber on March 7, 1866 did not include a provision for regiments of black cavalry; however, this provision was added by Senator Benjamin Wade prior to the bill's passing. In 1869 the Regular Army was kept at ten regiments of cavalry but cut to 25 regiments of Infantry, reducing the black complement to two regiments (the 24th and 25th (Colored) Infantry).

The two black infantry regiments represented 10 percent of the size of all twenty-five infantry regiments. Similarly, the black cavalry units represented 20 percent of the size of all ten cavalry regiments.

From 1870 to 1898 the total strength of the US Army totaled 25,000 service members with black soldiers maintaining their 10 percent representation. USCT soldiers fought in the Indian Wars in the American West, where they became known as the Buffalo Soldiers, thus nicknamed by Native Americans who compared their hair to the curly fur of bison.

Soldiers who fought in the Army of the James were eligible for the Butler Medal, commissioned by that army's commander, Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler. In 1861 at Fort Monroe in Virginia, Butler was the first to declare refugee slaves as contraband and refused to return them to slaveholders. This became a policy throughout the Union Army; it started when a few slaves escaped to Butler's lines in 1861. Their owner, a Confederate colonel, came to Butler under a flag of truce and demanded that they be returned to him under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Butler informed him that since Virginia claimed to have left the Union, the Fugitive Slave Law no longer applied, declaring the slaves to be contraband of war.

Sixteen African-American USCT soldiers won the Medal of Honor, the nation's highest award, for service in the war:

Sergeant William Harvey Carney of the 54th Massachusetts (Colored) Volunteer Infantry was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Fort Wagner in July 1863. During the advance, Carney was wounded but still went on. When the color-bearer was shot, Carney grabbed the flagstaff and planted it in the parapet, while the rest of his regiment stormed the fortification. When his regiment was forced to retreat, he was wounded two more times while he carried the colors back to Union lines. He did not relinquish it until he handed it to another soldier of the 54th. Carney received his medal 37 years after the battle.

Fourteen African-American soldiers, including Sergeant Major Christian Fleetwood and Sergeant Alfred B. Hilton (mortally wounded) of the 4th USCT, were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions at the Battle of Chaffin's Farm in September 1864, during the campaign to take Petersburg.

Corporal Andrew Jackson Smith of the 55th Massachusetts (Colored) Volunteer Infantry was recommended for the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Honey Hill in November 1864. Smith prevented the regimental colors from falling into enemy hands after the color sergeant was killed. Due to a lack of official records, he was not awarded the medal until 2001.

The historian Steven Hahn proposes that when slaves organized themselves and worked with the Union Army during the American Civil War, including as some regiments of the USCT, their actions comprised a slave rebellion that dwarfed all other slave revolts.

The African American Civil War Memorial Museum helps to preserve pertinent information from the period.

In September 1996, a national celebration in commemoration of the service of the United States Colored Troops was held.

The African American Civil War Memorial (1997), featuring Spirit of Freedom by sculptor Ed Hamilton, was erected at the corner of Vermont Avenue and U Street NW in the capital, Washington, D.C. It is administered by the National Park Service.

In 1999 the African American Civil War Museum opened nearby.

In July 2011, the museum celebrated a grand opening of its new facility at 1925 Vermont Avenue, just across the street from the memorial.[citation needed ]

The history of the USCT's wartime contribution was kept alive within the U.S. black community by historians such as W. E. B. Du Bois. Since the 1970s and the expansion of historical coverage of minorities, the units and their contributions have been the subject of more books and movies. During the war years, the men had difficulty gaining deserved official recognition for achievement and valor. Often recommendations for decorations were filed away and ignored. Another problem was that the government would mail the award certificate and medal to the recipient, who had to pay the postage due (whether he were white or black). Most former USCT recipients had to return the medals for lack of funds to redeem them.[citation needed ]

The motion picture , starring Denzel Washington, Morgan Freeman and Matthew Broderick, portrayed the African-American soldiers of the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment. It showed their training and participation in several battles, including the second assault on Fort Wagner on July 18, 1863. Although the 54th was not a USCT regiment, but a state volunteer regiment originally raised from free blacks in Boston, similar to the 1st and 2nd Kansas Colored Infantry, the film portrays the experiences and hardships of African-American troops during the Civil War. Richard Walter Thomas, black scholar of race relations, observed that the relationship between white and black soldiers in the Civil War was an instance of what he calls "the other tradition": "... after sharing the horrors of war with their black comrades in arms, many white officers experienced deep and dramatic transformations in their attitudes toward blacks."

1. ^ Okihiro, Gary (2015). American History Unbound: Asians and Pacific Islanders. Oakland: University of California Press. pp. 87-89. ISBN 978-0-520-96030-5.

2. ^ Angela Y. Walton-Raji (2008). "Battles Fought in Indian Territory and Battles Fought by I.T. Freedmen outside of Indian Territory". Oklahoma's Black Indians.

3. ^ Herbert Aptheker, "Negro Casualties in the Civil War", "The Journal of Negro History", Vol. 32, No. 1. (January, 1947).

4. Rhea, Gordon C. ^ To the North Anna River: Grant and Lee; May 13-25, 1864; Baton Rouge, LA; Louisiana State University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8071-2535-0

5. ^ "Colored (African American) Soldier and Family in Civil War Era Photo Identified". Jubilo! The Emancipation Century.

6. This group of ^ mixed-race people were descended generally from male native-born Spanish and French colonists (called Criolla or Créole) and African slave women, or free African-American women. After the United States made the Louisiana Purchase (1803), many Americans moved to Louisiana. They ignored the status of the free people of color, grouping them with the mass of blacks, then mostly slaves. (Today the people of color descended from this group are generally referred to as Louisiana Creoles.)

7. ^ Robertson, Jr., JamesI.; Pegram, Willuam (1990). "'The Boy Artillerist': Letters of Colonel William Pegram, C.S.A.". Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 98 (2 (The Trumpet Unblown: The Old Dominion in the Civil War)). pp. 242-243.

8. ^ Congress of the Confederate States of America. "No. 5". Joint Resolution on the Subject of Retaliation. May 1, 1863.

9. ^ Republican Party (June 7, 1864). "Republican Party Platform of 1864". Archived from the original on April 21, 2015. [T]he Government owes to all men employed in its armies, without regard to distinction of color, the full protection of the laws of war-and that any violation of these laws, or of the usages of civilized nations in time of war, by the Rebels now in arms, should be made the subject of prompt and full redress.

10. ^ Grant, Ulysses (1863). "Letter to Richard Taylor". Vicksburg. I feel no inclination to retaliate for the offences of irresponsible persons; but if it is the policy of any General intrusted with the command of troops to show no quarter, or to punish with death prisoners taken in battle, I will accept the issue. It may be you propose a different line of policy towards black troops, and officers commanding them, to that practiced towards white troops. So, I can assure you that these colored troops are regularly mustered into the service of the United States. The Government, and all officers under the Government, are bound to give the same protection to these troops that they do to any other troops.

11. ^ Gladstone, William A., United States Colored Troops, p. 120

12. ^ Schubert, Frank N. (1997). Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Honor, 1870-1898. Scholarly Resources Inc. pp. 4-5. ISBN 9780842025867.

13. ^ Schubert, Frank N. (1997). Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Honor, 1870-1898. Scholarly Resources Inc. pp. 2-4. ISBN 9780842025867.

14. ^ Hahn, Steven (2004). "The Greatest Slave Rebellion in Modern History: Southern Slaves in the American Civil War". southernspaces.org.

15. ^ Richard Walter Thomas (January 1996). John H. Standfield II (ed.). Understanding interracial unity: a study of U.S. race relations. Sage series on race and ethnic relations. 16. Sage Publications. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-8039-4602-6.

Cornish, Dudley Taylor. The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861-1865. New York: W.W. Norton, 1965.

Dobak, William A. Freedom by the Sword: The US Colored Troops, 1862-1867. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 2011.

Gladstone, William A. United States Colored Troops, 1863-1867. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1996.

Johnson, Jesse J. Black Armed Forces Officers 1736-1971. Hampton Publications, 1971.

Matthews, Harry Bradshaw, African American Freedom Journey in New York and Related Sites, 1823-1870: Freedom Knows No Color, Cherry Hill, NJ: Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers, 2008.

McPherson, James M., The Negro's Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union. New York: Pantheon Books, 1965.

Schubert, Frank N. (1997). Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Honor, 1870-1898. Scholarly Resources Inc. ISBN 9780842025867.

Smith, John David, Lincoln and the U.S. Colored Troops (Southern Illinois University Press, 2013). 156 pp.

Williams, George W., A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1887.

Film review, James M. McPherson, "The 'Glory' Story," The New Republic, January 8 & 15, 1990, pp. 22-27

The Employment of Negro Troops. By Dr. Ulysses Lee. Published by the Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., 1966. 740 pp.

