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Overview:
The study of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Subdiciplines: macroeconomics, microeconomics

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Overview
Anthropology studies humans scientifically. It discovers what makes us human due to religious, cultural, linguistics and relationship factors.

Sub Disciplines
Social anthropology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, paleo anthropology, archaeology anthropology

4 main fields include…

Modern human societies, past human societies, human communication, biological studies

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Archaeology looks at human behavior, by examining tools and artifacts, and sites that have had human life.

An example of this is at a site where there was a village, where archaeologists found small arrowheads around the outskirts of the village, and the behavior assumed that children were practicing to make arrowheads, because they were likely taught how in the village by an adult, and they would practice to improve.

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Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its interaction with the brain. Linguists ask questions such as:
- do we have the ability to imagine concepts that cannot be described using the language we speak?
- Are we born with the capacity for language?

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Social life, social change, social consequences of human behaviour.

The groups that people belong to and social interactions between and within those groups

Social Relationships.

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Psychology is the scientific study of mental states and the processes of human behaviour. It focuses on:
~Perception
~Cognition
~Attention
~Emotion
~Intelligence
~Subjective Personality
~Motivation
~Brain function
~Personality
The four main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and potentially change the behaviour and mental processes of others

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Microeconomics

The study of the formation of a market through interactions within a market to build a market system.

Macroeconomics

The examination of the economy through the theory of general-equilibrium.

Economic growth consists of the increase in the output depending on capita.

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Anthropology subdisciplines include social anthropology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, paleo anthropology, and archaeology anthropology. The main 4 specialisations include modern human societies, past human societies archaeology, human communication, and biological studies.

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Historical archaeology - It is the study of cultures with some form of writing and deals with objects and issues from the past. For example the study of medieval Europe, using written documents.

Ethnoarchaeology - the study of living people designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record.

Experimental archaeology - It is the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archeological.

Archaeometry - a field of research that looks at the chemical composition of remains

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The development of linguistics - inferring the origin of languages.

The history of linguistics - the study of linguistic change.

Sociolinguistics - exploring the links between linguistic change and social structures.

​Psycholinguistics - exploring the representation and operation of language in the mind

Neurolinguistics - exploring the representation of language in the brain

Theoretical linguistics - examining the common laws and universal features of human language

Language acquisition - which examines how children acquire their first language, and how children and adults acquire and learn their second and subsequent languages.

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Sub-disciplines

Theoretical Sociology

Historical Sociology

Sociology of knowledge

Sociology of Religion

Urban Sociology

Rural Sociology

Specializations

Criminology

Environment

Community

Family and life course

Work, Economy, and globalization

Health

Social class

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SUBDISCIPLINES
Clinical Psychology: includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress and helping the well-being of a subject.

Biological Psychological: the scientific study of the biological substrates of psychology, behaviour and mental state. Explores how behaviours are intertwined with the nervous system; studies how the brain functions in order to understand the behaviour

SPECIALIZATIONS

Neuropsychology: concerned with how a person's cognition and behaviour are related to their brain and nervous system. Neuropsychology is different from neurology as neurology focuses on the pathology of the nervous system, while neuropsychology focuses on the connections between the brain and the mind.

Psychotherapy: the use of psychological methods to help a person change behaviour, increase happiness, and overcome problems. It aims to help an individual's relationships social skills, Wellbeing and mental health.

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policy studies

public policy

comparative politics

political economy

international relations

political theory

public administration

public policy

political methodology

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Opportunity cost

The potential opportunities lost once money is spent, as the money could have been invested elsewhere

Scarcity

The limited supply of a product or resource

Demand

The level of consumption of goods by the public

Supply

The amount of a resource or product available

Equilibrium

Buyers and sellers are satisfied with price, supply, and demand

Growth

The increase in output over a period of time

Firms

The combination of labour and capital that produces goods for sale on the market, is often cheaper to invest through firms rather than directly inputting money into the market

Market failure

Social costs or benefits of production that are not reflected in market prices, an example of this would be a natural monopoly

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Kinship: blood relations, family tree

Urbanism : Urban anthropology is the study of cultural systems and identities in cities as well as the various political, social, economic, and cultural forces that shape urban forms and processes.

