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Omar Habdou / Conversations on Learner Autonomy

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Omar Habdou / Conversations on Learner Autonomy

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Diana Morbedadze
 - "Guide to developing learner autonomy"

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Diana Morbedadze
 - "Guide to developing learner autonomy"

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http://up.wallwisher.net/20121114/032525c82b24e5abac08bfd4c0b07128.pdf

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Practical Ideas for the One Computer Classroom

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A very interesting TEDTalk on self-motivation.

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Increasing Student Success Through Instruction in Self-Determination (Chetra Chap)

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Increasing Student Success Through Instruction in Self-Determination (Chetra Chap)

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This research findings help with how to make students extremely motivated to learn in all levels.

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Increasing Student Success Through Instruction for Self-Determination

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Research shows the importance of self-determination (i.e., autonomy) for students in elementary school through college for enhancing learning and improving important post-school outcomes.

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26/01/2011 - Another great #ELTchat - Ways to develop learner autonomy - tips for learning outside class time.
"I never teach my students. I simply provide the situations in which they can learn." Einstein
Main goals:
* Make your students independent of the teacher
* Help the learner to become independent and become his/her own mentor
* provide students with the tools to be able to learn on their own
* make your students part of the decision making about classroom activities

The role of teacher in developing learner autonomy:
* model role
* moderator
* facilitator

How autonomy starts in classroom:
* Give them choice
* Show them ways of learning
* Use the learners' interest
* Talk about it in classroom

Here are the tips:
* show them how to learn (teach them also study skills), what suits them most and how to get most out of it
* Show learners ideas from your own learning (writing coloured words on papers, putting them on the walls). You can be a good role model for your students.
* suggest websites, radio stations anything that could be interesting and can motivate them to use these things outside classroom
* Films - discuss the films in classroom, watch film with/without subtitles, watch film in L1 and then in L2.
* Give them mLearning tech and tools
* Show them how to do things on the blog which they do at home (toondoo, embedding youtube,
* etc. ), create class blogs, yahoogroups
* Have your students set the objectives and then have them evaluate their progress
* Give them tools like spidergrams, guessing from context, train dictionary use
* Use student-generated content, peer pressure/role modeling
* Use self-access box in your classroom
* Do not let your course book limit you in developing learner autonomy - enrich, adapt, enliven it
* Tell your students about multitasking - learn while doing something else
* Show them the ways they can use course book at home (transcripts, grammar pages...)
* never do anything that you can get students to do
* Make your students think about why you do some activities in classroom, help them to become aware of the purpose
* Show them how they can use target language outside the classroom (where they can find it)
* Students' diaries/journals/audio diaries
* Give them feedback (more than correction)
* Be careful with homework - think how to present it (rather search/project/task like than exercise or a worksheet to fill in)
* Use readers, classroom library
* Encourage your students to make friends with other people using English for communication
* Record your students...and their progress
* Encourage students to use Google Docs as their online vocabulary notebooks
* Ask them to teach (what they have learned) someone else, family members, friends...
* Persuade your students to use their mobiles in English for a week or so... (switch to English where you can)

Useful web applications:
* Voicethread
* Vocaroo
* wikis
* Tutorials (http://www.teachertrainingvideos.com, http://technology4kids.pbworks.com/w/page/34922427/tutorials)
* Moodle
* Audio boo
Further reading/activities on Learners' Autonomy:
o lecture by Leni Dam on learner autonomy - http://tinyurl.com/6kptuek
o 40 odd websites to learn outside the classroom - http://bit.ly/ij78i2
o A lesson by @sabridv where students take over the teaching for a day - http://bit.ly/gOuNa7
o http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/Elp_tt/Results/DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pdf
o http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html
o I have also blogged about the stuff related to learners' autonomy so if you are interested you can find it here: http://vladimiramichalkova.edublogs.org/2010/12/05/confidence-in-classroom/
o http://vladimiramichalkova.edublogs.org/2010/02/26/looking-for-motivation-outside-the-classroom/
o Learner Autonomy - a guide to developing learner responsibility (Agota Scharle and Anita Szabo), Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers
o Holec, one of the main sources of inspiration for LA http://tinyurl.com/6kerkl4
o some free books with audio recordings on http://bit.ly/7VlZnZ

Thanks for great, inspiring and motivational #ELTchat. You can join the chat on Twitter every Wednesday!

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#ELTchat - Ways to develop learner autonomy - tips for learning outside class time

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26/01/2011 - Another great #ELTchat - Ways to develop learner autonomy - tips for learning outside class time. "I never teach my students. I simply provide the situations in which they can learn."

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By Sanaa Jai Amrani

Morocco World News

Fez, March 26, 2013

Recently, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have become important concepts in the field of education. The former has become a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991:2). Autonomous learning is a technical jargon in education that means assuming responsibility and taking charge of one's own learning. In this article, the focal interest is on defining learners' autonomy, stating and explaining learning strategies and the factors that contribute to the achievement of learners' independence as well as its implications.

Learning autonomy is differently referred to as Sinclair (2001) argues: "independent learning, lifelong learning, learning to learn, and thinking skills." Learners' autonomy is defined by Holec (1981) as: "The ability to take charge of one's own learning [...] this ability is not in- born but must be acquired either by 'natural' means or by formal learning [...]. To take charge of one's learning is to have [...] the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning" (Holec, 1981: 103). It is clear from this definition that autonomy is acquired not only in formal settings but also in mere exposure to informal context, streets, house, and cyber coffees for instance. According to Holec, taking charge of one's learning requires having the ability to take decisions regarding learning. It is safe to say that learners' autonomy is the ability and the partial responsibility to take charge of one's own learning and to have the ability to independently make decisions and to critically reflect on different issues.

In order for autonomy in the learning process to be achieved, there are conditions to be considered. Attaining independence in learning is not arbitrary; hence it necessitates respecting some measures. The conditions mentioned earlier include a set of strategies for autonomous learning. There are two types of strategies: language use strategies and language learning strategies. Cohen and Dornyei (2002) have defined the former as: "strategies for using the language that has been learned;" whereas the latter is considered to be the "conscious and semi-conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language" (Cohen & Dornyei, 2002: 178). Regarding this type of strategies Cohen and Dornyei (2002) have distinguished four main learning strategies: communication strategies, cognitive/ meta-cognitive and social strategies, skill area strategies, and self motivation strategies.

Communication strategies are aiding devices used to help learners overcome any communicative obstacle. Henceforth, Communication strategies have been considered as "the verbal (or non verbal) first aid devices which may be used to deal with problems or break-downs in communication," (Cohen &Dornyei, 2002: 179). These "devices" are helping tools for students to be active participants in a given communicative situation.