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USCT United States Colored Troops Active May 22, 1863 - Oct 1865 Disbanded October 1865 Allegiance Union Branch Army Type infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering Size 175 regiments; 178,000 men Motto(s) Sic semper tyrannis Engagements American Civil War The United States Colored Troops ( USCT) were regiments in the United States Army composed primarily of African-American ( colored) soldiers, although members of other minority groups also served with the units.

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111 National Park Dr, Appomattox, VA 24522, USA

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Official Surrender of the Confederate States

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Official Surrender of the Confederate States

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1865
Here is were the peace treaty between the Union and Confederacy was signed, officially ending the Civil War.  This also essentially marks the end to slavery as an institution in the South, although it was continued to be used by southern plantation owners.

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Lee's army had become the embodiment of Confederate nationalism, and after its surrender other southern forces soon gave up.

The Virginia landscape-scarred by empty fortifications, decimated forests, ruined homes and farms, and vast graveyards-recovered in a generation. More enduring was widespread poverty and the emotional scars of defeat, occupation, and subjugation felt by whites and the horrors of slavery remembered by blacks.

Freedom as Confederate independence failed, but the Confederate commemoration continues to this day in the South. Although black Virginians were no longer enslaved, equality remained an unfulfilled goal for nearly a century. Despite the additions of amendments to the U.S. Constitution, equal opportunity was denied until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s forced meaningful change. White southern identity that had been based on racial supremacy finally disappeared. The successes of the Civil Rights Movement made possible the election in 2008 of the first African American president.

Words to Live By

All of Robert E. Lee's orders, telegraphs, letters, and reports were copied by his staff into bound books. Taken from the Army of Northern Virginia "order" book, this copy of General Order No. 9 is, perhaps, the earliest recorded copy of Lee's dignified farewell to his army:

"After four years of arduous service marked by unsurpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and resources.

I need not tell the brave survivors of so many hard fought battles who have remained steadfast to the last that I have consented to this result from no distrust of them. But feeling that valor and devotion could accomplish nothing that would compensate for the loss that would have attended the continuance of the contest, I determined to avoid the useless sacrifice of those whose past services have endeared them to their Countrymen.

By the terms of the Agreement officers and men can return to their homes and remain there until exchanged. You will take with you the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of duty faithfully performed, and I earnestly pray that a Merciful God will extend to you his blessing and protection.

With an unceasing admiration of your constancy and devotion to your country and a grateful remembrance of your kind and generous consideration for myself, I bid you all an affectionate farewell."

R. E. Lee
Genl

Going Home

Before leaving for home, Confederate soldiers received passes granting them safe passage through the lines. In return, they promised not to take up arms against the United States. Approximately 28,231 paroles were issued at Appomattox Court House. This one was given to Corporal Richardson Wallace Haw of Company I of the 15th Virginia Infantry.

Outward Signs for an Invisible State

"Hair is the most delicate and lasting of our materials, and survives us, like love. With a lock of hair we may almost look up to Heaven and almost say, I have a piece of thee here." - Godey's Lady's Book, December 1850 In the nineteenth century, respectable Americans, or those who aspired to be so, observed formal periods of mourning after the death of a spouse or relative. In the South, where nearly one in five white men of military age perished in the war, death was omnipresent-and so became the ritual of mourning. Many women cut a lock of a relative's hair before they left for war. If their loved one died, the hair could be made into a piece of memorial jewelry or, in this case, placed in a locket or brooch. Although this may be shocking or upsetting to modern sensibilities, these objects gave comfort to those the dead left behind.

Homeless and Penniless

The physical devastation wrought by the war in Virginia was enormous: burned or plundered homes, untold losses in crops and farm animals, and neglected roads and ruined bridges. Slaves, the state's single greatest source of wealth, were no longer property.

In November 1862, the executive committee of the thirty-year-old Virginia Historical Society (VHS) transferred their monetary assets from stocks yielding a 6-percent return to Confederate State Certificates that yielded 8 percent. The society ultimately invested $9,000 in the Confederate cause.

Evicted from its Richmond offices by the War Department, the VHS became another refugee of the war. Books, manuscripts, and artifacts were stored in various locations, including its members' homes. Like many Virginians, the society lost much during the war-including all of its investments-and soon thereafter began the process of rebuilding.

"Aftermath" Video

Aftermath is the concluding video for the VHS blockbuster show, An American Turning Point: The Civil War in Virginia.

At a time when most nations were ruled by kings, the American Civil War resolved that a government "of the people, by the people, for the people" could endure.

During the past 150 years, the United States has grown into one of the most powerful nations in the world. Ours is a complex history marked at times by brutality, inequality, and injustice, but also by compassion, creativity, courage, and sacrifice.

It is a story shared by all Americans as we endeavor to achieve the principles upon which the nation was founded.

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Conclusion - Did the Civil War End at Appomattox?

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Lee's army had become the embodiment of Confederate nationalism, and after its surrender other southern forces soon gave up.The Virginia landscape-scarred by empty fortifications, decimated forests, ruined homes and farms, and vast graveyards-recovered in a generation. More enduring was widespread poverty and the emotional scars of defeat, occupation, and subjugation felt by whites and the horrors of slavery remembered by blacks.

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Heightening tensions between the free states and slave states increased with arguments whether slavery was justifiable.
John C. Calhoun said, "Never before has the black race of Central Africa, from the dawn of history to the present day, attained a condition so civilized and so improved, not only physically, but morally and intellectually".  This shows that many defenders of slavery thought that blacks were lesser of them.
This is also showed in Huck Finn, when Huck said, "Well, he was right; he was most always right; he had an uncommon level head, for a nigger" (Twain 76) Chapter XIV (14).

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The Southern Argument for Slavery [ushistory.org]

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Mention of Miss Watson selling Jim
Ole Missus-dat’s Miss Watson-she pecks on me all de time, en treats me pooty rough, but she awluz said she wouldn’ sell me down to Orleans" (Twain 43) Chapter VIII (8)

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Huck’s reference to the abolitionist movement

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Huck’s reference to the abolitionist movement

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(“People would call me a low-down Abolitionist and despise me for keeping mum—but that don’t make no difference” (Twain 43) Chapter VIII (8).  This is a reference to the abolitionist movement of the Antebellum Era.  During this time period many Americans began to activly call for the abolition of slavery across the United States.

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1804
Haitian slaves revolted against the smaller population of their owners that led to the establishment of Haiti, the only country formed because of slave revolts.

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What was the Haitian Revolution?

Why did the Haitian Revolution start?

How is the Haitian Revolution related to the French Revolution?

Who did the Haitian Revolution involve?

Why is the Haitian Revolution important?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Haitian Revolution, series of conflicts between 1791 and 1804 between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.

Colonial rule and slavery

The Spanish began to enslave the native Taino and Ciboney people soon after December 1492, when Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sighted the island that he called La Isla Española ("The Spanish Island"; later Anglicized as Hispaniola.) The island's indigenous population, forced to mine for gold, was devastated by European diseases and brutal working conditions, and by the end of the 16th century the people had virtually vanished. Thousands of slaves imported from other Caribbean islands met the same fate.

After the main gold mines were exhausted, the Spanish were succeeded by the French, who established their own permanent settlements, including Port-de-Paix (1665) in the northwest, and the French West Indies Corporation took control of the area. Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of African slaves, who totaled about 5,000 in the late 17th century. By 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution, the estimated population of Saint-Domingue, as the French called their colony, was 556,000 and included roughly 500,000 African slaves, 32,000 European colonists, and 24,000 affranchis (free mulattoes [people of mixed African and European descent] or blacks).

Haitian society was deeply fragmented by skin colour, class, and gender. The affranchis, most of them mulattoes, were sometimes slave owners themselves and aspired to the economic and social levels of the Europeans. They feared and spurned the slave majority but were generally discriminated against by the white European colonists, who were merchants, landowners, overseers, craftsmen, and the like. The aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony's struggle for independence. A large part of the slave population was African-born, from a number of West African peoples. The vast majority worked in the fields; others were household servants, boilermen (at the sugar mills), and even slave drivers. Slaves endured long, backbreaking workdays and often died from injuries, infections, and tropical diseases. Malnutrition and starvation also were common. Some slaves managed to escape into the mountainous interior, where they became known as Maroons and fought guerrilla battles against colonial militia.

Factional conflict and the rise of Toussaint Louverture

Against this background arose a revolution, beginning as a series of conflicts from the early 1790s. Among the causes of the conflicts were the affranchis' frustrations with a racist society, turmoil created in the colony by the French Revolution, nationalistic rhetoric expressed during Vodou ceremonies, the continuing brutality of slave owners, and wars between European powers. Vincent Ogé, a mulatto who had lobbied the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms, led an uprising in late 1790 but was captured, tortured, and executed.

