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How did Rome establish itself, spread, and influence Western culture?

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How did Rome establish itself, spread, and influence Western culture?

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Rome managed to establish itself in Italy through sheer brute force. They conquered every other group that was present in that area at the time. Over time, the Roman empire expanded beyond the Italian peninsula, spanning their empire across three continents. Their superior military power and strategy allowed them to quickly take control over many territories and groups of people. Today, the Romans are remembered as a great, powerful nation which conquered and assimilated every culture in their path. Many references to Roman culture are still made today. For example, in Fallout: New Vegas, the main protagonist is named Caesar, representing how that character is a powerful conqueror and military tactician, much like the real world Caesar was. Also, there are physical leftovers from the Roman empire in Italy. The roads that they built are still present in Italy today, as a reminder of what came before.

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Roman society was clearly hierarchical, with legally defined privileges allotted to different classes and countless informal differences in attitudes toward the classes in everyday life.
Painting from Pompeii, now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale (Naples), showing a banquet or family ceremony feature multiple aspects of Roman society.
In ancient society, the population was divided into two groups: patricians and plebeians.

Patricians

Plebians

The patrician class were the descendants of the most ancient and powerful noble families. They were landowners, lived in large houses and they had political power in the Senate.

The patricians married and did business only with people of their own class.

Plebeians were mainly artisans or peasants who worked the patricians' land; they lived in apartments and they had no political rights.

If they were lucky plebeians could become clients (obedient servants) of a patrician family. They offered their services in return received the protection of the head of the patrician family, who became their patron.

Roman Society in the Era of the Empire 27BC - 1453AD

Below is the pyramid of Roman society, with the emperor at top and slaves at the bottom. Multiple layers existed between them. While it was possible to move up and down this social latter, as the categories were not immutable, changing one's social standing was extremely difficult and only possible through meritocratic institutions such as the military. So, social mobility was very difficult in Roman society.
"When Did The Roman Empire Really End?"
The Emperor
The Emperor was the head of Roman society and ruler of all Rome

Patrician Families
Wealthy influential landowning families

Senators
In roman society, they served in the Senate and governed Rome

Equestrians
Wealthy property owners who chose business over politics in Roman society

Plebeians
Working class. Men without substantial wealth who worked for their living at jobs such as artisans, craftsmen, bakers etc

Freed Slaves
Slaves who had either been given their freedom or had paid for their freedom and now worked for their living.

Slaves
Generally prisoners of war but sometimes abandoned children who were owned by their master.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about Ancient Rome. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to Ancient Rome.
Cite This Article

"Roman Society and Social Classes: How Were They Structured?" History on the Net
© 2000-2023, Salem Media.
October 28, 2023 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/roman-society-and-social-classes>
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Roman Society and Social Classes: How Were They Structured? - History

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Roman society was clearly hierarchical, with legally defined privileges allotted to different classes and countless informal differences between them.

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Mosaic of Roman farmer with cattle and plow

Traditionally, Roman society was extremely rigid. By the first century, however, the need for capable men to run Rome's vast empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers.

The social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom. It was also based around men: women were defined by the social status of their fathers or husbands. Women were expected to look after the houses and very few had any real independence.

Dressed to impress

The boundaries between the different classes were strict and legally enforced: members of different classes even dressed differently. Only the emperor was allowed to wear a purple toga, while senators could wear a white toga with the latus clavus, a broad purple stripe along the edge. Equestrian togas had a narrow purple stripe (clavus augustus).

Although the classes were strictly defined, there was a lot of interaction. Slaves and some freemen worked the in homes of the upper classes, like the senators and patricians. Soldiers also mixed with their officers.

Patronage

Roman society also involved a system of patronage. Members of the upper classes – the patroni – offered protection to freedmen or plebeians, who became their "cliens." Patronage might consist of money, food, or legal help. Traditionally, any freed slaves became the cliens of their former owner.

In return, patroni received respect and political favors. During the empire, cliens were required to offer daily greetings to their patroni, and the number of these greeters helped determine social status. On the frontiers of the empire, Roman generals served as patroni for the people they conquered, while Roman provinces or cities often sought out an influential senator to act as patroni and oversee their interests in Rome.

The chosen few

Despite the inflexibility of Roman society, advancement was always possible for the select few. Wealth and property were well-known routes to social advancement, as was patronage by the emperor – at one point, Caligula even made a horse a senator.

Over time, society did become more fluid. Augustus expanded the equestrian order and hired them into senior administrative positions. By the end of the first century, equestrians were recruited into the Senate.

Membership of the equestrian class was not restricted to Italian-born citizens, so letting equestrians into the Senate was a big step. Over time, the Senate would be open to Roman citizens from outside Italy. By the end of the first century, even the emperor himself would be born abroad.

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Writers - Petronius
Writers - Juvenal

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The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Social Order | PBS

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Mosaic of Roman farmer with cattle and plow Traditionally, Roman society was extremely rigid. By the first century, however, the need for capable men to run Rome's vast empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers. The social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom.

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Where did the Silk Road start and end?

What major goods traveled along the Silk Road?

What traveled along the Silk Road besides goods?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward, and wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the Silk Road.

Originating at Xi'an (Sian), the 4,000-mile (6,400-km) road, actually a caravan tract, followed the Great Wall of China to the northwest, bypassed the Takla Makan Desert, climbed the Pamirs (mountains), crossed Afghanistan, and went on to the Levant; from there the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few persons traveled the entire route, and goods were handled in a staggered progression by middlemen.

Know Your Asian Geography Quiz

With the gradual loss of Roman territory in Asia and the rise of Arabian power in the Levant, the Silk Road became increasingly unsafe and untraveled. In the 13th and 14th centuries the route was revived under the Mongols, and at that time the Venetian Marco Polo used it to travel to Cathay (China). It is now widely thought that the route was one of the main ways that plague bacteria responsible for the Black Death pandemic in Europe in the mid-14th century moved westward from Asia.

Part of the Silk Road still exists, in the form of a paved highway connecting Pakistan and the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China. The old road has been the impetus behind a United Nations plan for a trans-Asian highway, and a railway counterpart of the road has been proposed by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). The road inspired cellist Yo-Yo Ma to found the Silk Road Project in 1999, which explored cultural traditions along its route and beyond as a means for connecting arts worldwide across cultures.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy Tikkanen.

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Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward. Wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the route. Read more about the Silk Road here.

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A griculture was the basis of the economy. There were mostly little farmers but also wealthy landowners that employed many peasants and slaves to work on their huge lands. The main crops were, logically, the Mediterranean triad of wheat, grapes and olives.

Crafts were important as well. There were workshops in the cities, with small shops where the craftsmen sold their products.

Mining: gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, and mercury were mined. There were salt mines on the Mediterranean coasts, and salt was used to season and preserve food.

Trade developed considerably thanks to a single imperial currency and a vast network of roads ( viae) and ports. In Rome's Trajan Market, one could easily find oil and garum from Hispania; spices, silk and cotton from India or slaves from Africa.

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A griculture was the basis of the economy. There were mostly little farmers but also wealthy landowners that employed many peasants and slaves to work on their huge lands. The main crops were, logically, the Mediterranean triad of wheat, grapes and olives. Crafts were important as well.