As far as the cognitive, meta-cognitive, affective and social strategies, they are seen as an approach to categorizing strategies. They categorize the learners into four groups: cognitive, Meta-cognitive, affective or social (Chamot, 1987, Oxford, 1990).

O'Malley and Chamot (1990) have defined Cognitive strategies as strategies that "operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990:44). In other words, this category covers the process through which students go in their learning of the target language as well as the process of its use.

Whereas meta-cognitive strategies are defined by Cook (1993) as: "strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves" (Cook, 1993: 114). The learners who belong to this category are known for the self identification of their objectives and goals; they also determine how to achieve these goals. Meta-cognitive strategies are concerned to be "processes that allow learners to control their own cognition by planning what they will do, checking how it is going and then evaluating how it went," (Cohen & Dornyei, 2002:.181).

The last strategies in this category are: affective and social strategies. Affective strategies "serve to regulate emotions, motivation and attitudes" (ibid: 181); whereas social categories are "actions which learners choose to take in order to interact with other learners and with native speakers" (ibid: 181). Moreover, some learning strategies are classified according to skill areas which include not only receptive and productive skills, but also vocabulary learning and translation which cross-cut the four skills.

Still, the students' learning process is influenced by certain "social and psychological factors" as indicated by Shumann (1987); these factors provide an adequate description for the learners' personal reaction to the learning process. There are many factors that help the students to be able to overcome their learning impediments; among which we can name: self-esteem and the learning desire, attitudes and motivation.

Attitude is frequently used in the context of education. It has been defined by Wenden (1998) as: "learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding" (Wenden, 1998: 52). She argues that there are two distinguished types of attitudes: attitudes that the learners hold about their role in the learning process and attitudes about the students' capability as learners (ibid: 53). Differently explained, students believe that learners have different cognitive capacities, in the sense that some of them can acquire a language easily while others cannot. If a learner has a positive attitude to learn a language his/her motivation is increased unconsciously and vice versa.

As far as motivation is concerned, it is agreed upon the fact that it is one of the key factors that influences the learners' rate of success in learning a second or a foreign language. In different ways and degrees, people are highly motivated to learn languages in general. Motivation is of two types: instrumental and integrative. Instrumental motivation as explained by Gardner & Maclntyre (1993) is "when the target language performs as a "monetary incentive"" (Gardner & Maclmtyre, 1993: 3). In other words, when the learners consider the foreign language as a way to find a job; whereas, integrative motivation is the fact of being interested in knowing the culture of the target language and becoming integral parts of that culture. Scarcella & Oxford (1992) have defined integrative motivation as: "the desire to learn a language so as to integrate oneself with the target culture" (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992: 52).

The concept of self esteem is related to both attitude and motivation. Generally, it is a judgment that the learner himself or herself makes with regard to the learning of a second language or learning in general. According to Scarcella & Oxford (1992), self esteem is defined as "a self judgment of worth or value, based on feelings of efficacy" (ibid: 57). Teachers are supposed to help their student feel good about themselves in order to help them increase their self esteem. There are two types of students: students with high self esteem and students with low self esteem, and these two categories of students are different in terms of language learning. The former category shows high qualities and abilities in the process of language learning unlike the latter.

There are many ways to make students lifelong learners and autonomous. In higher education, normally teachers give in the exam choices; they ask the students questions like: write about one topic from a number of choices. This is the case again in high schools, teachers provide their students with choices especially in the follow up; hence, they, for example, ask them to do activity number one or two. This gives the student the right to choose and reflect on their own interest and preferences. It is important to give the students opportunities to work in pairs and in groups. Working in groups makes the learners feel independent and active actors free from the teacher's control and learn from one another. The students can positively contribute to classroom activities and make the learning process meaningful through sharing thoughts, experiences, and ideas.

Fostering learners' autonomy is a desired goal. It is significant to help the learners becoming independent. Of course, there are many ways that can lead to students' learning independence. Promoting autonomous learning abilities is not a matter of letting the students work alone, it is in fact a teacher's responsibility to develop skills that can help learners step towards autonomy and become responsible for their learning and gain the ability to put into practice the acquired skills in different learning situations. Learners' autonomy cannot be achieved easily, but, it is a long road that needs patience; teachers are supposed to be aware that it is hard for them to have autonomous learners. It is a long process that needs fortitude, time, energy and motivation.
References:
Brown, H.D. (1987), Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, New Jersey

Chamot, A. U. (1987) The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. Learner Strategies in Language learning. Prentice- Hall, 71-84

Cohen, D. A.& Dornyei, Z. (2002), Focus on the Language Learner: Motivation, Styles and Strategies: An Introduction to Applied linguistics, Oxford University Press

Cook, V. (1993) Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. London: Macmillian

Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamo

O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. V. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition

Scarcella, R. C. & Oxford, L. R. (1992) The Tapestry of Language Learning, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Schumann, J. H. (1978). Social and Psychological Factors in Second Language Acquisition: Understanding Second and Foreign Language Learning, P. 163-178, Newburg House.

Wenden, A. 1998. Learners Strategies for Learnerns' Autonomy. Great Britain: Prentice Hall

http: // itselj.org/ Articles/thomasoulas- Autonomy. htm

http: //ilearn. 20m/research/zuinde.htm
© Morocco World News. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, rewritten or redistributed
Join the Conversation. What do you think?

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By Sanaa Jai Amrani Morocco World News Fez, March 26, 2013 Recently, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have become important concepts in the field of education. The former has become a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991:2).

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Janet Hardy-Gould, a teacher, teacher trainer and materials writer, discusses how to encourage learner autonomy in the higher education classroom.
Learner autonomy is when students take control and responsibility for their own learning, both in terms of what they learn and how they learn it. It takes as its starting point the idea that students are capable of self-direction and are able to develop an independent, proactive approach to their studies.

In the field of higher education, learner autonomy is particularly important. Students may have limited classroom contact time for learning English but they may need to rapidly increase their knowledge and skills. It is therefore important for them to become self-reliant language learners who can continue learning efficiently outside the classroom.

At the heart of autonomous learning is the student's perception of their own role as a learner. Classroom discussion and one-to-one conversations with the teacher can help students to understand the essential part that they play in their own success in English. Establish that autonomous, dynamic students have the potential to learn far more than passive, reactive learners. Self-reliant students can address their own individual needs and make ongoing progress.

Autonomy involves students having a range of learning strategies which they are able to apply flexibly in different contexts. Teachers can help students to develop learning strategies through learner training in the classroom and this can take many forms. One important practical step is awareness-raising on how to use self-reference tools such as English-English dictionaries and grammar books.