In May 1791 the French revolutionary government granted citizenship to the wealthier affranchis, but Haiti's European population disregarded the law. Within two months isolated fighting broke out between Europeans and affranchis, and in August thousands of slaves rose in rebellion. The Europeans attempted to appease the mulattoes in order to quell the slave revolt, and the French assembly granted citizenship to all affranchis in April 1792. The country was torn by rival factions, some of which were supported by Spanish colonists in Santo Domingo (on the eastern side of the island, which later became the Dominican Republic) or by British troops from Jamaica. In 1793 a commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, was sent from France to maintain order and offered freedom to slaves who joined his army; he soon abolished slavery altogether, a decision confirmed the following year by the French government.

In the late 1790s Toussaint Louverture, a military leader and former slave, gained control of several areas and earned the initial support of French agents. He gave nominal allegiance to France while pursuing his own political and military designs, which included negotiating with the British. In January 1801 Toussaint conquered Santo Domingo, and in May of that year, he had himself named "governor-general for life." He put the peasants back to work on the plantations under military rule and encouraged many of the French proprietors to return. In December 1801 Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I), wishing to maintain control of the island, attempted to restore the old regime (and European rule) by sending his brother-in-law, Gen. Charles Leclerc, with an experienced force from Saint-Domingue that included Alexandre Sabès Pétion and several other exiled mulatto officers. Toussaint struggled for several months against Leclerc's forces before agreeing to an armistice in May 1802; however, the French broke the agreement and imprisoned him in France. He died on April 7, 1803.

Independent Haiti

Some of Toussaint's lieutenants-most notably Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe- resumed the war against the French in 1802. They were soon joined by Pétion and other mulatto leaders, who were infuriated by the restoration of the restrictions on their caste. Both the blacks and the mulattoes were enraged by reports that France had reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique, and the struggle was carried on with great desperation. The French were weakened by an epidemic of yellow fever-Leclerc succumbed to the disease in November 1802-and the conclusion of the Louisiana Purchase in May 1803 signaled Napoleon's intention to withdraw from North America. Less than three weeks later, the French position in Haiti became truly hopeless with the renewal of hostilities between France and Britain on May 18, 1803.

On November 18 the Armée indigène (French: "Indigenous Army") under Dessalines defeated the French at the Battle of Vertières, and French Gen. Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, surrendered Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien), the last significant French stronghold. Under the terms of the surrender, the French were given 10 days to evacuate, but Rochambeau showed no haste in embarking his troops. Dessalines responded by threatening to turn his cannons on the French ships at anchor in Cap-Français harbour. Ironically, it would fall to the Royal Navy, which had been blockading Saint-Domingue since the resumption of the Napoleonic Wars, to carry out the evacuation. British Capt. John Bligh treated with both Rochambeau and Dessalines, and the French garrison finally departed Cap-Français as British prisoners. While this marked the end of French military action on Haiti, France continued to maintain a presence in the eastern part of the island until 1809.

On January 1, 1804, the entire island was declared independent under the Arawak-derived name of Haiti. Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti, fearing the spread of slave revolts, whereas reaction in the United States was mixed; slave-owning states did all they could to suppress news of the rebellion, but merchants in the free states hoped to trade with Haiti rather than with European powers. More important, nearly the entire population was utterly destitute-a legacy of slavery that has continued to have a profound impact on Haitian history.

In October 1804 Dessalines assumed the title of Emperor Jacques I, but in October 1806 he was killed while trying to suppress a mulatto revolt, and Henry Christophe took control of the kingdom from his capital in the north. Civil war then broke out between Christophe and Sabès Pétion, who was based at Port-au-Prince in the south. Christophe, who declared himself King Henry I in 1811, managed to improve the country's economy but at the cost of forcing former slaves to return to work on the plantations. He built a spectacular palace (Sans Souci) as well as an imposing fortress (La Citadelle Laferrière) in the hills to the south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, where, with mutinous soldiers almost at his door, he committed suicide in 1820. It was not until 1825 that France recognized Haiti's independence, and then only in exchange for a large indemnity of 100 million francs, with a repayment period until 1887.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Michael Ray.

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Haitian Revolution | Causes, Summary, & Facts

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Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), series of conflicts between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.

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1736
A rebellion led by slaves to reach the freedom of the St. Augustine colony/Spanish controlled Florida.  During the journey the slaves killed white slave owners in hopes of gathering a slave following but were eventually all captured, with the most egregious being executed and the rest shipped off to the West Indies.

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A group of about twenty veterans gathered near a bridge along the west branch of South Carolina's Stono River in the early morning light of September 9, 1739. These were no provincial militiamen, but African slaves. With their appointed leader Jemmy directing, the Africans broke into a nearby storehouse kept by Robert Bathurst and a Mr. Gibbs. The rebels immediately seized the building's store of firearms and ammunition, decapitated the two storekeepers, and laid their heads on the front stoop as they moved on. The band of rebels turned south, next plundering and burning the Godfrey plantation where they killed two more white planters. As the march continued, more unsuspecting colonists would meet a similar fate. One colonist recalling the incident reported that "they killed all the white people they found" along the Pons Pons Road. By noon, at least twenty white colonists lay dead in their wake. This rising would become the largest and bloodiest slave rebellion in the history of mainland British North America, yet its origins and explanations make it more than just a provincial American story.

The rebels gained followers as they marched, and soon their numbers swelled to nearly one hundred armed men. They constructed banners for their march and began to beat on drums to set the pace in military fashion. As news of the slave rising spread, Lieutenant Governor William Bull "raised the country," mustered the militia, and rushed to intercept the Africans near the Edisto River. Meanwhile, the band of rebels halted in a field near the river during the early afternoon. There, they performed traditional war dances, sang songs in Portuguese, English, and African dialects, and continued to beat the drums in the hopes of drawing more escaped slaves to their ranks.

In typical slave insurrections the mere sight of armed troops could cause escaping slaves to surrender, and Bull must have counted on this when he arrived with a mixed command of mounted planters and infantry militia at four in the afternoon. These slaves, however, in uncharacteristic fashion "behaved boldly" and fired two organized volleys before the white planters could respond. Caught off guard, Bull's men nevertheless returned fire, killing or wounding at least fourteen rebels. At this point, many of the latecomer slaves either surrendered or turned and fled. An organized unit of the rebellion's leadership, however, retreated across the river in good order. With nightfall approaching, Bull and his militia could not safely pursue their retreat.

The leaders of the initial insurrection were reportedly "Angolans" and suspected to have connections with Spanish Florida. They spoke Portuguese, which many South Carolinians understood to be "a dialect of Spanish, such as Scots is to English" and demonstrated certain adherences to the Catholic faith. One South Carolina planter around this time complained that "many Thousands of the Negroes profess the Roman Catholic Religion," having learned its tenants in Africa before being brought to the New World. It is unclear what happened to the surviving rebels after a week of intermittent skirmishing, but it is quite possible that they made it to Saint Augustine, their initial objective, or joined Creek Indians in the borderland between Georgia and Florida, where many runaway slaves found asylum during this period.

The rebellion baffled colonial officials in South Carolina and sent fear through the wider American colonies. A slave revolt of this magnitude was unprecedented on the North American mainland and the strange, "bold" behavior of these slaves, their effective use of firearms, and their apparent military organization troubled planters and officials, who needed explanations for such anomalies. When war broke out between Britain and Spain just a month later, planters in South Carolina were quick to blame Spanish priests and colonial agents based at Saint Augustine for inciting the insurrections. The slaves' intentions had fled toward Spanish Florida and many of the rebels were Catholic; it seemed like a tidy way of explaining away the organized resistance of the slaves.

Historians followed suit with this explanation and for centuries, the standard interpretation cited Spanish instigation as the source of the rebellion. However, in recent decades, as scholars have expanded their gaze to take in not just European perspectives, but broader Atlantic explanations for historical events, the exceptional events of the Stono Rebellion begin to take on a distinctly African background.

Significant components of the rebelling slaves in the Stono River revolt were misidentified as "Angolans" because of their ability to speak Portuguese and their adherence to Catholicism. In the early eighteenth century, however, most actual Angolan slaves were shipped directly from the Portuguese colony across the southern Atlantic to Brazil. When South Carolinians employed the term "Angolan," they were more likely referring to the coast of West Central Africa, which British ship captains called the "Angolan Coast." The port of Kabinda, near the mouth of Zaire River, served as the main point of embarkation for the slave trade in the region, and many of the Africans brought to South Carolina in the opening decades of the eighteenth century arrived in Charles Town from there.

While Kabinda was the port of origin for South Carolina's slave majority, the slaves themselves came from the vast African interior. Distinguishing actual identities and backgrounds of African slaves is often impossible. Given that the leaders of the Stono Rebellion spoke Portuguese and practiced Catholicism, it seems likely that they came from the Kingdom of Kongo, the only region of West Central Africa with a long history of exposure to both the Catholic Church and Portuguese traders.