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Rome was originally ruled by kings from 625-510 BCE until the citizens overthrew their Etruscan rulers and turned Rome into a republic. A republic is when civilians represent themselves and elect representatives. The people still had say in matters that applied to the country unlike a democracy where only the elected leaders make the decisions. Occasionally though, a dictator could be elected by the senate in a time of need, and he had complete control over Rome. In the early republic, the aristocrats or patricians held most of the power in society instead of the lower class civilians (plebeians), which had no say. Later, the plebeians had more power, but the patricians just bought control and influence still making them the ones in control. This changed when the Twelve Tables were made in 451 BCE, which helped to equalize all citizens. Rome continued like this with some additions to make people more equal until 31 BCE where Augustus was made the first Emperor of Imperial Rome. After that, Rome's politics stayed roughly the same with emperors continuing until Rome decline in 476 AD.

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The Roman economy was mainly based off agriculture with the main crops being wheat, olives, and grapes. Rome also mined ores such as gold, silver, copper, etc., with salt being an important resource due to it being used to preserve and season food. Of course there were also crafts people who did things such as make rugs, pottery, etc. However, the main money maker in Rome was trade. The Roman Empire had a single currency which, along with the tons of trade routes both on sea and land, allowed for trade to prosper. Trade also occurred between Rome and other empires such as China through the infamous Silk Road. Rome obtained silk (hence the name) and traded gold, silver, and wool. A result of this trade was also a trade of philosophies and ideas.

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Different social classes had lots of interaction with each other in the Roman empire. The wealth would also help the ordinary citizens with money, food, legal problems, etc. In return, the wealth would get more respect, political favors, and social status. The wealthy also ran the political system with occasional loss of power due to new laws such as the Twelve Tables that made people more equal. As expected, women weren't treated as their own person, instead their social status was determined on their husbands or fathers. They usually were house care takers and had little independence. The Roman social pyramid consisted of Emperor at the top, then patrician (influential) families, senators, equestrians (wealthy), plebeians (working class), freed slaves, then slaves. In Rome, it was also had to move up the social pyramid and typically only those who could obtain wealth and property, which was difficult, could move up. Another however, was to join the military and become famous, but that was even rarer.

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The Romans established a form of government - a republic - that was copied by countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is based partly on Rome's model.

The ladder to political power in the Roman Senate was different for the wealthy patricians than for the lower-class plebeians.

It all began when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E. Centered north of Rome, the Etruscans had ruled over the Romans for hundreds of years.

Once free, the Romans established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. A republic is quite different from a democracy, in which every citizen is expected to play an active role in governing the state.

Citizen

Frescoes line the walls of long-forgotten Etruscan tombs. This painting, found in the Tomb of Augurs in Tarquinia, is titled Hell's Door.

The aristocracy (wealthy class) dominated the early Roman Republic. In Roman society, the aristocrats were known as patricians. The highest positions in the government were held by two consuls, or leaders, who ruled the Roman Republic. A senate composed of patricians elected these consuls. At this time, lower-class citizens, or plebeians, had virtually no say in the government. Both men and women were citizens in the Roman Republic, but only men could vote.

Tradition dictated that patricians and plebeians should be strictly separated; marriage between the two classes was even prohibited. Over time, the plebeians elected their own representatives, called tribunes, who gained the power to veto measures passed by the senate.

Gradually, the plebeians obtained even more power and eventually could hold the position of consul. Despite these changes, though, the patricians were still able to use their wealth to buy control and influence over elected leaders.

The Roman Senate

Occasionally, an emergency situation (such as a war) arose that required the decisive leadership of one individual. Under these circumstances, the Senate and the consuls could appoint a temporary dictator to rule for a limited time until the crisis was resolved. The position of dictator was very undemocratic in nature. Indeed, a dictator had all the power, made decisions without any approval, and had full control over the military.

The best example of an ideal dictator was a Roman citizen named Cincinnatus. During a severe military emergency, the Roman Senate called Cincinnatus from his farm to serve as dictator and to lead the Roman army. When Cincinnatus stepped down from the dictatorship and returned to his farm only 15 days after he successfully defeated Rome's enemies, the republican leaders resumed control over Rome.

The Twelve Tables

One of the innovations of the Roman Republic was the notion of equality under the law. In 449 B.C.E., government leaders carved some of Rome's most important laws into 12 great tablets. The Twelve Tables, as they came to be known, were the first Roman laws put in writing. Although the laws were rather harsh by today's standards, they did guarantee every citizen equal treatment under the law.

Laws from the Twelve Tables

With respect to the law and citizenship, the Romans took a unique approach to the lands that they conquered. Rather than rule those people as conquered subjects, the Romans invited them to become citizens. These people then became a part of Rome, rather than enemies fighting against it. Naturally, these new citizens received the same legal rights as everyone else.

The Punic Wars

The early Roman Republic often found itself in a state of constant warfare with its surrounding neighbors. In one instance, when the Romans were fighting the Carthaginians, Rome was nearly conquered. The people of Carthage (a city in what is today Tunisia in north Africa) were a successful trading civilization whose interests began to conflict with those of the Romans.

The two sides fought three bloody wars, known as the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E.), over the control of trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. In the second war, Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, successfully invaded Italy by leading an army - complete with elephants - across the Alps. He handed the Roman army a crushing defeat but was unable to sack the city of Rome itself. After occupying and ravaging Italy for more than a decade, Hannibal was finally defeated by the Roman general Scipio at the Battle of Zama in 202 B.C.E.

Why "Punic"?

By the Third Punic War, Rome was ready to end the Carthaginian threat for good. After a successful several-year siege of Carthage, the Romans burned the city to the ground. Legend has it that the Romans then poured salt into the soil so that nothing would ever grow there again. Carthage was finally defeated, and the Roman Republic was safe.

Great Battles of the Roman Republic
For all its size and might, the Roman Republic truly feared the north African general Hannibal. He marched through the Roman countryside virtually unopposed for 16 years until his defeat at the Battle of Zama in 202 B.C.E. ended the Second Punic War. After it destroyed Hannibal's city, Carthage, the Roman Republic became an international power that later grew into a giant empire.

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The Romans established a form of government - a republic - that was copied by countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is based partly on Rome's model. The ladder to political power in the Roman Senate was different for the wealthy patricians than for the lower-class plebeians.

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the Roman Empire was situated along the shores of the Mediterranean sea as well as a large majority of modern day Western Europe. They were an Empire that spanned 3 continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa). They were largely situated along shores, and this led to the development of Aqueducts which allowed for the flow of water to enter urban areas of the empire. Due to their shoreside empire, they would usually eat seafood and native vegetables like Broccoli, Lettuce, and Cabbage.

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Romans were primarily Polytheistic, meaning that they worshipped multiple gods. This does not necessarily mean that Monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Judaism were non-existent in Rome, it does mean that Polytheism was the most dominate religious way of thought. Even though Monotheistic religions were present, they were heavily persecuted. That is, until Constantine the Great came along and made tolerance the primary school of thought for dealing with Christians.