In the early stages of a course it is useful to demonstrate as a class how to use such resources effectively. For example, when reading a text in lessons, encourage students to choose a small number of new words which they are unable to deduce from context. Ask them to look up the words in an English-English dictionary. If there is more than one entry for the word, discuss which one is the correct meaning for that context. Use the opportunity to highlight the rich range of information found in a dictionary such as pronunciation and word class.

Encourage students to capitalize on their dictionary work by selecting and noting down any useful words in a personalised vocabulary book or list. Set students homework tasks such as reading a text of their choice and researching a limited number of words in an English-English dictionary. Encourage them to reflect on the process in class. This can help students to transfer skills beyond the classroom and become more resourceful and autonomous learners.
Janet Hardy-Gould is a materials writer, teacher and teacher-trainer who has been in the field of English language teaching for over twenty years. She has worked for a range of ELT organizations and now teaches periodically at the University of Sussex in England. Her interests include the development of engaging reading materials for teenage and adult learners and she has written over twenty-five ELT books for OUP, including graded readers, resource books, and workbooks.

Categories: Adults / Young Adults, Dictionaries & Reference, Professional Development | Tags: Autonomous learning, Dictionaries, Higher education, Janet Hardy-Gould, Language learning, Learner autonomy, Learning strategies | Permalink.

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Janet Hardy-Gould, a teacher, teacher trainer and materials writer, discusses how to encourage learner autonomy in the higher education classroom. Learner autonomy is when students take control and responsibility for their own learning, both in terms of what they learn and how they learn it. It takes as its starting point the idea that students...

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"The computer, as a tool to facilitate instruction, can then be a treasure to have in the classroom and not just a reward!"

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" It’s perfect for brainstorming and collaborative work, or just as a simple presentation tool for collating links, text and pictures"

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One of our favourite online tools is Wallwisher, which we've written about before. It's a simple site that requires no login, and allows anyone to add sticky notes to a virtual wall. It's perfect for brainstorming and collaborative work, or just as a simple presentation tool for collating links, text and pictures. But good news has come through recently that Wallwisher has become so much more. The site has a range of new features that make it even more useful without sacrificing ease of use. With these changes comes a new name- now the site is known as Padlet.

The new features mean that walls can be created with a number of new layouts and backgrounds. There are a range of options for group collaboration and visibility of walls. You can create walls that are completely open or you can choose to moderate comments before they are posted. Walls can also be password protected for an extra layer of security. One great aspect of Padlet is that you don't need to have an account to create or contribute to a wall, though if you want to create a number of walls then having an account is a good way to keep them organised. To find all of the customisation and sharing options, create a new wall and then select the cog icon that appears on the right hand menu.

Other new features include an option to have each new post on a wall appear in a stream (rather than the default layout that has notes spread randomly over a wall). As Richard Byrne points out at his fantastic Free Technology 4 Teachers blog, this feature means that Padlet could be used as an easy way to set up a simple blog for a student or group. Richard is obviously a big fan of Padlet, as he's also posted about the handy new feature that allows the content of a wall to be exported as a PDF or an Excel file (on a side note, Richard's blog is well worth following if you don't already). Padlet also allows for some rather complex functions, such as the ability to add mathematical formulas using LaTeX codes.

In a time where we are seeing a number of tools closing down, it's great to see a site like Padlet actually gaining useful features. There is actually a fascinating story behind the development of the site, and it augers well that the developers have plans for improving Padlet even more. They've certainly taken great strides with recent updates, as Padlet retains all of the charm and ease of use of Wallwisher, but adds some very handy new features that makes it an invaluable tool.

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One of our favourite online tools is Wallwisher, which we've written about before. It's a simple site that requires no login, and allows anyone to add sticky notes to a virtual wall. It's perfect for brainstorming and collaborative work, or just as a simple presentation tool for collating links, text and pictures.

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I share a website link with a lesson which shows why it is a good idea for learners to be autonomous and suggests ways that you can help them achieve this. The lesson has four tasks and Task 4 introduces some strategies for learner autonomy which are best taught in class and in one-on-one counseling sessions. Check them out!

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Mariale/ Different types of learners:: Rainman: visual, Kung-Fu Panda: kinesthetic & My Fair Lady:auditory   - video. 

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Mariale/ Different types of learners:: Rainman: visual, Kung-Fu Panda: kinesthetic & My Fair Lady:auditory   - video. 

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Mariale/ Types of learning. On our role as guides to our students on the path to autonomy, one of our task should be to help them identify how to become a better learner. In this sense, it is important to know if your student has an  auditory, visual, or kinesthetic learning style. Read more on this link!

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Mariale/ Types of learning. On our role as guides to our students on the path to autonomy, one of our task should be to help them identify how to become a better learner. In this sense, it is important to know if your student has an  auditory, visual, or kinesthetic learning style. Read more on this link!

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Learning styles are often categorized and explained in the following way:

Visual: You learn well when aided by images, pictures, and spatial organization of elements

Auditory: You learn well when aided by music, sound, rhyme, rhythm, speaking or listening

Reading/Writing: You learn well by reading or writing the material you want to learn

Kinesthetic: You learn well when you can move your body, and/or use your hands and sense of touch. Writing or drawing diagrams are physical activities that can fall into this category as well.

These categories of learning styles were identified by Dr. Neil Fleming in the late '80s, and represent The VARK model of learning styles. Other educators and researchers have identified additional learning styles, with some models showing as many as 70 different styles.

Critics of the learning style models

The idea of learning styles came about as a way of explaining a legitimate dilemma in the classroom, which is the fact that in the context of any given teaching style, curriculum, or effort, some students learn and some do not. Larry Spence, in his article " Getting Over Learning Styles," explains: "Every teacher encounters students who seem to learn in unexpected ways. Every student sometimes gets stumped by methods that work for everybody else...Neuroscientists agree that every brain is unique-more singular in structure than DNA or fingerprints."

Part of the criticism of learning styles has to do with the fact that we can't say for sure what makes up individual styles. It may be a preference, but why? Is the driving factor biological? Psychological? Habit?
Contributing to the debate is research indicating that there is no real evidence showing that academic outcomes are improved when learning styles are accommodated in the classroom.

Learning styles and cognitive strengths and weaknesses

It's possible that learning styles can be explained and understood by considering the key role played by cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Cognitive skills are the core skills the brain uses to think and learn, and explain why some students struggle to learn in various settings. Cognitive strengths and weaknesses can even explain learning style preferences.