Kongo, in the last decades of the seventeenth and early years of the eighteenth centuries was a war torn kingdom. Since 1665, several factions had fought for control of the Kongolese crown, each vying for support from the Portuguese that traded along the coast and the Italian Capuchin monks that brought Catholicism to the interior. In spite of perennial civil war, Kongo was one of the most cosmopolitan kingdoms in West Central Africa at the time. At the behest of shifting monarchs, the Capuchins had built schools and churches throughout the hinterland. Kongolese enjoyed a high literacy rate, and were accustomed to dealing with Europeans, having steady contact with the Portuguese from the sixteenth century on. By the early decades of the eighteenth century, Kongo was also experiencing an era of military innovation. Competing factions for the throne began enlisting massive armies and utilizing firearms procured from Dutch and Portuguese traders along the coast.

At the turn of the eighteenth century, war raged as João II of Lemba challenged Pedro IV of Kibangu for control over the Kongolese crown. In 1704, the tumult in Kongo reached new levels as Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita, young woman claiming to be the reincarnated Saint Anthony, began to gather Afro-Catholic followers in the Mbanza region. She called for an end to the civil war while amassing an army of her own. Dona Beatriz's ranks grew to over 40,000, and in 1705, the "Antonians" marched on the ruined capital of São Salvador and occupied it. From her new headquarters, Dona Beatriz negotiated an alliance with João, hoping to consolidate a front against the Portuguese-backed Pedro. The Antonians had bargained on the wrong ally, however, and with the campaign of 1706, João was killed in battle and his forces collapsed against Pedro's advancing armies.

In the same campaign, Pedro intercepted Dona Beatriz. Pedro, with Portuguese and Capuchin support, tried Dona Beatriz for heresy and burned her at the stake in July 1706. Over the next three years, Pedro's forces waged a war of elimination against the Antonians. The final blow came in 1709 when Pedro took São Salvador and sold the remaining followers of Antonianism into slavery. Scholars now estimate that perhaps as many as 20,000 Antonians became caught up in the trans-Atlantic slave trade over this tumultuous period. Civil wars continued to rage across the Kongolese provinces for another three decades and with each defeat or victory, thousands more captured combatants entered the trans-oceanic world of slavery.

By taking in this African element of the story, which for years was either unknown or ignored, a fuller picture of the Stono Rebellion emerges. Thousands of slaves in South Carolina had West Central African origins. Many of these Africans were enslaved during the Kongo civil wars, explaining their Catholicism and Portuguese language. It seems clear that at least the leadership along the Stono River had military experience, familiar with firearms and volley tactics. While colonists may not have understood this Kongolese background, their actions in the aftermath of rebellion are telling. The South Carolina legislature passed the 1740 Negro Bill, which banned slave assembly, and planters petitioned slave importers to avoid any more slaves from the Angolan coast, as "these were perceived more dangerous, and liable to rebel." After the rebellion, South Carolina importers began to look to the Upper Guinea coast instead, where they hoped to find less dangerous slaves. The varying African origins of slaves influenced how they acclimated to New World slavery, and shaped the broader history of early America. Along the Stono River in 1739, the distinct background of a group of Kongolese veterans enabled them to harness their military experiences from Africa to resist bondage across the Atlantic, in South Carolina.
Enjoyed our article? Check out another about slaves whose skill in iron works gave them more leverage in the New World. Comments or questions? Leave one below!
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"An Account of Negroe Insurrection" in Candler, Allen, and William Norton, eds., Colonial Records of the State of Georgia (1904-16; rpt. edn., New York, 1970).

Berlin, Ira. The Making of African America : The Four Great Migrations. New York: Viking, 2010.

Heywood, Linda M., and Thornton, John K. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585-1660. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Thornton, John K. "African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion." American Historical Review 96, no. 4 (1991): 1101-1113.

Thornton, John K. The Kongolese Saint Anthony Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684-1706. Cambridge, U.K. ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Wood, Peter. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975.

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Kongo in the Carolinas: The African Roots of the Stono Rebellion

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A group of about twenty veterans gathered near a bridge along the west branch of South Carolina's Stono River in the early morning light of September 9, 1739. These were no provincial militiamen, but African slaves. With their appointed leader Jemmy directing, the Africans broke into a nearby storehouse kept by Robert Bathurst and a...

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The junction between the Mississippi and Ohio River Huck and Jim were traveling to, trying to reach the freedom of Ohio and the Northern free states.
"We'd safe, Huck, we's safe! Jump up and crack yo' heels, dat's de good ole Cairo at las', I j'ai knows it!" (Twain 89) Chapter XVI (16).

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Now known today as Florida, the former Spanish colony lasted until Florida became part of the Union in 1845.  The Spanish colony offered freedom to any African slaves that entered, in an effort to unbalance stability in the British colonies, most notably in it's capital, St. Augustine.
*Directly correlates to the Stono Rebellion

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St. Augustine, oldest continuously settled city in the United States, seat (1822) of St. Johns county, northeastern Florida, about 40 miles (65 km) southeast of Jacksonville. It is situated on a peninsula between two saltwater rivers, the San Sebastian (west) and the Matanzas (east), and on the mainland west of the San Sebastian, just inland from the Atlantic coast on the Intracoastal Waterway.

The Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, landed there in 1513 and took possession of the territory for Spain. In 1564 France established Fort Caroline near the mouth of the St. Johns River, about 35 miles (55 km) north. A year later, in order to maintain Spanish sovereignty over Florida, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés destroyed the French colony and founded the city, which he named for St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, upon whose feast day he had sighted the coast. Except for the 20 years (1763-83) that Florida belonged to England, throughout the following 256 years it was the main northern outpost of the Spanish colonial empire.

Since 1821 the city has been a part of the United States. A remaining symbol of former Spanish power is the massive Castillo de San Marcos, built in 1672-95 near the southern tip of the peninsula; the oldest masonry fort standing in the United States, it is now a national monument. The city was plundered (1586) by the English sea raider Sir Francis Drake, burned (1702) by Governor James Moore of Carolina, and besieged (1740) by the British general and leader of the Georgia Colony, James Edward Oglethorpe; it became a refuge for loyalists during the American Revolution and during the Seminole Wars provided a prison for captured Seminole Indians, including Osceola. Union troops occupied it the last three years of the American Civil War.

St. Augustine's economy is based on tourism (first promoted in the 1880s by the financier-railroad magnate Henry M. Flagler, a pioneer in Florida development), services, industry (including aircraft modification and the manufacture of aluminum products and boats), and commercial and sport fishing. The parent company of the Florida East Coast Railway has its headquarters there. Many Spanish colonial buildings and sites have been restored, including the cathedral (1791), Oldest House (begun in 1723), Ximenez-Fatio House ( c. 1797), and the Spanish Quarter, a restored 18th-century village. The city has several museums, including the Lightner Museum, the St. Augustine Lighthouse and Museum, and the Government House Museum. Marineland of Florida is about 15 miles (25 km) south. Southeast of the city on Anastasia Island are Anastasia State Recreation Area and Fort Matanzas National Monument. The city is the seat of Flagler College (1968), whose main building is the first large hotel built (1888) by Flagler. Pop. (2000) 11,592; (2010) 12,975.

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St. Augustine | Population, Maps, History, & Facts

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St. Augustine, oldest continuously settled city in the United States, seat (1822) of St. Johns county, northeastern Florida, about 40 miles (65 km) southeast of Jacksonville. It is situated on a peninsula between two saltwater rivers, the San Sebastian (west) and the Matanzas (east), and on the

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1831
Nat Turner and 72 slaves lead a armed rebellion that leads to the massacre of 51 white slave owners across Virignia.  Nat Turner and several other leaders of the rebellion are executed, while 120 blacks are mudered by mobs and armed militias in retaliation.  States pass laws that limit the the education and limited rights of slaves and free blacks to prevent further rebellions.

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Nat Turner | Biography, Rebellion, & Facts

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Nat Turner, Black American slave who led the only effective, sustained slave rebellion (August 1831) in U.S. history. His action set off a new wave of oppressive legislation prohibiting the education, movement, and assembly of slaves and stiffened proslavery convictions that persisted in the South until the Civil War.

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1501-1505
Santo Domingo, capital of the Dominican Republic, becomes the first International slave port for Spanish and Portuguese settlers bringing captured Africans as slaves.

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Santo Domingo ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈsanto ðoˈmiŋɡo] meaning " Saint Dominic"), once known as Santo Domingo de Guzmán and Ciudad Trujillo, is the capital and largest city of the Dominican Republic and the largest metropolitan area in the Caribbean by population. As of 2022, the Distrito Nacional had a population of 1,484,789, while the total population is 2,995,211 when including the metropolitan area. The city is coterminous with the boundaries of the Distrito Nacional ("D.N.", "National District"), itself bordered on three sides by Santo Domingo Province.