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The Twelve Tables (aka Law of the Twelve Tables) was a set of laws inscribed on 12 bronze tablets created in ancient Rome in 451 and 450 BCE. They were the beginning of a new approach to laws which…

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The Roman empire managed to accomplish a great feat of conquering the entire Mediterranean. No small task, as there were many different kinds of people standing in the way at these place all through the territory which they went on to inhabited. in addition, they made some very incredible technological advancements. One such technology they had developed was the Aqueduct. The Aqueduct was sort of a highway for water. The water would travel high above the actual roads of the cities. This would allow for water to be supplied to all corners of the empire.

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Friday, July 6, 2018

The Roman Empire was a primarily polytheistic civilization, which meant that people recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddesses. Despite the presence of monotheistic religions within the empire, such as Judaism and early Christianity, Romans honored multiple deities. They believed that these deities served a role in founding the Roman civilization and that they helped shape the events of people's lives on a daily basis. Romans paid allegiance to the gods both in public spaces and in private homes. While the Roman state recognized main gods and goddesses by decorating public buildings and fountains with their images, families worshipping at home also put special emphasis on the deities of their choosing.

The gods and goddesses of Greek culture significantly influenced the development of Roman deities and mythology. Due to Rome's geographic position, its citizens experienced frequent contact with the Greek peoples, who had expanded their territories into the Italian peninsula and Sicily. As the Roman Republic was rising to prominence, it acquired these Greek territories, bringing them under the administration of the Roman state. Romans adopted many aspects of Greek culture, adapting them slightly to suit their own needs. For example, many of the gods and goddesses of Greek and Roman culture share similar characteristics. However, these deities were renamed and effectively re-branded for a Roman context, possessing names that are different from their Greek counterparts.

The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Jupiter was a sky-god who Romans believed oversaw all aspects of life; he is thought to have originated from the Greek god Zeus. Jupiter also concentrated on protecting the Roman state. Military commanders would pay homage to Jupiter at his temple after winning in battle.

Juno was Jupiter's wife and sister. She resembled the Greek goddess Hera in that she kept a particularly watchful eye over women and all aspects of their lives. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom and craft. She watched over schoolchildren and craftspeople such as carpenters and stonemasons. Minerva is thought to be the equivalent of the goddess Athena, who was the Greek goddess of wisdom.

Other Roman gods and goddesses who were adapted from Greek culture include Venus, who drew on Aphrodite, goddess of love; Neptune, a sea god who was inspired by the Greek god Poseidon; Pluto, who ruled the Roman underworld as the god Hades did in Greek culture; Diana, Roman goddess of the hunt who had her Greek equivalent in Artemis; and Mars, god of war, who was fashioned after the Greek god Ares. Just as the Greeks influenced Roman culture, the Romans inspired the cultural development of later societies. You may by now have noticed that many of the planets in our solar system were named after Roman deities.

Rome did have some of its own gods and goddesses who did not trace their origins back to Greek culture. For example, Janus was a god with two faces that represented the spirit of passages such as doorways and gates. Believed to preside over beginnings, it is fitting that the month of January is named after Janus. Janus' son was Tiberinus, the god of the river Tiber, which runs through the city of Rome.

According to Roman mythology, the gods had a hand in the founding of the city of Rome itself. Mars, god of war, and a Vestal Virgin named Rhea Silvia were the parents of twin boys, Romulus and Remus. Vestal Virgins were not permitted to marry or bear children but were instead to devote their lives to serving Vesta, goddess of the hearth.

It is said that King Amulius ordered that the twins be thrown into the Tiber River as a punishment to Rhea Silvia for betraying her vow of celibacy. Luckily, the boys were rescued from the river by a mother wolf. She helped to raise them until a local couple adopted them.

As the boys grew up, they became important members of the community. They dethroned King Amulius and worked together to establish a new city. In a later argument about the city, however, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Romulus went on to name the city after himself, calling it Rome (or Roma).

The presence and influence of gods and goddesses were integral parts of life in the Roman state. The people of Rome built temples to their gods and observed rituals and festivals to honor and celebrate them. Any favorable or unfavorable circumstances in Roman life could be attributed to the mood of certain gods, so people would likewise make offerings to the gods in thanks, or in an attempt to appease their tempers. Unlike many monotheistic religious or spiritual traditions, the Romans gods were seen as caring little about the morality of the Roman people. Rather, their chief concern was being paid tribute through very specific rituals.

We can still recognize traces of the Roman gods and goddesses in the artifacts that remain from the ancient civilization and the art that pays homage to them. Carvings of Janus still survive and statues of Neptune spout water from city fountains. Today we appreciate the stories and mythology built around these deities as insights into what life was like over 2,700 years ago for the ancient Romans.

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Friday, July 6, 2018 The Roman Empire was a primarily polytheistic civilization, which meant that people recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddesses. Despite the presence of monotheistic religions within the empire, such as Judaism and early Christianity, Romans honored multiple deities.

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https://oldwayspt.org/traditional-diets/mediterranean-diet/traditional-med-diet#:~:text=Vegetables%20common%20to%20the%20traditional,%2C%20okra%2C%20onions%20(red%2C

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Characteristics of the Mediterranean Diet

Traditional Mediterranean meals feature foods grown all around the Mediterranean Sea, and enjoyed along with lifestyle factors typical of this region. Easily adaptable to today's kitchens and busy lives, they include:

Grains, Vegetables & Fruits

Grains, vegetables, and fruits should be eaten at most meals, because they are important sources of vitamins, minerals, energy, antioxidants, and ﬁber. An eating pattern high in these foods promotes good health and weight control when consumed wisely.

Grains. The majority of grains should be whole grains, such as wheat, oats, rice, rye, barley, and corn. These grains are best consumed in whole, minimally-processed forms, because reﬁning and processing can remove many valuable nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, and ﬁber.

Grains and grain products common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: barley, buckwheat, bulgur, farro, millet, oats, polenta, rice, wheatberries, breads, couscous, and pastas.

Vegetables. Vegetables are an important staple of eating patterns of peoples in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, providing valuable nutrients and satiety. These beneﬁts are ampliﬁed because the vegetables are normally cooked or drizzled with olive oil. Raw vegetables are also a healthy vegetable option.

Vegetables common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: artichokes, arugula, beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, celery, celeriac, chicory, collard greens, cucumbers, dandelion greens, eggplant, fennel, kale, leeks, lemons, lettuce, mache, mushrooms, mustard greens, nettles, okra, onions (red, sweet, white), peas, peppers, potatoes, pumpkin, purslane, radishes, rutabaga, scallions, shallots, spinach, sweet potatoes, turnips, zucchini.

Fruits. Whole fresh fruit is ever-present in the Mediterranean. No-sugar-added fruit juices provide only some of the same nutrition beneﬁts as whole fruit, and attention to portion control and total calories is wise. Fruit "drinks" do not have the beneﬁts of fruit juice.

Fruits common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: apples, apricots, avocados, cherries, clementines, dates, ﬁgs, grapefruits, grapes, melons, nectarines, olives, oranges, peaches, pears, pomegranates, strawberries, tangerines, tomatoes.