Cognitive profiles vary greatly person-to-person. For example, look at the differences in these cognitive profiles:

Here we can see the cognitive performance of three different students, in the areas of memory, visual processing, logic & reasoning, processing speed, auditory processing and word-attack (two skills that are critical for reading success).
The differences in cognitive performance play a huge role in learning preferences. For example, it makes sense that someone with strong auditory processing and word-attack skills might learn exceptionally well through reading, while someone who struggles with reading as a result of weak auditory processing and word-attack skills would prefer to learn kinesthetically or audibly.

Learning styles, cognitive skills, and brain training

Cognitive training, also known as brain training, is a method by which cognitive weaknesses can be strengthened. Brain training, when done one-on-one with a trainer, uses intense mental exercise to target and strengthen skills that aren't performing as well as desired.

In the chart below, you can see the improvements that brain training made in the cognitive performance of 17,998 children and adults.* You'll also see that IQ improved after brain training. The scores are represented in percentiles, which show where someone ranks compared to 100 of their peers.

*These are the results of past clients. To learn more about brain training results, visitwww.learningrx.com/results and download the full report.
If you or someone you love is struggling with learning, reading, attention, or memory, you can at least find out why. The first step is to take a Cognitive Skills Assessment to identify weak cognitive skills. If weak cognitive skills are at the root of struggles with learning or life, brain training may offer a life changing solution.

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Learning styles are often categorized and explained in the following way: Visual: You learn well when aided by images, pictures, and spatial organization of elements Auditory: You learn well when aided by music, sound, rhyme, rhythm, speaking or listening Reading/Writing: You learn well by reading or writing the material you want to learn Kinesthetic: You learn well when you can move your body, and/or use your hands and sense of touch.

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Janet Hardy-Gould, a teacher, teacher trainer and materials writer, discusses how to encourage learner autonomy in the higher education classroom.

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Janet Hardy-Gould, a teacher, teacher trainer and materials writer, discusses how to encourage learner autonomy in the higher education classroom.
Learner autonomy is when students take control and responsibility for their own learning, both in terms of what they learn and how they learn it. It takes as its starting point the idea that students are capable of self-direction and are able to develop an independent, proactive approach to their studies.

In the field of higher education, learner autonomy is particularly important. Students may have limited classroom contact time for learning English but they may need to rapidly increase their knowledge and skills. It is therefore important for them to become self-reliant language learners who can continue learning efficiently outside the classroom.

At the heart of autonomous learning is the student's perception of their own role as a learner. Classroom discussion and one-to-one conversations with the teacher can help students to understand the essential part that they play in their own success in English. Establish that autonomous, dynamic students have the potential to learn far more than passive, reactive learners. Self-reliant students can address their own individual needs and make ongoing progress.

Autonomy involves students having a range of learning strategies which they are able to apply flexibly in different contexts. Teachers can help students to develop learning strategies through learner training in the classroom and this can take many forms. One important practical step is awareness-raising on how to use self-reference tools such as English-English dictionaries and grammar books.

In the early stages of a course it is useful to demonstrate as a class how to use such resources effectively. For example, when reading a text in lessons, encourage students to choose a small number of new words which they are unable to deduce from context. Ask them to look up the words in an English-English dictionary. If there is more than one entry for the word, discuss which one is the correct meaning for that context. Use the opportunity to highlight the rich range of information found in a dictionary such as pronunciation and word class.

Encourage students to capitalize on their dictionary work by selecting and noting down any useful words in a personalised vocabulary book or list. Set students homework tasks such as reading a text of their choice and researching a limited number of words in an English-English dictionary. Encourage them to reflect on the process in class. This can help students to transfer skills beyond the classroom and become more resourceful and autonomous learners.
Janet Hardy-Gould is a materials writer, teacher and teacher-trainer who has been in the field of English language teaching for over twenty years. She has worked for a range of ELT organizations and now teaches periodically at the University of Sussex in England. Her interests include the development of engaging reading materials for teenage and adult learners and she has written over twenty-five ELT books for OUP, including graded readers, resource books, and workbooks.

Categories: Adults / Young Adults, Dictionaries & Reference, Professional Development | Tags: Autonomous learning, Dictionaries, Higher education, Janet Hardy-Gould, Language learning, Learner autonomy, Learning strategies | Permalink.

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Janet Hardy-Gould, a teacher, teacher trainer and materials writer, discusses how to encourage learner autonomy in the higher education classroom. Learner autonomy is when students take control and responsibility for their own learning, both in terms of what they learn and how they learn it. It takes as its starting point the idea that students...

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How to Thrive -- Not Just Survive -- in a One-Computer Classroom

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Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool. Included: Strategies that work!

"I find it's kind of like having some candy but not enough for everyone."

That's how Phyllis Stallworth, a fourth-grade teacher at Little Oak Elementary (Slidell, Louisiana) describes life in her one-computer classroom. "Writing a story or working on a project can take forever if the person on the computer works very slowly," Stallworth tells Education World.

It's not that Stallworth doesn't have technology skills. It's not that she doesn't want to make good use of that single computer by her desk. "I know enough to do something exciting with the computer, but sometimes I find it's more of a hassle than it's worth," says Stallworth.

Stallworth is not alone!

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES THAT WORK

Bottlenecks are sure to occur in a one-computer classroom, but teachers can keep them to a minimum with careful management strategies.

In many classrooms, the single computer is relegated to the back wall. But Joan Peebles, a technology coordinator in Madison, Wisconsin, has a different idea. Be sure to place the computer in an easily accessible and easily supervised place, she recommends. Also, keep the computer away from direct sunlight, water, magnets, and chalk dust.

Another strategy is to create "stations" or multiple activities, using the computer as only one of the tools necessary to complete assignments. Students can conduct research not only on the Internet but also through interviews and in bound encyclopedias, magazines, and books. Every 15 to 20 minutes, students rotate from one station to another.

If the computer is used as a station, a strategy for moving students through that station is a necessity. Following are some possible traffic strategies:

Post a schedule. Allow a set amount of time for each student at the computer station. Students are responsible for getting to the station at the appointed time.

Draw Popsicle sticks. Write each student's name on a Popsicle stick. Place the can of Popsicle sticks at the computer station. Draw a stick at the start of the day. The person whose name is on the stick will start the day at the station. That student will draw a stick to determine who goes next.

Establish color-coded groups. Divide the class into five groups. Write the names of each group on a different sheet of colored paper, and post the papers by the computer station. The students in each group will spend time at the computer on a given day (for example, the students in the red group will have computer time on Mondays). The students within a group will go to the computer in assigned or random order.

ADDITIONAL STRATEGIES

Many teachers in one-computer classrooms project the computer screen onto a larger screen that the entire class can see. However, when using such devices with small screens, you may find distortion; 32-inch or larger screens seem to work best for Internet displays.