Stereotypes: a widely kept assumption or oversimplified view on someone or something

Cybernetics: the science of communication and control theory that is concerned with the study of automatic systems

Humanism: an outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. Humanist beliefs stress the potential value and goodness of human beings, emphasise common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems.

Etymology: the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history

Medical: relating to science of medicine , treatment of illness

Ethnography: is a method of analysing social or cultural interaction.

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Material culture - could be items that hold no evolutionary value, but hold a value to the specific individual due to their culture. There’s also cultural items such as clothing and jewelry. Finally there could be items that represent their status which consequently hold cultural significance

Space and time - archeologists study at different sites and are able to deduce the evolution of technologies and human activities through the different layers that show different time periods in the same site compared to the same time in different sites.

Context - Archaeologists need to look at why certain items or human made things are the way they are which could have been affected by the surrounding area, and interhuman interactions

Technology - technologies such as arrowheads and other artifacts are found and help us deduce how advanced a civilization was during that certain time period.

Culture - The term archaeological culture refers to similar artifacts and features from a specific time frame and within a consistent geographical area

Ecology - They study that helps the reconstruction of the past environment with the help of found material

History - Though the advances of time

Humanity - Archeologist explore materials to find the originality of civilization

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1. ​Morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyses the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.

2. Lexicology analyzes the lexicon of a specific language, examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage, and definition.

3. Phoneme is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language.

4. Semantics is the study of reference, meaning, or truth. The term can be used to refer to subfields of several distinct disciplines, including philosophy, linguistics and computer science.

5. Semiotics is the study of the use of symbolic communication. Semiotics can include signs, logos, gestures and other linguistic and nonlinguistic communication methods.

6. Historical Chinese phonology deals with reconstructing the sounds of Chinese from the past. As Chinese is written with logographic characters, not alphabetic or syllabary, the methods employed in Historical Chinese phonology differ considerably from those employed in.

7. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.

Historical linguistics, also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time.

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Demography

the study of demographics, the social characteristics and statistics of a human population.

Class System

Different classes separating people in terms of social class and individual achievements.

Social Patterns

Social actions that are repeated and have some probability to occur again

Majority

the social group considered to have the most power in a particular place

Minority

The social group considered to have the least amount of power in a particular place

Social Mobility

The movement of people, families, or communities within or between the social strata

Leads to a change in their social status

Social Change

Change in human interactions and relationships that transform social institutions

Usually have profound consequences on society

Socialization

The process of learning the norms and values of a society.

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Personality-  is the characteristic set of behaviors, cognitions and emotional patterns that are formed from biological and environmental factors that change over time.

Cognition- mental action or acquisition of knowledge and the understanding through ideas, experiences, and the senses.

Phobia-

Conflict-

Conformity-  tendency to change our perspective, beliefs, or behaviours in ways that are consistent with group norms, politics or being like-minded

Freud’s Personality Theory:

Id- First and instinctive component of personality, part of the unconscious containing all the urges and impulses.

Ego-  is the only part of the consciousness personality. The ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the world.

Superego- holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that acquire form our parents and society, provides guidelines for making judgments.

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Democracy, citizens vote on representatives

Freedom, the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint..

Authoritarian, favoring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, at the expense of personal freedom

Liberty, the state of being free

Equality. the state of being equal

Capital, money or wealth

Power, the capacity or ability to direct or influence the behavior of others

Equity, the quality of being fair and impartial

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Study of the discipline that deals with the theory and aspects of politics. Influences that affect a person's political ideals and views as well as political beliefs that affect society as a whole.

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Theoretical Research: Utilizing quantitative economic values, which employ a variety of concepts. Can form methodological frameworks or heterodox economic theories (beyond neoclassical economics, ie. feminist, post-Keynesian, insitutional)

Empirical Research: Determined through the use of statistics and economic data.