Ol

ives & Olive Oil

Olives and olive oil are central to the Mediterranean diet. Olives are universally eaten whole, and widely used for cooking and ﬂavoring in the countries that border the Mediterranean Sea. Olive oil is the principal source of dietary fat used for cooking, baking, and for dressing salads and vegetables. Extra virgin olive oil is highest in health-promoting fats, phytonutrients and other important micronutrients.

Nuts, Beans, Legumes & Seeds

Nuts, beans, legumes and seeds are good sources of healthy fats, protein, and ﬁber. They add ﬂavor and texture to Mediterranean dishes.

Nuts, seeds, and legumes common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: almonds, cannellini beans, chickpeas, cashews, fava beans, green beans, hazelnuts, kidney beans, lentils, pine nuts, pistachios, sesame seeds, split peas, tahini sauce, walnuts.

Herbs & Spices

Herbs and spices add ﬂavors and aromas to foods, reducing the need to add salt or fat when cooking. They are also rich in a broad range of health-promoting antioxidants, and are used liberally in Mediterranean cuisines. Herbs and spices also contribute to the national identities of the various Mediterranean cuisines.

Herbs and spices common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: anise, basil, bay leaf, chiles, cloves, cumin, fennel, garlic, lavender, marjoram, mint, oregano, parsley, pepper, pul biber, rosemary, sage, savory, sumac, tarragon, thyme, za'atar.

Cheese & Yogurt

Cheese and yogurt are eaten regularly in the traditional Mediterranean diet, but in low to moderate amounts. The calcium in cheese and yogurt is important for bone and heart health. Low fat and nonfat dairy products ease concerns of adverse consequences of somewhat higher consumption of dairy products.

Dairy products common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: brie, chevre, corvo, feta, haloumi, manchego, Parmigiano-Reggiano, pecorino, ricotta, yogurt (including Greek yogurt).

Fish & Shellﬁsh

Fish and shellﬁsh are important sources of healthy protein for Mediterranean populations. Fish such as tuna, herring, sardines, salmon and bream are rich in essential heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids, and shellﬁsh and crustaceans including mussels, clams and shrimp have similar beneﬁts. Fish and shellﬁsh are not typically battered and fried in Mediterranean countries.

Seafood common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet includes: abalone, clams, cockles, crab, eel, ﬂounder, lobster mackerel, mussels, octopus, oysters, salmon, sardines, sea bass, shrimp, squid, tilapia, tuna, whelk, yellowtail.

Eggs

Eggs are a good source of high-quality protein, and can be especially beneﬁcial for individuals who do not eat meat. Eggs are regularly used in baking in Mediterranean countries.

Chicken, duck, and quail eggs are all common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet.

Meats

Meats are eaten in small portions by Mediterranean peoples, who prefer lean cuts. Poultry is a good source of lean protein without the high levels of saturated fat found in some cuts of red meat. With ground meats, 90 percent lean/10 percent fat is a sound choice.

Poultry and red meat common to the traditional Mediterranean Diet include: beef, chicken, duck, goat, guinea fowl, lamb, mutton, pork.

Wine

Wine is consumed regularly but moderately in the Mediterranean, unless discouraged by religious beliefs. "Moderately" means up to one ﬁve-ounce glass of wine per day for women and up to two ﬁve-ounce glasses for men. Individuals should only drink wine if they are medically able to do so, and should ask their doctors for more information.

Water

Water is essential for life, and proper hydration during each day makes a positive contribution to health, well being and energy levels. Individual variations in body sizes, metabolic rates and activity levels mean that some people should drink more water every day than others.

Portion Size

Because foods in the bottom section of the pyramid may be eaten in larger amounts and more frequently, portion sizes and frequency of consumption decline in the pyramid's upper sections.

Moderation

Moderation is a wise approach. A balanced and healthy diet accommodates most foods and drinks, so long as moderation and wise choices are the key characteristics. For example, enjoying a small piece of birthday cake, savoring a few slices of grilled steak, or relaxing with family and friends with a glass or two of wine or beer are important aspects of being human. As always, moderation is the wise watchword.

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Daily physical activity is important for overall good health. This includes strenuous exercise like running and aerobics, as well as more leisurely activities such as walking and housework or yard-work, or taking the stairs instead of the elevator.

Meals in the Company of Others

The Mediterranean Diet is grounded on the principles of enjoyment and pleasure. Foods, drinks and meals are best eaten with others, when possible, and savored.

As you follow the Mediterranean Diet, keep in mind that weight control is very important for good health. Establish your healthy weight range from your doctor or from reputable web sites, and let this healthy weight range be your guide. If you are above this range, cut back on the food and drink you consume, add more exercise, or both. For most people, counting calories obsessively not only detracts from enjoying foods, drinks, and meals, but also doesn't work very well in the long term. These recommendations and the updated Mediterranean Diet Pyramid are reliable for most adults. However, children and pregnant women and others with special dietary needs may require dietary supplementation. These needs can be accommodated within the Mediterranean Diet in most circumstances.

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Traditional Mediterranean meals feature foods grown all around the Mediterranean Sea, and enjoyed along with lifestyle factors typical of this region. Easily adaptable to today's kitchens and busy lives, they include: Grains, Vegetables & Fruits Grains, vegetables, and fruits should be eaten at most meals, because they are important sources of vitamins, minerals, energy, antioxidants, and ﬁber.

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St. Helena, also called Helen, (born c. 248, Drepanon?, Bithynia, Asia Minor-died c. 328, Nicomedia; Western feast day August 18; Eastern feast day [with Constantine] May 21), Roman empress who was the reputed discoverer of Christ's cross. ( See also True Cross.)

Helena was married to the Roman emperor Constantius I Chlorus, who renounced her for political reasons. When her son Constantine I the Great became emperor at York in 306, he made her empress dowager, and under his influence she later became a Christian. She was devoted to her eldest grandson, Crispus Caesar, whom Constantine made titular ruler of Gaul, but a mysterious embroilment in the imperial family culminated with the execution of Crispus and Fausta, Constantine's second wife and Crispus's stepmother. Thereafter, the story became current that Fausta had accused Crispus of attempting to seduce her-hence Crispus's execution in 326. Fausta, in turn, was denounced by the grief-stricken Helena and was executed shortly afterward. The historicity of that explanation remains questionable. Immediately after the double tragedy, Helena made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. She caused churches to be built on the reputed sites of Christ's Nativity (in Bethlehem) and Ascension (near Jerusalem).

In what year did the Roman Empire come to an end? How many hills was Rome built on? From Julius Caesar to the city-state's legendary founders, test your knowledge of ancient Rome in this quiz.

Before 337 it was claimed in Jerusalem that Christ's cross had been found during the building of Constantine's church on Golgotha, under a temple of Venus that had been demolished at the site. Later in the century Helena was credited with the discovery. Many subsequent legends developed, and the story of the "invention," or the finding of the cross, enhanced by romances and confusions with other Helens, became a favourite throughout Christendom. The story was told again in Cynewulf's 9th-century poem Elene.

Melissa Petruzzello.

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Saint Helena | History, Legend, & the Saint

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St. Helena, also called Helen, (born c. 248, Drepanon?, Bithynia, Asia Minor-died c. 328, Nicomedia; Western feast day August 18; Eastern feast day [with Constantine] May 21), Roman empress who was the reputed discoverer of Christ's cross. (See also True Cross.) Helena was married to the Roman emperor Constantius I Chlorus, who renounced her for political reasons.