Other teachers encourage students to quickly print articles and read them at their desks while different students use the computer for new tasks. Though this rapid race to print may result in printing some articles that are unneeded, teachers find toner and paper much less expensive than additional computers.

Still others borrow computers, use the computer lab, ask if a student can work quietly on an unused computer in another teacher's room, or provide alternate times during which students can access the computer -- before school, at lunch, during recess, or after school.

Many teachers are scroungers! And scrounging often results in locating additional computers! Sometimes those computers are old ones that don't have all the bells and whistles -- but they can be fine for word processing. Newer computers can be used for Internet access or multimedia projects that require high-speed modems or special features.

If one computer is all you have, what are the minimum feature requirements for that computer? In order to serve a classroom full of students well, SouthEast Initiatives Regional Technology in Education Consortium technology consultant Donna Ashmus suggests that a computer in today's classroom include a word processor, CD encyclopedia, multimedia presentation software, spreadsheet or graphing software, a Web browser, and an e-mail program. Some content-specific software would be nice too, Ashmus adds.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING ARE ESSENTIAL

"In a one-computer classroom, it is imperative to plan carefully and be extremely organized," cautions Lynne Heller, a teacher at P.S. 64 in Queens, New York. "I make sure each child knows exactly what to do. If writing, students complete a rough draft in their journals first. I provide step-by-step instructions and samples of the work to be completed. I really prepare those kids before they even get to the computer.

"With so much time between assigning an activity and everyone completing it, I use checklists to monitor completed assignments," adds Heller.

As sponsor of the school newspaper at Northshore High School (Slidell, Louisiana), journalism teacher Kathleen Modenbach has found planning and organization of paramount importance. But she has benefited from a little extra help too.

"I recruited people from outside the school!" she explains to Education World. "Although I used trained 'experts' from the class and paired experienced students with ones new to technology use, I also recruited tech-savvy parents and volunteers to help me. It made my life so much easier."

ACTIVITIES FOR A ONE-COMPUTER CLASSROOM

After exploring management strategies and computer placement, what can you actually do with one computer in the classroom? "My favorite computer-related experience was the first Internet project I ever ran myself," sixth-grade teacher Jane Scaplen tells Education World.

"My students created sets of five clues leading to the identity of a figure of importance in Canadian history and sent them via e-mail, one clue a day for five days," said Scaplen, who teaches at Sacred Heart Elementary School in Marystown, Newfoundland. "Classes in other parts of the world tried to identify the figure in as few clues as possible. We sent our clues at 8:15, just before classes started in the morning, but students in France did not receive them until they returned from lunch and those in British Columbia were still in bed -- a little lesson for my students on the effects of the rotation of Earth and time zones!

"Don't feel you need to know everything to get started," she continues. "There's always someone who's willing to give you a hand -- even if it's a virtual one!"

Instructional technologist Karen Cole offers additional suggestions, such as having a student check the weather forecast at weather.com and e-mail it to the school principal, who can announce it before school ends so everyone will know how to dress the next day.

STILL MORE SUGGESTIONS

Article by Glori Chaika
Education World®
Copyright © Education World

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One Computer in Your Classroom? | Education World

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Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool.

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learner autonomy:

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Modeled after self-directed learning assumptions referenced in Self-Directed Learning by Malcolm Knowles. Presentation for Applying Andragogical Principles to Online Learning, Lindenwood University. Instructors: Drs Susan Isenberg and John Henschke

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learner autonomy:

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Modeled after self-directed learning assumptions referenced in Self-Directed Learning by Malcolm Knowles. Presentation for Applying Andragogical Principles to Online Learning, Lindenwood University. Instructors: Drs Susan Isenberg and John Henschke

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"When students are authentically engaged in meaningful, quality work, the likelihood for them to learn something new and to remember what was learned increases"

Following you will find some interesting articles regarding learner autonomy:

Student Engagement and Its Relation to Quality Work Design: A Review of the Literature

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/are/ebowenLitReview.pdf#page=11

Self-Directed Learning. ERIC Digest
http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/self.htm

Approaches to learner autonomy in language learning
http://www.slideshare.net/irwyn12/approaches-to-learner-autonomy-in-language-learning-presentation-786825

Learner autonomy and self-assessment: Indispensable tools for successful learning
http://authenticteaching.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/new-routes-learner-autonomy-and-self-assessment.pdf

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This study reports on teacher beliefs and reported practices regarding learner autonomy.

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A nice reflection on learner autonomy considered as a journey to freedom while minding others' advices and experiences.

http://www.slideshare.net/hayoreinders/learner-autonomy-faq

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The article is about CALL and the Teacher's Role in Promoting Learner Autonomy

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CALL and the Teacher's Role in Promoting Learner Autonomy - CALL-EJ Online

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In the last decade high technology, notably in the form of computers, has established a powerful presence in foreign and second language pedagogy. A common justification for the use of computers in language teaching and learning is that is that it is said to promote learner autonomy, which researchers and practitioners alike now set as a very important goal.

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Self-directed Learning and Autonomy for Tech-savvy Students

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Self-directed Learning and Autonomy for Tech-savvy Students

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This is an address I prepared for the 2011 meeting of the Ozarks Foreign Language Association. It deals with the expanding role of technology in language teaching, including the online delivery of course content. I encourage instructors to use online resources as a means of giving students more autonomy and responsibility for their own learning.

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Prezi presentation includes information and some activities that can enable to promote learner autonomy.

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© 2022 Prezi Inc. Terms & Privacy Policy

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learners' autonomy WHAT IS LEARNER AUTONOMY? a fashion a need a teaching/learning trend a myth magic a miracle (Benson ad Voller, 1997:2) * for situations in which learners study entirely on their own * for a set of skills which can be learnt and applied in self-directed learning

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Learner Autonomy by teacher Dorte Asmussen

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The article is about promoting learner autonomy through communication strategy training

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Kathleen M. Bailey's session approaches the topic of learner autonomy in the contexts of conversations in the target language. In order to get input, experience interaction, and produce conversational output, second language learners need to participate in sustained conversations. However, speaking a new language entails taking risks - and that's where communications strategies come into play.

About the presenter:

Kathleen M. Bailey is professor of applied linguistics at the Monterey Institute of International Studies and a professor in the TESOL Masters Program at Anaheim University as well as Chair of the TIRF Board of Trustees and President of the foundation. She has served on the TIRF Board of Trustees since 2000. She received her M.A. in TESOL and her Ph.D. from the University of California, Los Angeles. Dr. Bailey has worked with language teachers in Australia, Brazil, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Italy, Spain, Uruguay, Poland, Argentina, Brazil, Thailand, Trinidad, Czechoslovakia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and the U.S. In 1998-99 she was the president of TESOL. She is the recipient of numerous awards for services to teaching.