Founded by the Spanish in 1496, on the east bank of the Ozama River and then moved by Nicolás de Ovando in 1502 to the west bank of the river, the city is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the Americas, and was the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo. It is the site of the first university, cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress in the New World. The city's Colonial Zone was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Santo Domingo was called Ciudad Trujillo ( Spanish pronunciation: [sjuˈðað tɾuˈxiʝo]), from 1936 to 1961, after the Dominican Republic's dictator, Rafael Trujillo, named the capital after himself. Following his assassination, the city resumed its original designation.

Santo Domingo is the cultural, financial, political, commercial and industrial center of the Dominican Republic, with the vast majority of the country's most important industries being located within the city. Santo Domingo also serves as the chief seaport of the country. The city's harbor at the mouth of the Ozama River accommodates the largest vessels, and the port handles both heavy passenger and freight traffic. Temperatures are high year round, with cooler breezes during winter time.

Prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the native Taíno people populated the island which they called Quisqueya, Kiskella (mother of all lands) and Ayiti (the land of the high mountains), and which Columbus later named Hispaniola, including the territory of today's Republic of Haiti. At the time, the island's territory consisted of five chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey. These were ruled respectively by (chiefs) Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo, Bohechío, and Cayacoa.

Dating from 1493, when the Spanish settled on the island, and officially from 5 August 1498, Santo Domingo became the oldest European city in the Americas. Bartholomew Columbus founded the settlement and named it La Nueva Isabela, after an earlier settlement in the north named after the Queen of Spain Isabella I. In 1495 it was renamed "Santo Domingo", in honor of Saint Dominic. Santo Domingo came to be known as the "Gateway to the Caribbean" and the chief town in Hispaniola from then on. Expeditions which led to Ponce de León's colonization of Puerto Rico, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar's colonization of Cuba, Hernando Cortes' conquest of Mexico, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa's sighting of the Pacific Ocean were all launched from Santo Domingo.

In June 1502, Santo Domingo was destroyed by a major hurricane, and the new Governor Nicolás de Ovando had it rebuilt on a different site on the other side of the Ozama River. The original layout of the city and a large portion of its defensive wall can still be appreciated today throughout the Colonial Zone, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Diego Columbus, Christopher Columbus' son, arrived in 1509, assuming the powers of Viceroy and admiral. In 1512, Ferdinand established a Real Audiencia with Juan Ortiz de Matienzo, Marcelo de Villalobos, and Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon appointed as judges of appeal. In 1514, Pedro Ibanez de Ibarra arrived with the Laws of Burgos. Rodrigo de Alburquerque was named repartidor de indios and soon named visitadores to enforce the laws.: 143-144, 147

The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo during 1522, when enslaved Africans led an uprising on Diego Colombus's sugar plantation. In 1586, the privateer Sir Francis Drake captured the city and held it for ransom. A report which reached the English government in May 1586 states that from Santo Domingo he took away 1,200 Englishmen, Frenchmen, Flemings, and "Provincials out of prison, besides 800 of the countrey people". Drake's successful capture signaled the decline of Spain's dominion over Hispaniola, which was accentuated in the early 17th century by Spanish policies that resulted in the depopulation of most of the island outside of the capital. An expedition sent by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 attacked the city of Santo Domingo, but the English force was repulsed by a smaller force of local militias and Santo Domingo suffered only 25 dead. In 1697, the Treaty of Ryswick included the acknowledgement by Spain of France's dominion over the Western third of the island, now Haiti. During the 18th century, privateers from Santo Domingo patrolled the Caribbean, capturing numerous enemy merchantment.

From 1795 to 1822, the city changed hands several times along with the colony it headed. It was ceded to France in 1795. The city was briefly captured by Haitian rebels in 1801, recovered by France in 1802, endured a failed invasion from Haiti in 1805, and was once again reclaimed by Spain in 1809. In 1821, Santo Domingo became the capital of an independent nation called the Republic of Spanish Haiti after the Criollo bourgeois within the country, led by José Núñez de Cáceres, overthrew the Spanish crown. The nation was annexed by Haiti just two months later. The city and the colony lost much of their Spanish-born peninsular population as a result of these events which caused a great deal of instability and unrest.

On 27 February 1844 Santo Domingo was again the capital of a free nation, when it gained its independence from Haiti, led by Dominican nationalist Juan Pablo Duarte. The city was a prize fought over by various political factions over the succeeding decades of instability. In addition, the country had to fight multiple battles with Haiti; the Battle of 19 March, Battle of 30 March, Battle of Las Carreras, and Battle of Beler, are a few of the most prominent encounters, mentioned in the national anthem and with city streets named after them. In 1861, Spain returned to the country, having struck a bargain with Dominican dictator Pedro Santana whereby the latter was granted several honorific titles and privileges, in exchange for annexing the young nation back to Spanish rule. The Dominican Restoration War began in 1863 however, and in 1865 the Bourbon Queen Isabella II withdrew her soldiers from the island. Over the next two-thirds of a century Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic went through many revolutions and power changes. Santo Domingo would experience the first of two U.S. invasions in 1916 when different leaders fought for presidential power and control of the city. The United States intervened, instituting a military leader, Harry Shepard Knapp. U.S. Marines and Dominicans clashed in Santo Domingo on October 24-25, 1916, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. Marines and three Dominicans.

The city was struck by hurricane San Zenón in 1930, which caused major damage and killed up to 8,000 people. After its rebuilding, Santo Domingo was known officially as Ciudad Trujillo due to the personality cult imposed by dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, who governed from 1930. Following his assassination in 1961 the city was renamed back to Santo Domingo.

In 1962, Juan Bosch was elected to the presidency. He was overthrown seven months later, resulting in a civil war in the capital. Francisco Caamaño led the Constitucionalistas fighting to restore democracy. This would lead to the second U.S. invasion in 1965. U.S. troops engaged in heavy fighting in the streets of Santo Domingo against the Constitucionalistas on June 15 and June 16. Newsweek described it this way:

Amid the clatter of automatic weapons, the sharp rattle of .50-caliber guns and the heavy explosions of bazookas and recoilless rifles, the paratroopers of the 82nd U.S. Airborne Division blasted their way four city blocks into Caamaño's bastion. Heavy fire from U.S. guns across the Ozama River ringed rebel headquarters on El Conde Street, shattered buildings and started huge fires.

Eventually, the fighting would end on August 31, 1965, with 2,850 Dominicans and 44 American servicemen dead.

The year 1992 marked the 500th anniversary, El Quinto Centenario, of Christopher Columbus' Discovery of the Americas. The Columbus Lighthouse - Faro a Colón - was erected in Santo Domingo in honor of this occasion, with an approximate cost of 400 million Dominican pesos.

The Ozama river flows 148 kilometers (92 miles) before emptying into the Caribbean Sea. Santo Domingo's position on its banks was of great importance to the city's economic development and the growth of trade during colonial times. The Ozama River is where the country's busiest port is located.

The average temperature in Santo Domingo varies little, because the tropical trade winds help mitigate the heat and humidity throughout the year. Thanks to these trade winds, Santo Domingo has a borderline tropical rainforest ( Köppen Af)/ tropical monsoon climate ( Am), as its driest month is very close to 60 millimeters (2.4 in). However, the city seldom experiences the heat that one may expect to find. December through March are the coolest months with warm days with less humidity and cool nights (temperatures of 17 to 19 °C (63 to 66 °F)). July through September are the hottest. Santo Domingo averages 1,445 millimeters (56.9 in) of rain annually. Its driest months are from December through April, however, due to the trade winds and mountains to the southwest, rain is seen even during these months.

Like many other cities in the Caribbean, Santo Domingo is very susceptible to hurricanes. Hurricane Georges caused severe destruction in September 1998. The lowest recorded temperature has been 11.0 °C (51.8 °F) on 5 February 1951 and 7 January 1957 and the highest is 39.5 °C (103.1 °F) on 29 May 2002.

Many of Santo Domingo's most notable landmarks are located within the Zona Colonial district of the city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1990. The Colonial Zone, bordered by the Río Ozama, also has an impressive collection of early 16th century buildings, including palatial houses and majestic churches that reflect the architectural style of the late Middle Ages.

The city's most important historical buildings include the Catedral Santa María La Menor, the first cathedral of the Americas, which states its distinction; the Alcázar de Colón, the first castle in the Americas, once the residence of Viceroy of the Indies Don Diego Colón, a son of Christopher Columbus; the Monasterio de San Francisco, the ruins of the first monastery in the Americas; the Museo de las Casas Reales, in a monumental complex that includes the former Palace of the Governors and the building of the former Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo; the Fortaleza Ozama, is one of the surviving sections of the Walls of Santo Domingo, which is the oldest military construction of European origin in the Americas; the Pantéon Nacional, a former Jesuit edifice now hosting the remains of various renowned Dominicans; and the Dominican Convent, the first convent in the Americas.