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Julius Caesar | Biography, Conquests, Facts, & Death

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Julius Caesar, the influential Roman general and statesman, conquered vast territories, reformed Rome’s government, and met a tragic end that forever shaped history.

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Was Augustus related to Julius Caesar?

How did Augustus come to power?

Augustus, also called Augustus Caesar or (until 27 bce) Octavian, original name Gaius Octavius, adopted name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, (born September 23, 63 bce-died August 19, 14 ce, Nola, near Naples [Italy]), first Roman emperor, following the republic, which had been finally destroyed by the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, his great-uncle and adoptive father. His autocratic regime is known as the principate because he was the princeps, the first citizen, at the head of that array of outwardly revived republican institutions that alone made his autocracy palatable. With unlimited patience, skill, and efficiency, he overhauled every aspect of Roman life and brought durable peace and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world.

Gaius Octavius was of a prosperous family that had long been settled at Velitrae (Velletri), southeast of Rome. His father, who died in 59 bce, had been the first of the family to become a Roman senator and was elected to the high annual office of the praetorship, which ranked second in the political hierarchy to the consulship. Gaius Octavius's mother, Atia, was the daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar, and it was Caesar who launched the young Octavius in Roman public life. At age 12 he made his debut by delivering the funeral speech for his grandmother Julia. Three or four years later he received the coveted membership of the board of priests (pontifices). In 46 bce he accompanied Caesar, now dictator, in his triumphal procession after his victory in Africa over his opponents in the Civil War; and in the following year, in spite of ill health, he joined the dictator in Spain. He was at Apollonia (now in Albania) completing his academic and military studies when, in 44 bce, he learned that Julius Caesar had been murdered.

Rise to power

Returning to Italy, he was told that Caesar in his will had adopted him as his son and had made him his chief personal heir. He was only 18 when, against the advice of his stepfather and others, he decided to take up this perilous inheritance and proceeded to Rome. Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius), Caesar's chief lieutenant, who had taken possession of his papers and assets and had expected that he himself would be the principal heir, refused to hand over any of Caesar's funds, forcing Octavius to pay the late dictator's bequests to the Roman populace from such resources as he could raise. Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, ignored him and withdrew to the east. Cicero, the famous orator who was one of Rome 's principal elder statesmen, hoped to make use of him but underestimated his abilities.

Augustus Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

Celebrating public games, instituted by Caesar, to ingratiate himself with the city populace, Octavius succeeded in winning considerable numbers of the dictator's troops to his own allegiance. The Senate, encouraged by Cicero, broke with Antony, called upon Octavius for aid (granting him the rank of senator in spite of his youth), and joined the campaign of Mutina ( Modena) against Antony, who was compelled to withdraw to Gaul. When the consuls who commanded the Senate's forces lost their lives, Octavius's soldiers compelled the Senate to confer a vacant consulship on him. Under the name of Gaius Julius Caesar he next secured official recognition as Caesar's adoptive son. Although it would have been normal to add "Octavianus" (with reference to his original family name), he preferred not to do so. Today, however, he is habitually described as Octavian (until the date when he assumed the designation Augustus).

Octavian soon reached an agreement with Antony and with another of Caesar's principal supporters, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had succeeded him as chief priest. On November 27, 43 bce, the three men were formally given a five-year dictatorial appointment as triumvirs for the reconstitution of the state (the Second Triumvirate-the first having been the informal compact between Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar). The east was occupied by Brutus and Cassius, but the triumvirs divided the west among themselves. They drew up a list of "proscribed" political enemies, and the consequent executions included 300 senators (one of whom was Antony's enemy Cicero) and 2,000 members of the class below the senators, the equites or knights. Julius Caesar's recognition as a god of the Roman state in January 42 bce enhanced Octavian's prestige as son of a god.

He and Antony crossed the Adriatic and, under Antony's leadership (Octavian being ill), won the two battles of Philippi against Brutus and Cassius, both of whom committed suicide. Antony, the senior partner, was allotted the east (and Gaul); and Octavian returned to Italy, where difficulties caused by the settlement of his veterans involved him in the Perusine War (decided in his favour at Perusia, the modern Perugia) against Antony's brother and wife. In order to appease another potential enemy, Sextus Pompeius (Pompey the Great's son), who had seized Sicily and the sea routes, Octavian married Sextus's relative Scribonia (though before long he divorced her for personal incompatibility). These ties of kinship did not deter Sextus, after the Perusine War, from making overtures to Antony; but Antony rejected them and reached a fresh understanding with Octavian at the treaty of Brundisium, under the terms of which Octavian was to have the whole west (except for Africa, which Lepidus was allowed to keep) and Italy, which, though supposedly neutral ground, was in fact controlled by Octavian. The east was again to go to Antony, and it was arranged that Antony, who had spent the previous winter with Queen Cleopatra in Egypt, should marry Octavian's sister Octavia. The peoples of the empire were overjoyed by the treaty, which seemed to promise an end to so many years of civil war. In 38 bce Octavian formed a significant new link with the aristocracy by his marriage to Livia Drusilla.

But a reconciliation with Sextus Pompeius proved abortive, and Octavian was soon plunged into serious warfare against him. When his first operations against Sextus's Sicilian bases proved disastrous, he felt obliged to make a new compact with Antony at Tarentum (Taranto) in 37 bce. Antony was to provide Octavian with ships, in return for troops Antony needed for his forthcoming war against the empire's eastern neighbour Parthia and its Median allies. Antony handed over the ships, but Octavian never sent the troops. The treaty also provided for renewal of the Second Triumvirate for five years, until the end of 33 bce.

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Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Statue, Death, Definition, & Facts

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Augustus, first Roman emperor after the republic who overhauled every aspect of Roman life and brought peace and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world. He became emperor after winning a power struggle that followed the death of Julius Caesar, who had adopted him as son and chief personal heir in his will.

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The Twelve Tables was a set a laws written on bronze tablets in 451-450 BCE. The Twelve Tables were the basis of Roman law and covered a broad amount of subjects but were not a complete set of laws. They were created due to a public cry for equality among the different classes and for the average citizen's interests to be heard. The laws were also very harsh, but that was normal at the time of their creation. They were important because it made laws have to be voted on by a legislative body instead of just being based off traditions. However, most patricians refused to submit to the laws which caused the ordinary people to rebel. Eventually more laws and new legislation were reinstated using the Twelve Tables as the foundation.

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From its founding in 625 BC to its fall in AD 476, the Roman Empire conquered and integrated dozens of cultures.

The influence of these cultures can be seen in objects, such as oil lamps, made and used throughout the Empire.

By Roke (d) [ GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons
Animated map showing the rise and decline of the Roman Empire (Roke, 2006).

Key:
Roman Republic (510 BC - 40 BC)
Imperial Rome (20 AD - 360 AD)
Eastern Roman Empire (405 AD - 1453 AD)
Western Roman Empire (405 AD - 480 AD)

The history of the Roman Empire can be divided into three distinct periods: The Period of Kings (625-510 BC), Republican Rome (510-31 BC), and Imperial Rome (31 BC - AD 476).