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Promoting learner autonomy through communication strategy training

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kathleen M. Bailey's session approaches the topic of learner autonomy in the contexts of conversations in the target language. In order to get input, experience interaction, and produce conversational output, second language learners need to participate in sustained conversations. However, speaking a new language entails taking risks - and that's where communications strategies come into play.

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/A Model for autonomous language learning at university level.

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/A Model for autonomous language learning at university level.

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A Model for autonomous language learning at university level. When it comes to training student teachers for learner autonomy, overcoming their reservations about the drastic change in the role of the teacher is certainly one of the greatest challenges.

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/Skype...a tool for autonomous learning

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/Skype...a tool for autonomous learning

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/Exercise of Learner Autonomy in Project-Oriented CALL

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Viktoriya Lyamzina/Exercise of Learner Autonomy in Project-Oriented CALL

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Exercise of Learner Autonomy in Project-Oriented CALL - CALL-EJ Online

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Increasingly, the use of modern technology is coupled with cooperative approaches to learning. The question is how technology affects the exercise of learner autonomy. By presenting evidence of critical incidents and learners' reactions, this article describes how technology-related factors such as computer literacy and beliefs in CALL have affected individual learner's autonomous learning in a Project-Oriented Computer Assisted Language Learning (PrOCALL).

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Yu-Zhen/Developing Responsible and Autonomous Learners: A Key to Motivating Students

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Yu-Zhen/Developing Responsible and Autonomous Learners: A Key to Motivating Students

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I share an article I found from the Internet:

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Developing Responsible and Autonomous Learners: A Key to Motivating Students

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Research has shown that motivation is related to whether or not students have opportunities to be autonomous and to make important academic choices.

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Promoting learner autonomy through the curriculum: principles for designing language courses. Sara Cotterall.

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Younes El mjebed / Classroom Observation: Student Autonomy

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Younes El mjebed / Classroom Observation: Student Autonomy

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Classroom Management Strategies To Take Control Of Noisy Students

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Former School Improvement Network Channel

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http://www.timbedley.com Tim Bedley's 4/5 combo class. Classroom footage showing how students can do much more to facilitate learning than most people think they can! Watch Oscar, a 5th grade EL student, lead the class in a variety of learning activities.

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Natalya Gulivets / Learner Autonomy and Motivation

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Natalya Gulivets / Learner Autonomy and Motivation

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Learner autonomy and motivation are two unseparable issues. I became interested in this combination and found more research papers devoted to this problem. Here I share some links with you:

Motivation and Learner Autonomy: Activities to Encourage an Independent Study:

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Nowlan-Autonomy.html

Methods and Materals for Motivation and Learner Autonomy:

http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/publications/WachobVol5.pdf

The Influence of Learner Motivation on Developing Autonomous Learning in an English-for-Specific-Purposes Course:

http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/thesis_lai_conttia.pdf

An Investigation into the Relationship between Learner Autonomy Support and Students Motivation in the Japanese University Setting:

http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/3261/1/Okazaki11PhD.pdf

Cultivating More Autonomous, Motivated Learners:

http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog/cultivating-more-autonomous-motivated-learners/

Of course, there are a lot more papers on this topic but the above links are a good place to start.

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Learner autonomy | ELT Journal | Oxford Academic

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The idea of learner autonomy is not new, but it has been widely referred to in the field of ELT only over the last decade. Previously, terms referring more dire

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Omar Habdou/ Pilgrimage achieving learning autonomy

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Omar Habdou/ Pilgrimage achieving learning autonomy

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A keynote presentation explaining the role of teachers in helping to develop autonomous learners through the role played by resources they deploy, their curriculum plan and the assessment techniques they use and well as their teaching methods.

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Younes El mjebed / Roles of Teachers in On-line Autonomous Learning Based on Learner’s Expectation

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Younes El mjebed / Roles of Teachers in On-line Autonomous Learning Based on Learner’s Expectation

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E-mail me: ahern2learn@gmail.com Watch out for my blog. Coming soon. Learner Autonomy by Jim Ahern. Kilkenny, Ireland.

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What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered?

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What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered?

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Article (Juan)

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulas
akasa74 [at] hotmail.com

1. Introduction

Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2). It is a truism that one of the most important spin-offs of more communicatively oriented language learning and teaching has been the premium placed on the role of the learner in the language learning process (see Wenden, 1998: xi). It goes without saying, of course, that this shift of responsibility from teachers to learners does not exist in a vacuum, but is the result of a concatenation of changes to the curriculum itself towards a more learner-centred kind of learning. What is more, this reshaping, so to speak, of teacher and learner roles has been conducive to a radical change in the age-old distribution of power and authority that used to plague the traditional classroom. Cast in a new perspective and regarded as having the 'capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4), learners, autonomous learners, that is, are expected to assume greater responsibility for, and take charge of, their own learning. However, learner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language learning process. In the present study, it will be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to 'educational interventions' (Candy, 1991), rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all. Besides, what permeates this study is the belief that 'in order to help learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use' (Holmes & Ramos, 1991, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 198). At any rate, individual learners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varying degrees of independence throughout their lives (Tumposky, 1982).

2. What is Autonomy?

For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 1) who describes it as 'the ability to take charge of one's learning'. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 2):

for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;

for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning;

for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education;

for the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning;

for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.

It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as 'independence' (Sheerin, 1991), 'language awareness' (Lier, 1996;James & Garrett, 1991), 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991), 'andragogy' (Knowles, 1980; 1983 etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. Let us review some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, in David Little's terms, learner autonomy is 'essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4). It is not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another teaching method (ibid.). In the same vein, Leni Dam (1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 16), drawing upon Holec (1983), defines autonomy in terms of the learner's willingness and capacity to control or oversee her own learning. More specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation.
To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-) active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992; Knowles, 1975). As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory of constructivism. For Rathbone (1971: 100, 104, cited in Candy, 1991: 271), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world.

Within such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; 'it is a constructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from (or even imposing meaning on) events' (Candy, 1991: 271).

Such "inventories" of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to the "autonomous learner" encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) likens the autonomous learner to one '[w]hose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles--[and who engages in a] still-continuing process of criticism and re-evaluation', while Rousseau ([1762] 1911, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) regards the autonomous learner as someone who 'is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself'. Within the context of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (see Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998: 41-42):

1. Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies;

2. take an active approach to the learning task at hand;

3. are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs;

4. are good guessers;

5. attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriacy;

6. develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and

7. have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language.

Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points briefly touched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of learner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learning strategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. For example, the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regarded as autonomous, while points 4) and 7) pertain to learner motivation. In view of this, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parameters affecting, and interfering with, learners' self-image as well as their capacity and will to learn. It is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. One does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. One corollary of viewing autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy 'is learned at least partly through educational experiences [and interventions]' (Candy, 1991: 115). But prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the extent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal are all too often 'based on [and thus constrained by] particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself' (Benson, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 20).
3. Learner Autonomy and Dominant Philosophies of Learning

In this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly discussed, with a view to examining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy. Positivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the assumption that knowledge reflects objective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said to hold this "objective reality," learning can only 'consist--in the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). Congruent with this view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the "traditional classroom," where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as 'container[s] to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers' (ibid.). On the other hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is attained by dint of the 'hypothesis-testing' model, and that it is more effectively acquired when 'it is discovered rather than taught' (ibid.) (my italics). It takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and is inextricably related to self-direction and self-evaluation.

Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associated with Halliday (1979, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 21). As Candy (1991: 254) observes, '[o]ne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, or construe, the perplexing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselves caught up'. In contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather than internalising or discovering objective knowledge (whatever that might mean), individuals reorganise and restructure their experience. In Candy's terms (Candy, 1991: 270), constructivism 'leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (that is, constructed)', because knowledge is something 'built up by the learner' (von Glasersfeld & Smock, 1974: xvi, cited in Candy, 1991: 270). By the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own experience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and extends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain to learners' behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self-concept (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 23). As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self-directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy.

Finally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares with constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned. Moreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises 'competing ideological versions of that reality expressing the interests of different social groups' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 22). Within this approach, learning concerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social context, which can bring about social change. What is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of the social context in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as 'authors of their own worlds' (ibid.: 53).

4. Conditions for Learner Autonomy

The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristics of autonomy. At this juncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. Rather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain: cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. In other words, autonomous learning is by no means "teacherless learning." As Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63) succinctly puts it, '[t]eachers--have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self-access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat' (my italics).

Probably, giving students a "helping hand" may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is mainly because teachers are ill-prepared or reluctant to 'wean [students]--away from teacher dependence' (Sheerin, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63). After all, 'it is not easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources--And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems for themselves' (Little, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 11). Such a transition from teacher-control to learner-control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former (no matter how unpalatable this may sound) that the latter finds its expression. At any rate, learner-control--which is ancillary to autonomy--'is not a single, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed' (Candy, 1991: 205). It is to these 'instructional situations' that we will turn in the next section. In this section, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the object of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment?

4.1. Learning Strategies

A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are 'the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1, cited in Cook, 1993: 113)--a definition in keeping with the one provided in Wenden (1998: 18): 'Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so'. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts 'may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment' (Skehan, 1998: 237). We will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies (see Cook, 1993 for more details).

4.1.1. Cognitive Strategies

According to O'Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), cognitive strategies 'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning'. Learners may use any or all of the following cognitive strategies (see Cook, 1993: 114-115):

repetition, when imitating others' speech;

resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials;

translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and/or producing the target language;

note-taking;

deduction, i.e., conscious application of L2 rules;

contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence;

transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and understand facts and sequences in the L2;

inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information (a new word etc);

question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain, etc.

There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) recognise 16.
4.1.2. Metacognitive Strategies

According to Wenden (1998: 34), 'metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied situations'. In a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; 'they are strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves' (Cook, 1993: 114). Let us see some of these strategies:

directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task;

selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task;

self-monitoring, i.e., checking one's performance as one speaks;

self-evaluation, i.e., appraising one's performance in relation to one's own standards;

self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.

At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (see Wenden, 1998: 27), learners identify their objectives and determine how they will achieve them. Planning, however, may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here, learners may change their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as 'participant observers or overseers of their language learning' (ibid.), asking themselves, "How am I doing? Am I having difficulties with this task?", and so on. Finally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to Wenden (1998: 28), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examine the outcome of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge it; and 3) they apply it.
4.2. Learner Attitudes and Motivation

Language learning is not merely a cognitive task. Learners do not only reflect on their learning in terms of the language input to which they are exposed, or the optimal strategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. Rather, the success of a learning activity is, to some extent, contingent upon learners' stance towards the world and the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 134-136). As Candy (1991: 295-296) says, 'the how and the what of learning are intimately interwoven--[T]he overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes' (my italics). In other words, language learning--as well as learning, in general--has also an affective component. 'Meeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too--' (Rinvolucri, 1984: 5, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 13). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 1, cited in Graham, 1997: 92) define 'affective variables' as the 'emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she/he will respond to any situation'. Other scholars, such as Shumann (1978) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) attach less importance to learners' emotions, claiming that 'social and psychological factors' give a more suitable description for students' reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self-esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the most crucial factors 'in the learner's ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second [or foreign] language' (Tarone & Yule, 1989: 139). In this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation.

Wenden (1998: 52) defines attitudes as 'learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding'. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process, and their capability as learners (ibid.: 53). In a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, 'learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained--by other beliefs they hold about themselves as learners' (ibid.: 54). For example, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they will think that they are fighting a "losing battle," as far as learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the context of the "traditional classroom," where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher's footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be undermined.

In a way, attitudes are 'part of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living [or the culture of the target language]' (Brown, 1987: 126), and it seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the opposite effect. But let us examine the role of motivation.

Although the term 'motivation' is frequently used in educational contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. What most scholars seem to agree on, though, is that motivation is 'one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second or foreign language (L2) learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process' (Dornyei, 1998: 117). According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 3), motivation is comprised of three components: 'desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task'.

It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and to different degrees. Some learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role-play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. Furthermore, since '[the learning of a foreign language] involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner' (Williams, 1994: 77, cited in Dornyei, 1998:122), an important distinction should be made between instrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a 'monetary incentive' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. Of course, this approach to motivation has certain limitations (see Cookes and Schmidt, 1991, cited in Lier, 1996: 104-105), but an in-depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is 'a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3), as various studies have shown (see Kraemer, 1990; Machnick and Wolfe, 1982; et al.).

4.3. Self-esteem

Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning in general. '[S]elf-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself' (Coopersmith, 1967: 4-5, cited in Brown, 1987: 101-102). If the learner has a 'robust sense of self', to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 134), his relationship to himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to 'a deterioration in cognitive performance', thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener and Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998: 57).

Now that we have examined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militate against, the learner's willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidence in her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promoting learner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not to reduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. Rather, it is taken to mean that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition' (Candy, 1991: 337). In the next section, some general guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption that the latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation.

5. How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners'] autonomy' (Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51). Nevertheless, our main focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree of autonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great extent, determined--alas! vitiated--by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher.