On the north end of Calle Las Damas, the restored and expanded Plaza de España is bordered by Las Atarazanas (former naval yard, now a museum) and a number of small shops and restaurants. This area was the first European commercial center in the Americas, and is still a hub of activity today. The Alcázar de Colón, having once been the colonial palace of the Columbus family - beginning with his son Diego - is now a museum displaying period furniture and decorations. The building was originally built in 1510, and restored to its current appearance in 1952.

A 700 million US dollar investment was made in the Port of the Ozama river adjacent to the Ciudad Colonial aiming to turn Santo Domingo into a port of call for luxury cruise ships and including a privately owned marina. The project is being completed by Sans Soucí Ports S.A.

The city proper of Santo Domingo is subdivided into incorporated areas (neighborhoods) called sectores which could be considered as small urban towns. All sectores are serviced directly by the municipal mayor's office.

Sector regions:

Ciudad (city) - applies to the original older parts of town, many of which date back to the colonial times.

Ensanche (lit. "widening") - usually, but not always, applied to the more "modern" parts of the city.

Villa (village) - the urban outskirts of both the old city of Santo Domingo and the current (smaller) National District; originally they were separate villages, hence their names.

The demographics of Santo Domingo are similar to other metropolitan areas of the country, except that the population of immigrants (mainly Haitians) is larger in the city due to abundant jobs and economic dynamism compared to other provinces. Santo Domingo, like most of the country, is made up of native-born Dominican mulattos, though there are large numbers of Afro-Dominicans and Euro-Dominicans, as well as a large immigrant community. In fact, over 20% of the city's population is composed of immigrants, mainly Haitians.[citation needed ] However, there are also recent immigrants from Europe, Asia, as well as other Latin American nations present in the city. The city of Santo Domingo has a significant community of Asians (mainly Chinese), Arabs (mostly Lebanese), and Europeans (mostly Spanish and Italian people) are also present in the city. There are also significant numbers of Venezuelans and Puerto Ricans, in the city, as well as U.S.-born Dominicans returning to their parents' home country. The northeast quadrant of the city is the poorest while the southwest is wealthier. Santo Domingo is also considered one of the epicenters of the growing Dominican middle-class. The city is one of the most economically developed cities in Latin America. Santo Domingo's population in 2010 was 3.8 million in the metropolitan area.

Santo Domingo is the center of the national government of the Dominican Republic. The President's office and ministries, National Congress, Supreme Court of Justice, and other main government institutions are located in the metropolitan area.

The city is administered by the Ayuntamiento del Distrito Nacional (City Hall), which is responsible for municipal functions. The current mayor of Santo Domingo is Carolina Mejía de Garrigó.

The "Policía Nacional" (National Police) and "Policia Turística" (Tourist Police) (POLITUR) are tasked with enforcing city safety.

The city is the center of economic activity in the Dominican Republic. It is where most of the country's wealth is concentrated and the seat of the national legislature, judicial, and executive government. Many national and international firms have their headquarters or regional offices in Santo Domingo. The city attracts many international firms and franchises such as Ikea, Goldcorp and Barrick due to its location and economic stability.

The infrastructure is suitable for most business operations. A key element that has helped the city grow and compete globally is the telecommunications infrastructure. Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic as a whole enjoy a modern and extensive telecommunications system liberalized in the late 1990s which has benefited from extensive foreign investment. This has attracted numerous call centers in recent years. Santo Domingo not only has an excellent telecommunications infrastructure but also a sizeable bilingual population that speaks English.

The city's economic growth can be witnessed in the extensive vertical growth experienced across many of its neighborhoods. The construction boom is reflected in the many high density residential towers, shopping malls, elevated highways, the metro expansion and overall increase in commercial activity.

Santo Domingo has a thriving middle class contrasting with the significant pockets of poverty that remain as challenges for the future. Marginalized slum conditions exist mostly in the northeast quadrant of the city with smaller pockets extending across the city. Areas of extensive development include the Poligono Central, which is bordered by the Avenida John F. Kennedy northward 27 February Avenue south, Avenida Winston Churchill to the west and Avenida Máximo Gómez to the east, and is characterized by its mixed development and its very active nightlife.

Santo Domingo has areas of high development, among them Serralles, Naco, Arroyo Hondo, Piantini, Urb Fernandez, Ens. Julieta, Paraiso, Los Prados, Bella Vista, Sarasota and other sectors, where most of the middle class can be found.

Bella Vista and La Esperilla are currently the fastest growing sectors with large mega -projects. Gazcue belongs to the more traditional southeastern area of the city and is known for its buildings dating from the 1930s to the 1960s.

The performing arts are very important in Santo Domingo. The city has its own symphonic orchestra, chamber orchestra, opera company, ballet company, folkloric company, and national theater, including a number of smaller groups. The Plaza of culture is the center of activity, but there are concerts, ballet, folklore, and other performances throughout the city. Casa de Teatro is the gathering place of avant garde artists, actors, and musicians. It stages art and literature exhibitions and offers painting, drama, and dancing courses and monthly contests for poetry, short stories, and other forms of literature.

Santo Domingo is the location of numerous museums, many of which are located in the Zona Colonial district. In the Zona Colonial is the Museum of Alcázar, in Diego Colon's palace, the Museum of the Casas Reales, with artefacts of the colonial period and a collection of ancient weapons donated by Trujillo, the Naval Museum of the Atarazanas, in the former naval yards, Museo de la Catedral, Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana, documenting the struggle for freedom during the regimes of Trujillo and Balaguer, Museo Duarte, dedicated to the hero of Dominican independence, and the World of Ambar Museum.

Plaza de la Cultura also houses the city's most important cultural venues, including the Teatro Nacional (National Theater) and various museums; the Palacio Nacional, which houses the Presidency of the Dominican Republic; the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), a neoclassical building that is the permanent home of the country's National Symphony Orchestra; and the Boulevard 27 de Febrero, a pedestrian promenade located on the busy Avenida 27 de Febrero, which displays works of art from prominent Dominican artists and sculptors. Another attraction is the Centro Olímpico Juan Pablo Duarte, a sports complex in the center of Santo Domingo. This complex was used during the 2003 Pan American Games.

In the Plaza de la Cultura are the Museum of the Dominican Man, with artifacts from the pre-Columbian Taíno civilization, the National Museum of History and Geography, the Museum of Natural History and the Museum of Modern Art. Other museums include the Museo Bellapart, a prominent private collection of 19th- and 20th-Century Dominican painting and sculpture and the Museo Prehispanico, a major private collection of pre-Columbian Taíno art.

The city has various parks, many of which are relatively large. Santo Domingo (D.N) is surrounded by the Santo Domingo Greenbelt. Mirador Norte Park lies in the north of the city, close to Villa Mella and Mirador Sur Park is located in the southwest section of the city. Mirador del Este is located on the East bank of the Ozama river and it is the seat of the Columbus Lighthouse. Independencia Park and Colón Park are located in Zona Colonial. Zoo Parque Zoológico Nacional is home to a range of 82-100 both exotic and native plants and animal species.

Other notable parks include:

Public:

Central Hospital Armed Forces

Billini Father Teaching Hospital

Dr. Francisco Moscoso Puello Hospital

Hospital Dr. Luis E. Aybar (Morgan)

Hospital Infantil Dr. Robert Reid Cabral

Vargas jimenez dental center

Hospital Dario Contreras

Nonprofit:

There are eighteen universities in Santo Domingo, the highest number of any city in the Dominican Republic. Established in 1538, the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD) is the oldest university in the Americas and is also the only public university in the city. Santo Domingo holds the nation's highest percentage of residents with a higher education degree.[citation needed ]

Other universities include:

Santo Domingo has an underground and elevated rapid transit metro system. It is the most extensive metro in the Caribbean and Central American region by total length and number of stations. The Santo Domingo Metro is part of a major "National Master Plan" to improve transportation in the city as well as the rest of the nation. The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in the Máximo Gómez and Hermanas Mirabal Avenue. The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along the Duarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east. As of August 2013, the metro consists of these two lines. Four more lines are planned to be constructed in the near future, for a total of six. Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012. According to government figures more than 300,000 people ride the 31 kilometer system on a daily basis.

In 2018, a 5-kilometer Teleférico de Santo Domingo (aerial cable car) was opened to provide service to the poorest areas in the east and north of the metropolitan area, and serve as a feeder for the metro. The cable car is used by more than 12,000 people daily.

Santo Domingo is served by two airports. Aeropuerto Internacional La Isabela, a newly constructed airport located in the northern section of the city, within kilometers of the city center. It serves mostly domestic and charter flights. The major international airport that serves the city is Santo Domingo Las Americas, which serves North, Central and South America and also Europe.

The Port of Santo Domingo is located on the Ozama River. Its location at the center of the Caribbean is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls.