Founding (c. 625 BC)

Rome was founded around 625 BC in the areas of ancient Italy known as Etruria and Latium. It is thought that the city-state of Rome was initially formed by Latium villagers joining together with settlers from the surrounding hills in response to an Etruscan invasion. It is unclear whether they came together in defense or as a result of being brought under Etruscan rule. Archaeological evidence indicates that a great deal of change and unification took place around 600 BC which likely led to the establishment of Rome as a true city.

Period of Kings (625-510 BC)

The first period in Roman history is known as the Period of Kings, and it lasted from Rome's founding until 510 BC. During this brief time Rome, led by no fewer than six kings, advanced both militaristically and economically with increases in physical boundaries, military might, and production and trade of goods including oil lamps. Politically, this period saw the early formation of the Roman constitution. The end of the Period of Kings came with the decline of Etruscan power, thus ushering in Rome's Republican Period.

Republican Rome (510-31 BC)

Rome entered its Republican Period in 510 BC. No longer ruled by kings, the Romans established a new form of government whereby the upper classes ruled, namely the senators and the equestrians, or knights. However, a dictator could be nominated in times of crisis. In 451 BC, the Romans established the "Twelve Tables," a standardized code of laws meant for public, private, and political matters.

Rome continued to expand through the Republican Period and gained control over the entire Italian peninsula by 338 BC. It was the Punic Wars from 264-146 BC, along with some conflicts with Greece, that allowed Rome to take control of Carthage and Corinth and thus become the dominant maritime power in the Mediterranean.

Soon after, Rome's political atmosphere pushed the Republic into a period of chaos and civil war. This led to the election of a dictator, L. Cornelius Sulla, who served from 82-80 BC. Following Sulla's resignation in 79 BC, the Republic returned to a state of unrest. While Rome continued to be governed as a Republic for another 50 years, the shift to Imperialism began to materialize in 60 BC when Julius Caesar rose to power.

By 51 BC, Julius Caesar had conquered Celtic Gaul and, for the first time, Rome's borders had spread beyond the Mediterranean region. Although the Senate was still Rome's governing body, its power was weakening. Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC and replaced by his heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian) who ruled alongside Mark Antony. In 31 BC Rome overtook Egypt which resulted in the death of Mark Antony and left Octavian as the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Octavian assumed the title of Augustus and thus became the first emperor of Rome.

Imperial Rome (31 BC - AD 476)

Rome's Imperial Period was its last, beginning with the rise of Rome's first emperor in 31 BC and lasting until the fall of Rome in AD 476. During this period, Rome saw several decades of peace, prosperity, and expansion. By AD 117, the Roman Empire had reached its maximum extant, spanning three continents including Asia Minor, northern Africa, and most of Europe.

In AD 286 the Roman Empire was split into eastern and western empires, each ruled by its own emperor. The western empire suffered several Gothic invasions and, in AD 455, was sacked by Vandals. Rome continued to decline after that until AD 476 when the western Roman Empire came to an end. The eastern Roman Empire, more commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, survived until the 15th century AD. It fell when Turks took control of its capital city, Constantinople (modern day Istanbul in Turkey) in AD 1453.

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From its founding in 625 BC to its fall in AD 476, the Roman Empire conquered and integrated dozens of cultures. The influence of these cultures can be seen in objects, such as oil lamps, made and used throughout the Empire.

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From a republic to an empire

Legend has it that Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by Romulus, its first king. In 509 B.C.E. Rome became a republic ruled by the Senate (wealthy landowners and elders) and the Roman people. During the 450 years of the republic Rome conquered the rest of Italy and then expanded into France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa and Greece.

Rome became very Greek influenced or "Hellenized," and the city was filled with Greek architecture, literature, statues, wall-paintings, mosaics, pottery and glass. But with Greek culture came Greek gold, and generals and senators fought over this new wealth. The Republic collapsed in civil war and the Roman empire began.

In 31 B.C.E. Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, defeated Cleopatra and Mark Antony at Actium. This brought the last civil war of the republic to an end. Although it was hoped by many that the republic could be restored, it soon became clear that a new political system was forming: the emperor became the focus of the empire and its people. Although, in theory, Augustus (as Octavian became known) was only the first citizen and ruled by consent of the Senate, he was in fact the empire's supreme authority. As emperor he could pass his powers to the heir he decreed and was a king in all but name.

The empire, as it could now be called, enjoyed unparalleled prosperity as the network of cities boomed, and goods, people and ideas moved freely by land and sea. Many of the masterpieces associated with Roman art, such as the mosaics and wall paintings of Pompeii, gold and silver tableware, and glass, including the Portland Vase, were created in this period. The empire ushered in an economic and social revolution that changed the face of the Roman world: service to the empire and the emperor, not just birth and social status, became the key to advancement.

Successive emperors, such as Tiberius and Claudius, expanded Rome's territory. By the time of the emperor Trajan, in the late first century C.E., the Roman empire, with about fifty million inhabitants, encompassed the whole of the Mediterranean, Britain, much of northern and central Europe and the Near East.

A vast empire

Starting with Augustus in 27 B.C.E., the emperors ruled for five hundred years. They expanded Rome's territory and by about 200 C.E., their vast empire stretched from Syria to Spain and from Britain to Egypt. Networks of roads connected rich and vibrant cities, filled with beautiful public buildings. A shared Greco-Roman culture linked people, goods and ideas.

The imperial system of the Roman Empire depended heavily on the personality and standing of the emperor himself. The reigns of weak or unpopular emperors often ended in bloodshed at Rome and chaos throughout the empire as a whole. In the third century C.E. the very existence of the empire was threatened by a combination of economic crisis, weak and short-lived emperors and usurpers (and the violent civil wars between their rival supporting armies), and massive barbarian penetration into Roman territory.

Relative stability was re-established in the fourth century C.E., through the emperor Diocletian's division of the empire. The empire was divided into eastern and western halves and then into more easily administered units. Although some later emperors such as Constantine ruled the whole empire, the division between east and west became more marked as time passed. Financial pressures, urban decline, underpaid troops and consequently overstretched frontiers - all of these finally caused the collapse of the western empire under waves of barbarian incursions in the early fifth century C.E. The last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed in 476 C.E., though the empire in the east, centered on Byzantium (Constantinople), continued until the fifteenth century.

© Trustees of the British Museum

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Legend has it that Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by Romulus, its first king. In 509 B.C.E. Rome became a republic ruled by the Senate (wealthy landowners and elders) and the Roman people. During the 450 years of the republic Rome conquered the rest of Italy and then expanded into France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa and Greece.

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(Image credit: Public Domain / Vienna Museum)

Women in ancient Rome held very few rights and by law were not considered equal to men, according to a 2018 article on The Great Courses Daily. Roman women rarely held any public office or positions of power, and instead their role was expected to be caring for children and looking after the home.

Most women in Roman society were controlled by either their father or husband. Especially among richer families, women and young girls were married off in order to form political or financial relationships, and rarely could choose their partner.