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Data is attained through: Material observation , behavioral observation, biological observation, direct communication, and participant observation.

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Major Methods: Preparation (develop hypothesis), digging, record keeping and preservation

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Quantitative methods

Laboratory experiments

Speech and language corpora

Natural interactions

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Psychologists carry out research and study in psychology using the scientific approach. The fundamental steps in doing psychology research are posing a question, developing a study plan, gathering data, examining the findings, drawing conclusions, and disseminating the results. Utilizing experiments, testing of hypotheses, and observation, psychology explores mental processes, experiences, and human behaviour. Memory, cognitive processes, attention and perception, language acquisition, linguistics, human development, autism, and mental illness are all included in the study of psychology.

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Linear Progression

Method to summarize how the mean of the outcome variable (response) changes with the value defined by a linear function of explanatory variables (predictors)

Maximum Likelihood Estimation

method of estimating the parameters of an assumed probability distribution, given some observed data

Laboratory and survey experiments

Method of receiving data from sociological questioning and experimenting

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The controlled experiments common to the natural sciences are uncommon in economics; instead broad data is observationally studied. But, there is increasing use of natural experiments. Much of economics is criticized for being non-replicable.

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All five types of field methods involve observation, including the use of any of the five human senses to acquire information about the environment.

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Natural Science Comparison: The process of gathering the information is similar to the scientific method as it follows the general steps to doing an experiment. In comparison to history, archaeology uses human made artifacts, instead of relying on written records.

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Linguists apply the scientific method to the study of language. It is considered a science because laboratory experiments are performed both in linguistics and in the natural sciences. Further, quantitative methods are often used in the natural sciences to find a definitive answer to certain questions. Linguistics may seem like a quantitative study, but it has more definitive answers that the natural sciences do sometimes.

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Sociology takes into account both qualitative and quantitative data. Data is used to make falsifiable hypotheses and generalizations. Sociology is based off of evidence from research and historical sources. Experiments are conducted in a similar way to the natural sciences.

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The fundamental steps in doing psychology research are posing a question, developing a study plan, gathering data, examining the findings, drawing conclusions, and disseminating the results. Which is also how some scientific research is found.

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Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and laws

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Mercantilism:

A nation's wealth is dependent on the accumulation of gold and silver.

Nations without natural gold and silver resources participated in the trade of other goods and services to obtain it, and restricting other imports

Imposition of protective tariffs and limiting manufacturing in the colonies

Classical Political Economy:

Labour; division of labour for productivity,

Resource allocation (labour, land and capital)

Human population growth and diminishing returns (malthus)

Marxian Economics:Derived from the works of karl marx

Neoclassical Economics:the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth

Marginalism: explains the discrepency in the value of goods and services by reference of their secondary, or marginal, unity.

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Humanism: An outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. Humanist beliefs stress the potential value and goodness of human beings, emphasize common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems.

Multiculturalism:​​ The view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant political culture.

Colonialism : the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Evolutionism : theory of evolution and how life came to be as well as the belief that organisms deliberately improved themselves through progressive inherited change

Environmentalism : the theory that environment, as opposed to heredity, has the primary influence on the development of a person or group.

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1. Archaeological theory: Functions as the application of philosophy of science to archaeology, and is occasionally referred to as philosophy of archaeology

2. Systems theory: Study of systems in nature, science and society

3. Reconstruction theory: Archeologist have to piece information through methodology

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Daniel Everett’s Theory: Language Scratches the Communicative Itch

- States that modern humans (Homo-sapiens) here are not the first to speak but homo Erectus was the very first to make their own language.

-Chomsky’s Nativist Linguistic Theory: Universal Grammar

-States that every Human being's brain possesses language learning capabilities. Chomsky also stated that every human brain has a built-in tool called the Language Acquisition device (LAD).This is a hypothetical concept, Because neuroscientists have not recognized This LAD anywhere in the brain.