The port's renovation is part of a major redevelopment project, aimed at integrating the port area and the Zona Colonial and foster a cruise, yacht, and high-end tourism destination. Supported by legislation approved in 2005, the project, developed by the Sans Souci Group, also includes the development of a new sports marina and a 122-acre (0.49 km ²) mixed-leisure real estate development adjacent to the port.

Santo Domingo is the terminus for four of the five national highways. The city is connected to the southwest of the country by the national highway DR-2 (Avenida George Washington and Autopista 30 de Mayo), and with the cities of the country's northwest by DR-1 (Expreso Kennedy, Corredor Duarte), which serves as a direct link to the city of Santiago de los Caballeros. DR-3 (Expreso 27 de Febrero/Autopista de Las Américas) connects Santo Domingo directly to the east of the country, including the cities of San Pedro de Macorís, La Romana, and major tourist sites such as Punta Cana and Bávaro, and to the Samaná Province (in the northeast) via the Samana Highway. In the city, motoconchos (motorcycle taxis), guaguas/ voladoras (low quality public buses), and carros públicos/ conchos (shared taxis) are common modes of transport. The Santo Domingo Metro is the highest quality in the region of the Caribbean and Central America. It is composed of 2 lines that cross the city.

Expreso John F. Kennedy: This expressway crosses the National District from east to west in the north-central part. The Avenue consists of a total of ten lanes, five on each side. The two center lanes of the road are express lanes to facilitate transit. It also has several bypasses and elevated crossings.

Avenida 27 de Febrero: It is the main avenue to cross the National District from east to west in the central part of Santo Domingo. It starts at the Juan Bosch bridge and crosses the entire city until the roundabout at the Plaza de la Bandera, which extends into the town of Santo Domingo West and ends on the Duarte Highway. The thoroughfare is composed of a total of ten lanes. Five on each side. The four lanes in the center of the avenue are express that facilitate transit in the city from east to west, with several elevated cross streets, overpasses and tunnels. It also has exclusive bus lanes.

Avenida Simón Bolívar: It extends from Independence Park to the junction with the Avenue Winston Churchill. In its entirety, this avenue is composed of two local lanes one-way east- west.

Avenida Independencia: It extends from the intersection with Avenida Gregorio Luperón to Independence Park. The avenue consists of a total of four lanes (two eastbound and two westbound ) from crossing with Av G. Luperon to the intersection of Avenida Italia . From the junction with Av Italy until Independence Park Avenue becomes one-way eastbound and contains only two lanes.

Avenida George Washington: It is colloquially referred as "El Malecón" This is Santo Domingo's Maritime Boulevard, running alongside the Caribbean sea's waterfront. It extends from Palo Hincado Street to the intersection with Abraham Lincoln Avenue; from that point to the Haina River Highway 30 May extends also includes President Billini Walk, which starts in Palo Hincado street and joins the Avenida del Puerto along the western bank of the Ozama River. Throughout its entire length it is composed of four lanes (two on each side). On this Boulevard you will find the most exclusive hotels in the city, several casinos, the mixed business and residential high rise complex Malecón Center, the Obelisk and Eugenio María de Hostos' Park. This is also the Boulevard where the Santo Domingo Carnival parade takes place.

Avenida Winston Churchill: It extends from Kennedy Avenue to Avenida 27 de Febrero, from there on, it continues as Avenida Jimenez Moya to reach the Centro de los Heroes and finally the boardwalk. This thoroughfare is distinguished by its date palms that are planted on the sidewalks . Throughout its length the road is composed of six lanes (three on each side) and a large wooded median popularly known as Boulevard de la Churchill ("Churchill's Boulevard") and within this lies the Boulevard of the Stars.

Avenida Abraham Lincoln: extends from Avenida Kennedy to the seawall. The route consists of six lanes (three on each side) and a median suitable for jogging laid with palm trees. It traverses the city's commercial and leisure city center.

Avenida José Ortega y Gasset: It extends from the Paseo de los Reyes Católicos Avenue until 27 de Febrero. The avenue consists of four lanes, two on each side. Along this avenue lies the Centro Olímpico Juan Pablo Duarte athletic complex and the Hospital General de la Plaza de la Salud medical complex.

Avenida Tiradentes: It extends from the jetty in the south, through the state's university Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo. It extends to the north along Avenida 27 de Febrero, John F. Kennedy, and continuing north past the city's baseball stadium Estadio Quisqueya until it reaches the Parque Zoológico Nacional National Zoo.

Avenida Gregorio Luperón: It extends from Kennedy Avenue to Highway 30 May on the western edge of Santo Domingo. The thoroughfare consists of eight lanes, four on each side and a landscaped median. Local attractions located on this strip includes Gallístico Center Herrera Industrial Zone, and the Plaza de la Bandera.

Avenida Máximo Gómez y Báez: The city's main south-north avenue, it extends from the Malecón to the Presidente Peynado bridge. The boulevard consists of four lanes, two on each side. Major buildings and points of interest along this boulevard are: the National Cemetery, Plaza de la Cultura which houses the National Theatre and the Palace of Fine Arts. There are also two universities (UNAPEC and UTESA), as well as the headquarters of the People's Bank and five star hotel "Hotel Barceló Santo Domingo".

Avenida Juan Pablo Duarte: It extends from the intersection of Avenida Paseo and Martyrs of the Catholic Monarchs to Calle Padre Billini in the Colonial Zone . The avenue consists of three lanes on a road north-south direction becomes one lane to enter the Colonial Zone . This avenue is the main commerce route for low-income people throughout the metropolitan area with department stores, restaurants, and shops that offer goods and services at modest prices . In "Duarte" (as popularly known) you can find the New Market, the Enriquillo Park, Duarte Commercial Square and Santo Domingo's Chinatown.

Avenida Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres: Is located on the northern part of Santo Domingo starting at the roundabout Cristo Rey sector and corner with Ortega y Gasset, Máximo Gómez, Arbert Duarte and Thomas avenues, among others; culminating in the sector of Simón Bolívar . This avenue is characterized by many businesses that sell auto parts .

Baseball is the most popular sport in the country, and was introduced by the United States Marines. Santo Domingo is home to two of the six teams in the Dominican Professional Baseball League.

Tigres del Licey, founded in 1907, have won 22 national championships since 1951. It is the most senior national team, winning 10 Caribbean Series titles as well.

Leones del Escogido, founded in 1921, are winners of 16 national championships since 1951. It is the third team with the most championships won. The team has 4 titles won in the Caribbean Series.

These two teams are based in the Estadio Quisqueya located in Ensanche La Fe. In 2007 The stadium underwent a rebuilding job which expanded its number of seats and the overall look of the field. The bullpens are now enclosed and out of play. Former president Leonel Fernández also announced in 2009 that there are plans to turn the stadium and the adjacent area into a modern sports complex.

Santo Domingo's Basketball Tournament Superior is held in the National District each year, with several teams participating and representing several sectors and social clubs of the city.

Some of the teams participating in the tournament include:

The city hosted the 2005 FIBA Americas Championship, which was played at the Palacio de los Deportes Virgilio Travieso Soto.

There are 15 television stations (both UHF and VHF) in Santo Domingo. Santo Domingo has the greatest number of television signals in the country, followed by Santiago. Additional cable television channels are provided by companies like Aster, Cable TV Dominicana, SKY Dominicana, and Telecable. In Santo Domingo there are 100 different stations in AM frequency and 44 in FM frequency.

FM

AM

Twin towns - Sister cities

Santo Domingo is twinned with:

Paris, France

Santo Domingo has four sister cities designated by Sister Cities International:

Famous Dominican singer Juan Luis Guerra-Seijas was born on June 7th, 1957 in the capital city, Santo Domingo.

1. (in Spanish) ^ Superficies a nivel de municipios, Oficina Nacional de Estadística Archived 17 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine

2. ^ De la Fuente, Santiago (1976). Geografía Dominicana (in Spanish). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: Editora Colegial Quisqueyana.

3. "Colonial City of Santo Domingo. Outstanding Universal Value". UNESCO World Heritage Centre website.

4. Floyd, Troy (1973). The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean, 1492-1526. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 55, 73.

5. ^ Public Record Office, SP 12/189, 42, letter of Nicholas Clever to Nicholas Turner, merchant, 26 May 1586.

6. ^ Langley, Lester D. (January 1989). America and the Americas: The United States in the Western Hemisphere. University of Georgia Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780820311036.

7. ^ Bradley, Peter T. British Maritime Enterprise in the New World: From the Late Fifteenth to the Mid-eighteenth Century. p. 152.

8. ^ Ricourt, Milagros (2016). The Dominican Racial Imaginary: Surveying the Landscape of Race and Nation in Hispaniola. Rutgers University Press. p. 57.

9. ^ Palmer, Bruce (2015). Intervention in the Caribbean: The Dominican Crisis of 1965. University Press of Kentucky. p. 137. ISBN 9780813150024.