Despite this lack of rights, there is evidence of a few exceptional women who managed to attain great power and influence in ancient Rome. While some controlled events from the sidelines, others took matters into their own hands, forming conspiracies and even assassination plots to seize control of the Roman empire.

Here are eight of ancient Rome's most influential and powerful women.

Born into a noble family around 83 B.C., Fulvia was influential in Rome around the time of Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 B.C. and built considerable personal wealth after she repeatedly became widowed. The earliest record of Fulvia describes the violent death of her first husband, a politician named Publius Clodius Pulcher.

"When a riot broke out during his campaign for office, Clodius was beaten to death by a mob paid for by a rival, Titus Annius Milo," historian Lindsay Powell told All About History magazine. "Fulvia and his mother dragged the corpse to the Roman Forum and swore to avenge his death."

In 49 B.C. her next husband, Gaius Scribonius Curio, was elected tribune, a powerful position in ancient Rome. Fulvia persuaded her deceased husband's followers to support Curio, said Joanne Ball, who has her doctorate in archaeology from the University of Liverpool in the U.K. "Fulvia was also adept at identifying the political mood within Rome, recognizing the value of allying with Julius Caesar and his populist cause, encouraging each of her husbands to form close links with Caesar," Ball said.

In 47 B.C., Fulvia married again - this time, to Mark Antony, Caesar's right-hand man. After Caesar's death three years later, Antony became one of three co-rulers of Rome, and the couple carried out a number of revenge killings, removing their political enemies, including politician Marcus Tullius Cicero. After Cicero's death in 43 B.C., Fulvia took the dead man's head, spat on it, took out the tongue and "pierced it with pins," according to Cassius Dio's "Roman History" (translation by Earnest Cary, through penelope.uchicago.edu).

The height of Fulvia's power was quickly followed by her downfall. In 42 B.C., Antony and his co-rulers left Rome to pursue Caesar's assassins, leaving Fulvia "de facto co-ruler of Rome," according to Ball. "In 41 B.C., in support of Antony's political ambitions, she opened hostilities with Octavian - Caesar's adopted son and Antony's main rival - raising eight legions in support of the cause," Ball said. "But by this stage, Antony's affections had been taken by Cleopatra of Egypt." Fulvia was defeated and died in 40 B.C., while exiled in Greece.

Livia Drusilla

As the wife of Augustus (63 B.C.-A.D. 14), Rome's first emperor, Livia was one of the most powerful women during the early years of the Roman Empire. Though the couple did not produce an heir, Livia held a significant personal freedom,and was one of the most influential women Rome would ever see, according to Ball.

In A.D. 4, Augustus adopted Tiberius, Livia's son from a previous marriage, and appointed him his successor. After Augustus' death, Tiberius did become emperor; however, there were rumors that Livia had killed her husband after he intended to change his successor. According to ancient historian Cassius Dio, it was rumored that Livia "smeared with poison some figs that were still on trees ... She ate those that had not been smeared, offering the poisoned ones to [Augustus]," (translation by Earnest Cary, through penelope.uchicago.edu).

The emperor's will granted Livia a new name Julia Augusta, which also served as an honorary title. According to Dio, she remained influential during her son's reign until her death in A.D. 29.

Valeria Messalina

Valeria Messalina was the third wife of Emperor Claudius (10 B.C.-A.D. 54), though she was at least 30 years younger. According to some historians, she had relationships with several members of the imperial court and allied herself with others to secure her position. "Her lovers were legion, the gossips said, and she was exhibitionist in her lusts," Michael Kerrigan wrote in his book "The Untold History of the Roman Emperors" (Cavendish Square Publishing LLC, 2016).

Messalina formed an influential clique of the most important men in the imperial court, whom she used to remove rivals and secure her powerful position and influence in Rome. "Whenever they desired to obtain anyone's death, they would terrify Claudius and, as a result, would be allowed to do anything they chose," Dio reports in "Roman History".

After the birth of Messalina's son, Brittanicus, she used her influence to remove any rival claimants to the imperial throne, Paul Chrystal wrote in his book "Emperors of Rome: The Monsters" (Pen and Sword Military, 2019). "The first to go was Pompeius Magnus (A.D. 30-47), the husband of Claudius's daughter Antonia, who was stabbed while in bed."

In A.D. 48, Messalina and her lover, an aristocrat and consul named Gaius Silius, married while Claudius was away from Rome. According to historian Tacitus' ancient text "Annals", the pair plotted to overthrow the emperor and rule together. After the couple's plan was discovered by the emperor, he had the couple executed.

Agrippina the Younger

At different points in her life, Agrippina was the wife, niece, mother and sister of some of the most famous emperors of ancient Rome, according to Emma Southon, author of "Agrippina: The Most Extraordinary Woman of the Roman World" (Pegasus, 2019). In A.D. 39, her brother, Emperor Caligula (A.D. 12-41), exiled her for plotting against him, but she returned to Rome after he was assassinated in A.D. 41.

Eight years later, she married her uncle, Emperor Claudius. The emperor even changed the laws surrounding incest in order to marry his niece, who wielded a great amount of control over her new husband.
Related: The weird reason Roman emperors were assassinated
"Claudius was bad at politics and bad at ruling, and he was happy to accept help, even from his wife," Southon wrote. "Within a year, she had taken the honorific Augusta, making her Claudius' equal in name. Agrippina became intimately involved in the running and administering of the empire. She was her husband's partner in rule in every way. She broke every rule of appropriate female behaviour by refusing to be a quiet, passive wife."

Agrippina had her husband murdered by poison in A.D. 54, enabling her son to take the throne, according to Tacitus's "Annals". While this secured her influence over the empire through her control over her young son, Nero soon conspired to kill Agrippina, whom he grew to resent because of her control over him. Tacitus describes how Agrippina survived several failed assassination attempts ordered by Nero before she was finally killed in A.D. 59.

Although little is known of her early life, Helena played a key part in the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity, which led the Catholic Church to canonize her. She and her husband, Constantius, were separated before he became emperor in A.D. 293. It was not until her son Constantine became emperor in A.D. 306 that Helena began to assert her influence.

"Helena's story is unique in that her marriage has little bearing on her rise to fame," said Anneka Rene, a researcher at University of Auckland. Under her son's rule, Helena was elevated to the role of "dowager empress" with the honorary title of "Augusta Imperatrix," which gave her unlimited access to the imperial treasury, Rene said.

After converting to Christianity, Helena went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in A.D. 326. There, she ordered the building of churches at Jesus' birthplace in Bethlehem and at the site of his ascension near . While on this pilgrimage, she recovered a number of relics, including pieces of True Cross from Jesus' crucifixion.

"She would later be given a sainthood; her feast day is celebrated on May 21, Feast of the Holy Great Sovereigns Constantine and Helena, Equal to the Apostles," Rene said. "Her relics, and even her bones, are now found right across the world - most notably, her skull is on display in the Cathedral of Trier in Germany."

Claudia Metrodora

Although it was incredibly rare for women in ancient Rome to be directly involved in politics, Claudia Metrodora is one such example of a rich, powerful and influential person in her community.

A Greek woman with Roman citizenship, Metrodora held extraordinary power on the island of Chios, reaching the most important position on that island. "Metrodora held several political offices, including twice being appointed "stephanophoros," the highest magistracy on Chios, and "gymnasiarch" (meaning official) four times," Ball said.