5.1. Self-reports

According to Wenden (1998: 79-95), a good way of collecting information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their own strategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they are performing it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their learning. In this case, 'the [introspective] self-report is a verbalization of one's stream of consciousness' (Wenden, 1998: 81). Introspective reports are assumed to provide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report. However, this method suffers from one limitation: '[t]he concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from [learners'] ability to do the task efficiently' (ibid.: 83), thus rendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative.

Another type of self-report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self-report, since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective self-reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds of retrospective self-reports: semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi-structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to extracting information about learners' feelings towards particular skills (reading, listening, etc.), problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners' views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way: by dint of explicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth.

It could be argued that self-reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners' strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As Wenden (1998: 90) observes, 'without awareness [learners] will remain trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous'.

5.2. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets

Perhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners' beliefs about themselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according to Vygotsky (1978), learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and 'a learner can realize [his] potential interactively--through the guidance of supportive other persons such as parents, teachers, and peers' (Wenden, 1998: 107). Herein lies the role of diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggesting solutions. Let us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language learning:

A.
Dear Diary,
These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for eight years·just think, eight years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't dare. I can't express myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak.
The other day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don't understand TV news very well·only a few words. I can't get the main point. In school it's easy to understand, but I can't understand the people in the stores.
What can I do?
Yours Truly,
Impatient
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)
B.
Dear Diary,
I read the New York Times every day. Every day I learn many new expressions-a lot of vocabulary. But I can't use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happens with what I learn at school. I can't use it when I want to talk to Americans or even with my own Spanish friends.
I need some help.
Yours Truly,
Confused
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)

Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their expectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. Let us consider two such reports:

1.
What do I want to do this year?
"I want to speak more English and I'd like to spell better that I do now. I would like to work with another boy or girl who is willing to speak English with me and make some activities in English. Materials: Challenge to think and crosswords.
I would like to get a more varied language and I would like to be better at spelling, especially the words used in everyday situations. How: I will prepare Îtwo minutes' talk' for every lesson, I will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. I will get someone or myself to correct it. I will read at least two books÷difficult ones÷and make book-reviews.ä
(Beginning of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 30])
2.
What do you feel you know now that you didn't know before?
"I think that we have grown better at planning our own time. We know more about what we need to do and how to go about it. We try all the time to extend our vocabulary and to get an active language. Evaluation also helped us. It is like going through things again.ä
(End of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 32])

So far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has been that the teacher has not relinquished his "authority"; rather, that he has committed himself to providing the learners with the opportunity to experiment, make hypotheses, and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learn how to learn in their own, individual, holistic way (see Papaconstantinou, 1997). It may be the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource (see Voller, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99-106). In other words, when she lies somewhere along a continuum between what Barnes (1976, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99) calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As Wright (1987: 62, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100) notes, transmission teachers believe in subject disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be objectively evaluated--that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organize thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested and naturally inclined to explore their worlds--that learners already know a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge.

The interpretation teacher respects learners' needs and is 'more likely to follow a fraternal-permissive model' (emphasis added) (Stevick, 1976: 91-93, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100). It is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is most congruent.

5.3. Persuasive Communication as a Means of Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes

Inasmuch as the success of learning and the extent to which learners tap into their potential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by such factors as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. 'Attitude change [is assumed to] be brought about through exposure to a persuasive communication [between the teacher and the learners]' (Wenden, 1998: 126). According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change developed by Petty and Cacciopo (1986, cited in Wenden, 1998: 126), there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication.

A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments to change a learner's evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either explicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If, for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them. It should be noted, though, that no arguments to influence students' views are given. Rather, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful (see Wenden, 1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, 'they can be led to re-examine existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely' (ibid.: 127).

6. Conclusion

This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the subject and the puzzle called learner autonomy. Many more pieces are missing. For instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding (Littlejohn, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 181-182). At any rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives. Nevertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self-sufficient learners and citizens capable of evaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to "unbridled learning." There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandon all this if need be. Learner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one's strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. But even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it 'takes a long time to develop, and--simply removing the barriers to a person's ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away from old habits or old ways of thinking' (Candy, 1991: 124). As Holyoake (1892, vol. 1, p. 4) succinctly put it, '[k]nowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think'.

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 11, November 2000
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html

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Thanasoulas - What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulasakasa74 [at] hotmail.com Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2).

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Today, I learn another new virtual technology for a more fruitful teaching process. The technology is called Padlet. It is a brand new technology to me so that I need to search a manual on how to use it. I found a web blog at http://blog.padlet.com/2013/03/how-to-use-padletcom-in-classroom.html and a slideshare at http://www.slideshare.net/sheltods/oflta-spring-padlet-summer-tech-workshop-2013 that shares what it is and how to use it. A more alive tutorial version can be watched at youtube video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bt6orv2QfZw.
What I understand from watching and reading the webs is that “Padlet” is an internet application that allow teachers to express their thought, to pose questions to their class, or assignment or project easily. It can also be used to pose web links, videos, or audio files. It is also possible for a teacher to use Padlet to run an entire class, from beginning to end. Padlet can be used in class to enhance autonomous learning. Here is a link on learner autonomy:

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Approaches To Learner Autonomy In Language Learning

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Approaches to Learner Autonomy in Language Learning Erin Lowry Senior English Language Fellow Centro Colombo Americano Armenia November 25, 2008

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Today, I learn another new virtual technology for a more fruitful teaching process. The technology is called Padlet. It is a brand new technology to me so that I need to search a manual on how to use it. I found a web blog at http://blog.padlet.com/2013/03/how-to-use-padletcom-in-classroom.htmland a slideshare at http://www.slideshare.net/sheltods/oflta-spring-padlet-summer-tech-workshop-2013 that shares what it is and how to use it. A more alive tutorial version can be watched at youtube video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bt6orv2QfZw.

What I understand from watching and reading the webs is that “Padlet” is an internet application that allow teachers to express their thought, to pose questions to their class, or assignment or project easily. It can also be used to pose web links, videos, or audio files. It is also possible for a teacher to use Padlet to run an entire class, from beginning to end. Padlet can be used in class to enhance autonomous learning. Here are the links on learner autonomy:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Just for you: FREE 60-day trial to the world’s largest digital library.

The SlideShare family just got bigger. Enjoy access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, and more from Scribd.

Read free for 60 days

Cancel anytime.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Approaches To Learner Autonomy In Language Learning

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Approaches to Learner Autonomy in Language Learning Erin Lowry Senior English Language Fellow Centro Colombo Americano Armenia November 25, 2008