10. ^ "Animals in Dominican Republic: List, Facts, Endangered Species, and Pictures". AZ Animals.

11. ^ Gray, Dulce María (2001). High Literacy and Ethnic Identity: Dominican American Schooling in Transition. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7425-0005-1.

12. ^ "Estadísticas de peaje y tiempo de recorrido al 2013" [Statistics of tolls and times of route 2013] (PDF). Oficina para el Reordenamiento de Transporte (OPRET) (in Spanish). p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.

13. ^ "Metro de Santo Domingo establece récord en transporte de pasajeros en el 2018; Metro y Teleférico montan más de 89 millones usuarios". Armario Libre (in Spanish). Santo Domingo. 7 January 2019.

14. ^ "Memoria Anual, Agosto 2002-Agosto 2003" (PDF). Ayuntamiento del Distrito Nacional. pp. 66-67. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008.

15. ^ La Guardia y Santo Domingo, dos ciudades hermanas (Spanish) Archived 20 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine

16. ^ Online Directory: Dominican Republic, Caribbean Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI) Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine

Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America: a Geographic Perspective on 500 Years of History. Volume I - Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03882-8

Santo Domingo; Fragmentos De Patria by Banreservas ISBN 99934-898-1-6

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Santo Domingo ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈsanto ðoˈmiŋɡo] meaning " Saint Dominic"), once known as Santo Domingo de Guzmán and Ciudad Trujillo, is the capital and largest city of the Dominican Republic and the largest metropolitan area in the Caribbean by population.

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1820
Missouri is admitted into the union as a slave state while Maine is admitted as a free state.  The law determines that every state south of the 36º 30’ parallel line is a slave state, and any state above the 36º 30’ parallel is a free state.  This was created in order to maintain a balance between free and slave states in congress to prevent one sidenfrom overpowering the other.

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What Was the Missouri Compromise? | History

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"Goshen, child?  This ain't Goshen.  This is St. Petersburg.  Goshen's ten miles further up the river.  Who told you this was Goshen?" (Twain 61) Chapter XI (11).  This is when Huck starts his main adventure with Jim along the Mississippi River.

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Supreme Court, District of Columbia, DC, USA

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1857
The Dred Scott case is decided, ruling that African Americans and Slaves are property of their owners and therefore are not granted equal protections under the Constitution.

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What was the Dred Scott decision?

How did the Dred Scott decision contribute to the American Civil War?

How did the Dred Scott decision affect the election of 1860?

How is the Dred Scott decision remembered?

Dred Scott decision, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on March 6, 1857, ruled (7-2) that a slave ( Dred Scott) who had resided in a free state and territory (where slavery was prohibited) was not thereby entitled to his freedom; that African Americans were not and could never be citizens of the United States; and that the Missouri Compromise (1820), which had declared free all territories west of Missouri and north of latitude 36°30′, was unconstitutional. The decision added fuel to the sectional controversy and pushed the country closer to civil war.

Among constitutional scholars, Scott v. Sandford is widely considered the worst decision ever rendered by the Supreme Court. It has been cited in particular as the most egregious example in the court's history of wrongly imposing a judicial solution on a political problem. A later chief justice, Charles Evans Hughes, famously characterized the decision as the court's great "self-inflicted wound."

Background

Dred Scott was a slave who was owned by John Emerson of Missouri. In 1833 Emerson undertook a series of moves as part of his service in the U.S. military. He took Scott from Missouri (a slave state) to Illinois (a free state) and finally into the Wisconsin Territory (a free territory). During this period, Scott met and married Harriet Robinson, who became part of the Emerson household. Emerson married in 1838, and in the early 1840s he and his wife returned with the Scotts to Missouri, where Emerson died in 1843.

Scott reportedly attempted to purchase his freedom from Emerson's widow, who refused the sale. In 1846, with the help of antislavery lawyers, Harriet and Dred Scott filed individual lawsuits for their freedom in Missouri state court in St. Louis on the grounds that their residence in a free state and a free territory had freed them from the bonds of slavery. It was later agreed that only Dred's case would move forward; the decision in that case would apply to Harriet's case as well. Although the case was long thought to have been unusual, historians later demonstrated that several hundred suits for freedom were filed by or on behalf of slaves in the decades before the Civil War.

All-American History Quiz

Scott v. Emerson took years to be resolved. In 1850 the state court declared Scott free, but the verdict was reversed in 1852 by the Missouri Supreme Court (which thereby invalidated Missouri's long-standing doctrine of "once free, always free"). Emerson's widow then left Missouri and gave control of her late husband's estate to her brother, John F.A. Sanford, a resident of New York state (his last name was later incorrectly spelled Sandford on court documents). Because Sanford was not subject to suit in Missouri, Scott's lawyers filed a suit against him in U.S. district (federal) court, which found in Sanford's favour. The case eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which announced its decision in March 1857, just two days after the inauguration of Pres. James Buchanan.

The decision

Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney's opinion for the court was arguably the worst he ever wrote. He ignored precedent, distorted history, imposed a rigid rather than a flexible construction on the Constitution, ignored specific grants of power in the Constitution, and tortured meanings out of other, more-obscure clauses. His logic on the citizenship issue was perhaps the most convoluted. He admitted that African Americans could be citizens of a particular state and that they might even be able to vote, as they in fact did in some states. But he argued that state citizenship had nothing to do with national citizenship and that African Americans could not sue in federal court because they could not be citizens of the United States. Scott's suit, therefore, should have been dismissed for lack of jurisdiction by the district court. On this point, however, Taney stood on shaky constitutional ground: if even one state considered an African American a citizen, then the Constitution required that all states, and by inference also the federal government, had to accord that person "all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States" (Article IV, Section 2), which includes the right to sue in federal court. Furthermore, Article III, which establishes the jurisdiction of the federal courts, does not mention national citizenship but rather declares that "the judicial Power" shall extend, among other things, "to Controversies...between Citizens of different States" (the so-called "diversity jurisdiction").

Even with this weak argument, Taney could have been accused of nothing worse than faulty reasoning, if he had stopped there. If Scott was not a U.S. citizen, he could not sue in federal court, and the case would therefore have been improvidently granted. But Taney was determined to impose a judicial solution on the slavery controversy. Although later courts would adopt the policy of deciding constitutional questions on the narrowest possible grounds, the pre-Civil War courts often decided all issues that could support their rulings. Thus Taney continued, holding that Scott had never been free and that Congress had in fact exceeded its authority in the Missouri Compromise because it had no power to forbid or abolish slavery in the territories. The Missouri Compromise, which had served as the accepted constitutional settlement for nearly four decades, thus fell. Even the doctrine of popular sovereignty as articulated in the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-whereby the people of each federal territory would have the power to decide whether the territory would enter the Union as a free or a slave state-lacked constitutional legitimacy, according to Taney. He thus voided the principles of free soil (opposition to slavery in the territories and in newly admitted states), territorial sovereignty, and indeed every aspect of antislavery constitutional thought.

Regarding the question of Scott's freedom, Taney held that Scott could not claim to be free on the basis of his residence in Illinois or Wisconsin. Whatever status Scott might have had while in a free state or territory, he argued, once he had returned to Missouri his status depended entirely on local law, notwithstanding the doctrine of once free, always free.

Taney would have been on reasonably strong ground had he limited himself to upholding the district court's decision based on the idea that status was to be determined by the states. Alternatively, he could have held that Scott was not entitled to sue Sanford in federal court on the basis of diversity of jurisdiction, because Missouri did not allow even free African Americans to be citizens. But Taney outraged much of the North by asserting that African Americans could never be citizens of the United States. The framers, in his view, did not regard African Americans as being among the "people" for whose benefit and protection the new government was founded, notwithstanding the perfectly general language of the Declaration of Independence and of the preamble to the Constitution.

Two justices, John McLean of Ohio and Benjamin R. Curtis of Massachusetts, wrote devastating critiques of Taney's opinion. Curtis in particular undercut most of Taney's historical arguments, showing that African Americans had voted in a number of states at the founding. "At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation," he wrote:

All free native-born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.

Thus, Curtis argued, they were members of the nation and could not now be denied the right to claim citizenship.

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Dred Scott decision | Definition, History, Summary, Significance, & Facts

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Dred Scott decision, legal case (1857) in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (7-2) that a slave who had resided in a free state and territory was not thereby entitled to his freedom, that African Americans were not and could never be U.S. citizens, and that the Missouri Compromise (1820) was unconstitutional.

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1861
Capitol of the Confederate States after succession from the Union States.

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Confederate States of America - Wikipedia

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The Confederate States of America ( CSA or C.S.), commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was an unrecognized country in North America that existed from 1861 to 1865.

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The White House, Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest, Washington, DC, USA

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1863
The Emancipation Proclamation was signed by President Abraham Lincoln, emancipating the slaves, freeing them from southern slave laws/codes.