-B.F. Skinner Behaviourist Theory

-This Theory states that learning a language is like learning a new skill through repetition, observation, imitation, errors, rewards, and punishments

-Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist Theory

-The theory suggests that a child since birth is continually engaging into social interactions which helps him develop cognitive functions.

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Urban Sociology--Utilitarianism

Choices that are made due to the consequences of actions; it usually follows the rule that it is more utilitarian if the decision is made with the majority of people. Since most people live in urban areas, utilitarianism is used commonly within governments in order to impact the urban areas

Sociology of Religion--Functionalism

The perspective of following certain norms and rules that the society portrays, such as certain gender roles like a mother and father, and one can’t work without the other.

Sociology for work and economics--Capitalism

System based on private ownership and means of production, wage labor, and free market)

Marxism

A social, political, and economic theory named after Karl Marx

Attempts to understand the effects of capitalism on labour, production and economic development

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Communism

The de-establishment of wealth and class. A theoretical egalitarian society, often confused with totalitarianism.

Capitalism

The concept of a “free market” anyone can make and acquire wealth, classes are established.

Socialism

Though under a capitalist system, basic necessities such as food and housing are provided

Totalitarianism

A communist society in which people are completely subservient to the government

Authoritarianism

A government demands strict adherence to the rules and regulations.

Anarchisim

The de-establishment of power and rulers.

Liberalism

A capatalist society that believes in civil liberties and democracy

Conservatism

A capitalist system that believes in upholding traditional values and minimizing government interference

Democracy

a government where every citizen has an equal voice

Dictatorship

Government that had ‘absolute’ power assigned to one person

Monarchy

Government that had a ruling family line and a monarch at the head.

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The methodology for gathering knowledge in sociology involves collecting quantitative and qualitative by taking a census or sampling a portion of a population, examining and analyzing historical documents, performing statistical tests, observing social settings and behavior, doing questionnaires or open-ended interviews, using computer models, conducting experiments with controlled, dependent, and independent variables, and doing long-term studies of individuals.

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Karl Marx- economist who was also prevalent in the field of philosophy; economic determinism and production

John Meynard Keynes- fundamentally changed macroeconomics; Keynesian economics

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Franz Boas —> Boas is well known for his theory of cultural relativism, which held that all cultures were essentially equal but simply had to be understood in their own terms.

Charles Darwin —>developed the theory of natural selection and evolution

Margaret Mead —> applied modern psychology to studying and understanding culture and her famous theory of imprinting found that children learn by watching adult behavior.

Nature vs nurture

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1. Kathleen Kenyon - She created the concept of the baulk, which is now a very significant part of stratigraphic analyses in modern archaeology

2. Howard Carter -  He was the one who found the tomb of King Tutankhamen

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Noam Chomsky
Chomsky did research to understand the ability of childrens acquisition of language. He suggested a system of principles and parameters of a child’s innate understanding of syntax and semantics that reorientated the approaches to studying English.

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Auguste Comte (1798-1857)--The Father of Sociology

The term sociology was first coined in 1780, but later reinvented by Comte in 1938

He divided sociology into two main fields

The study of forces that held society together

The study of the causes of social change

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)

Helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895.

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Sigmund Freud: Considered to be the father of psychoanalysis, Freud was an Austrian neurologist. He is largely accredited with establishing the field of talk therapy, many psychoanalytic approaches in modern therapy are heavily drawn from Freudian principles. Further, he developed many influential theories on the subconscious mind and the significance of dreams.

Philip Zimbardo: An influential psychologist best known for his work with the Stanford Prison Experiment. The experiment serves as a study of how situational forces influence human behaviour. He was involved in multiple psychological books and is often talked about in highschool and college psychology classes.

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Karl Marx - German scholar Karl Marx offered many classic theories to explain different aspects of society.

Joseph Stalin - Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was a Georgian revolutionary and Soviet political leader who led the Soviet Union.