Metrodora was also president of an important religious festival on three separate occasions. "One inscription in particular describes her as 'being desirous of glory for the city ... a lover of her homeland and priestess of life of the divine empress Aphrodite Livia, by reason of her excellence and admirable behaviour,'" Rene said. "Metrodora's life in Chios is most illuminating of the power and riches women could wield. Whilst often assumed that women held power mostly behind the throne, she instead takes centre stage in her own story."

Unlike some of ancient Rome's other influential women, Metrodora didn't marry into her power. "The most remarkable thing about Claudia Metrodora is how visible she was in public life in both Chios and Ephesus [an ancient Greek city in what is now Turkey], defying the supposed conventions limiting female behaviour in the Roman-Greek world," Ball said. "She demonstrates that women could operate in civic life within the Romano-Greek world, financing public works and holding office in her own right, rather than wielding power indirectly through her husband or son."

Agrippina the Elder

The granddaughter of Emperor Augustus, Agrippina was ambitious but realized that as a woman, she would have to use the men around her to gain power in Rome, according to Rene. "As with many Roman women before her, Agrippina knew a Roman woman could wield little power on her own, so [she] used her wiles to best puppet those around her and wield power through her children," she said.

After marrying Germanicus Caesar, a popular army general, in A.D. 5, Agrippina joined him on his military campaigns, rather than remaining safe in the capital as was customary. "In A.D. 14, she was with him at great personal risk when he faced down mutinous legionaries in the camps of Germania Inferior," Powell said.

Agrippina even acted to stop the mutiny, presenting herself and her son Gaius, who would later become Emperor Caligula, before the mutinous soldiers, according to Ball. "She was clearly a quick-witted and bold woman who knew when to take risks in dangerous situations," Ball said.

After Germanicus mysteriously died in A.D. 19, Agrippina suspected he had been murdered. She returned to Rome with her three sons. "Artworks recall Agrippina personally ferrying the ashes of her husband home to Rome," Rene said. "Her arrival would be met with crowds of sympathizers, which continued to grow on her way from the port in Brundisium to Rome. This act would immortalize Agrippina as a loyal and devoted wife."

Once in the capital, Agrippina began promoting the claims of her sons to the throne, which created hostility between her and Tiberius. "She fell foul of Tiberius' regime, particularly his advisor Sejanus, who was wary of the popularity and potential political following Agrippina could command, particularly after she tried to convince Tiberius to adopt her sons as his heirs," Ball said. Several plots against the emperor implicated Agrippina, and she was arrested and exiled. She died in A.D. 33, three years before her younger son Caligula became emperor.

Julia Avita Mamaea

Born in Syria, then part of the Roman Empire, Julia Mamaea was from a noble and powerful family, which included Emperor Caracalla (A.D. 188-217), her cousin. After Caracalla was assassinated in A.D. 217, Julia's nephew Elagabalus eventually took the throne, and Julia and her son Alexander Severus were brought into the heart of the imperial court.

"Her son's time in court would lead him into favour with the Praetorian Guard, a unit who served as the emperor's bodyguard," Rene said. "Julia encouraged this support, reportedly distributing gold to them and encouraging them to keep her son safe from plots against him." Because she was a woman, Julia was not permitted to rule the empire, so she decided to pursue her ambitions through her son.

In A.D. 222, Elagabalus was assassinated, and the Praetorian Guard supported Severus as his successor, largely because of the political support that Mamaea had bought from the Praetorians, according to Ball. "Having bought her son's throne, Julia Mamaea became his Augusta, the highest rank a woman could be given," Ball said. "She was closely involved in the governance of the Empire - so much so that Alexander Severus became seen as an ineffective and weak emperor, impassive when compared to his mother, and a 'mama's boy.' Julia Mamaea dominated Imperial policy during her son's reign."

In A.D. 235, the army, frustrated by the emperor's lack of leadership, assassinated Mamaea and her son while she accompanied him on a campaign in Germania.

"In keeping a tight control over her son, Julia ultimately secured his downfall, as her influence meant that he could never develop into an effective leader in his own right, and in failing to secure the long-term support of the army, his long-term prospects would always be limited," Ball said. "Julia Mamaea knew that a Roman woman could only rule through her husband or son but forgot that her influence needed to be wielded as invisibly as possible. Her refusal, or inability, to step back would turn the Roman army against her son and led to his death and her own."

Additional resources

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8 powerful female figures of ancient Rome

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(Image credit: Public Domain / Vienna Museum) Women in ancient Rome held very few rights and by law were not considered equal to men, according to a 2018 article on The Great Courses Daily . Roman women rarely held any public office or positions of power, and instead their role was expected to be caring for children and looking after the home.

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Julius Caesar was a Dictator in the Roman Empire. He overthrew Rome's previously inefficient system and became the first (and not the last) Dictator of Italy. He also lead a number of influential and successful military campaigns.

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Emperor Augustus superseded Julius Caesar and became the first Emperor of Rome. He was also the Great-nephew of Julius Caesar.

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Helena was an Empress in Rome from 306 to 326. She was extremely instrumental in the spread of Christianity in Rome as her son, Constantine I the Great, was the one to eventually convert to empire to Christianity. It was for this reason that she was eventually canonized by the Catholic church.

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Beginning
625 BCE- Rome was founded in Ancient areas of Italy due to an Etruscan invasion.
Period of Kings
625-510 BCE- Rome advanced militarily and economically by increasing production and trade. The formation of the Roman constitution began.
Republican Rome
510 BCE- Rome is no longer ruled by kings and Etruscan power has declined. Rome is now governed by senators and knights and a dictator is elected in a state of emergency.
451 BCE- The "Twelve Tables" have been established which are a standardized code of laws that applies to all matters.
338 BCE- Rome has continued to expand and has taken over the whole Italian peninsula.
264-146 BCE- The Punic Wars take place which cause Rome to be the biggest naval power in the Mediterranean.
146-82 BCE- Rome is in a period of chaos and civil war.
82-80 BCE- L. Cornelius Sulla is elected as emergency dictator, but resigns in 79 BCE.
60 BCE- Julius Caesar begins to rise to power and a shift to Imperialism begins.
51 BCE- Through the conquering of the Celtic Gaul, Julius Caesar caused Rome's borders to reach past the Mediterranean. The Senate's control over the government is staring to weaken.
44 BCE- Julius Caesar is assassinated and replaced by his son Octavian along side Mark Antony.
31 BCE- Rome overtakes Egypt which resulted in the death of Mark Antony. Octavian assumes the title of Augustus and becomes Rome's first emperor.
Imperial Rome
31 BCE-117 AD- The Roman Empire sees numerous decades of prosperity, expansion, and peace.
117 AD- The Roman Empire reaches it's peak size spanning over three continents.
286 AD-The Roman Empire is split into two empires both with different emperors. The western empire suffers from numerous Gothic Invasions.
455-476 AD- The western empire is sacked by Vandals and Rome as a whole continues to decline. The western empire falls in 476.
Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)
1453 AD- The empire fell when Turks took control of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul), it's capital.