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Under most laws, young people are recognized as adults at age 18. But emerging science about brain development suggests that most people don't reach full maturity until the age 25. Guest host Tony Cox discusses the research and its implications with Sandra Aamodt, neuroscientist and co-author of the book Welcome to Your Child's Brain.

TONY COX, HOST:

I'm Tony Cox and this is TELL ME MORE from NPR News. Michel Martin is away. We'd like to spend this part of the program talking about the passage from childhood to adulthood and how that may be tougher for one distinct group of young people.

Most of the privileges and responsibilities of adulthood are legally granted by the age of 18. That's when you can vote, enlist in the military, move out on your own, but is that the true age of maturity? A growing body of science says, no. That critical parts of the brain involved in decision-making are not fully developed until years later at age 25 or so.

In a moment, we'll hear about how child advocates are hoping to use this research to change the laws about their foster care. But first, to learn more about adolescent brain development and maturity, we are joined now by neuroscientist, Sandra Aamodt. She is the coauthor of the book, "Welcome to Your Child's Brain: How the Mind Grows from Conception to College."

Sandra, welcome to the program. It's nice to have you.

DR. SANDRA AAMODT: It's nice to be here.

COX: Is this idea that the brains of 18 year olds aren't fully developed a matter of settled science?

AAMODT: Yes. The car rental companies got to it first, but neuroscientists have caught up and brain scans show clearly that the brain is not fully finished developing until about age 25.

COX: To not be too clinical in the spin that we put on this, what parts of the brain are we talking about and what changes happen between the ages of 18 and, let's say, 25?

AAMODT: So the changes that happen between 18 and 25 are a continuation of the process that starts around puberty, and 18 year olds are about halfway through that process. Their prefrontal cortex is not yet fully developed. That's the part of the brain that helps you to inhibit impulses and to plan and organize your behavior to reach a goal.

And the other part of the brain that is different in adolescence is that the brain's reward system becomes highly active right around the time of puberty and then gradually goes back to an adult level, which it reaches around age 25 and that makes adolescents and young adults more interested in entering uncertain situations to seek out and try to find whether there might be a possibility of gaining something from those situations.

COX: So this is important. Are the physiological changes in the brain, in terms of the development of young people, as significant and impactful as the cultural changes and environmental changes that they go through vis-a-vis peer pressure things of that sort?

AAMODT: Well, actually, one of the side effects of these changes in the reward system is that adolescents and young adults become much more sensitive to peer pressure than they were earlier or will be as adults.

So, for instance, a 20 year old is 50 percent more likely to do something risky if two friends are watching than if he's alone.

COX: Is there a difference between males and females with regard to their brain development, particularly in this age category?

AAMODT: Females' brains develop about on average two years earlier than male brains, so you're more likely to have a late developing male brain than female.

COX: So when females say they're smarter than guys, it really is true?

AAMODT: Especially around about the age of 15 or so. Yes.

COX: What does this mean? In a minute, we're going to be hearing from some advocates who think that the foster care system needs to be changed, in that in some states, when you reach the age of 18, you are booted out of foster care and their argument is based on some of the research that you are now citing that these young people are not really ready for the adult world.

What is the impact for someone who lives in a foster care kind of setting as far as their brain development is concerned?

AAMODT: One of the things that deprived childhood causes is problems with prefrontal cortex function, so somebody who has had an unstable home life is more likely to have trouble with planning and organizing behavior and with inhabiting impulses than somebody who has had a stable life.

COX: Would you say, based on the research that you are now citing, that it would make more sense to have the legal age become 25 instead of 18 or 21 in some cases?

AAMODT: I think it makes sense to have different ages for different functions. Obviously some 18 year olds are competent to go out into the world and handle things by themselves and some of them aren't. It would be nice if we had a little more flexibility to distinguish the two in the legal system.

COX: Final thing is, if these age limits are not adjusted to take into account the effect that the research has shown, what is the price - if I can put it that way - that society will end up paying down the road? I know that's a pretty large question. But another way of saying it is how important is it for us to address this and do something about it now?

AAMODT: Many of the costs of adolescents are actually - what we think of as the costs of adolescence, the risks of crime and car accidents and all the crazy things that adolescents do are actually more issues with young adults, people in the 18 to 25 age range, largely because they have more opportunities to get into these kinds of trouble because they have less parental supervision than the younger adolescents do.

COX: Sandra Aamodt is a neuroscientist and the co-author of "Welcome to Your Child's Brain: How the Mind Grows from Conception to College." She joined us from Capital Public Radio in Sacramento, California.

Sandra, thank you very much.

AAMODT: Thank you.

Copyright © 2011 NPR. All rights reserved. Visit our website terms of use and permissions pages at www.npr.org for further information.

NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by an NPR contractor. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR's programming is the audio record.

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Brain Maturity Extends Well Beyond Teen Years

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Under most laws, young people are recognized as adults at age 18. But emerging science about brain development suggests that most people don't reach full maturity until the age 25. Guest host Tony Cox discusses the research and its implications with Sandra Aamodt, neuroscientist and co-author of the book Welcome to Your Child's Brain.

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In the NPR interview completed by Tony Cox titled "Brain Maturity Extends Well Beyond Teen Years" Sandra Aamodt, a neuroscientist, argues that a person is not an adult at the age of 18, but instead reaches adulhood after 25 when their brain is fully developed.

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"So the changes that happen between 18 and 25 are a continuation of the process that starts around puberty, and 18 year olds are about halfway through that process. Their prefrontal cortex is not yet fully developed. That's the part of the brain that helps you to inhibit impulses and to plan and organize your behavior to reach a goal" (Aamodt).

"for instance, a 20 year old is 50 percent more likely to do something risky if two friends are watching than if he's alone" (Aamodt).

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My thoughts on this article are that I agree because I think when your brain is fully developed which is at 25 is when you are an adult. The part of the brain that isn't developed can affect decision making etc. Decision making I think is an important skill for an adult.

This article links to an example from the book "Dear Martin" by Nic Stone. It links because in the book Manny and Justyce are 17-18 and the scenario where Manny was killed and Justyce was shot there were decisions that led up to that moment including the choice to turn up the music while being told to turn it down. If Manny were near the age of 25 he might've chosen different decisions because his brain would've been fully developed. Even though in this case he was defending himself because of what Tison was saying to them there was probably a better decision that could've been made that wouldn't have ended in Manny losing his life.

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Turning 18 is a milestone for any young adult, from gaining legal rights and responsibilities to feeling a newfound sense of freedom and maturity. While it's an exciting time in any person's life, it's important to understand exactly what factors change when you turn 18 in order to establish yourself as a respected and valuable member of your community. From purchasing fireworks to registering to vote, here's what you can legally do when you're 18:

What Can You Do At 18 Legally?

If you're nearing the age of 18, you have likely seen the meme circulating on social media that says "don't grow up, it's a trap." Maybe you rolled your eyes or became overcome with fear - but either way, adulthood is inevitable. And while most 18-year-olds in the United States still live with their parents, they are legally allowed to do many new things upon entering adulthood. It is important to keep in mind that the responsibilities and consequences of being 18 are much more severe than they were as a minor. You are legally responsible for all of your actions, assets, and decisions. Cheers to 18 years!

1. Vote.

The 26th amendment to the Constitution, enacted on July 1, 1971, established the legal voting age for Americans as 18. You can vote in all national and local elections once you are registered to vote.

2. Join the military.

As a legal adult, you can enlist or be drafted into a branch of the military.

3. Donate blood and become an organ donor.

To help save the lives of others, you can register to donate blood, as well as become an organ donor.

4. Work full time.

As a minor, you were only allowed to work a certain about of hours at your job because of child labor laws. But as a legal adult, you can work full-time and overtime.

5. Play the lottery.

From scratch-off tickets to the Powerball, anyone 18 and older can play the lottery.

6. Obtain special driving permits.

If you work for a company that has heavy equipment or provides transportation services that require special driving permits; you can now train for and acquire a special driving license.

7. Purchase and use tobacco products (in some states).

The legal age to buy tobacco products has recently changed from 18 to 21 in some states across the US, but the majority of states have kept it at 18 years old. States that have changed the age to 21 include Hawaii, California, New Jersey, Oregon, Maine, Massachusetts, as well as 350 cities.

8. Drive late at night.

Most states have a legal curfew for minors when it comes to the time they are able to be out driving at night. If pulled over past a certain hour, a person under 18 would receive a traffic violation.

9. Consent to having sex with someone that is 18 or older.

The federal government has established 18 as the age of consent to legally engage in sexual activities with another person aged 18 or older. The age of consent may be younger or older according to your state's law.

10. Establish a checking and savings account and apply for loans.

Having a job may be a requirement for loan approvals.

11. Apply for credit cards and establish your creditworthiness by paying your bills on time.

Credit card companies are known to target the younger crowd. You can apply for your first credit card without a cosigner once you turn 18.

12. Get piercings or tattoos without parents permission.

Before eighteen, you have to have a parent accompany you when you go to get a tattoo or piercing.

13. Change your birth name.

If you aren't happy with the name your mom and dad gave you when you were born, you can now name yourself something different by filing a petition in the local civil court.

14. File a lawsuit.

Anyone who is 18 years or older and mentally competent can file a lawsuit.

15. Get married.

When you turn 18, you can get married without parental approval in 48 of the 50 states. Mississippi requires you to be 21, and Nebraska requires you to be 19 before you can get married without parental consent.

16. Adopt.

Legally, you can adopt both a puppy and a child when you turn 18. Your likelihood of getting approved for either, however, is another story.

17. Create your Will.

While it seems like a far stretch, it's a great idea to develop a Will earlier in life to ensure your assets are accounted for if anything were to happen to you.

18. Buy spray paint, fireworks, and adult videos.

For obvious reasons (graffiti, safety, etc.), there are certain items you cannot buy until you turn 18 years old.

19. Purchase a house and a vehicle.

Now that you can apply for a loan and work full-time, you can also purchase more expensive investments like land, a home, or a vehicle.

20. Move out of your parents' home.

Unless you apply for emancipation, you are legally supposed to be living at home with your parents until you are of age to move out.

Responsibilities of Turning 18

1. If you are a male, you are required to register with the Selective Service System within 30 days of turning 18. According to the law, www.sss.gov/default.htm, you can be prosecuted if you do not register. If convicted, you can be fined up to $250,000 and/or spend up to five years in jail.

2. As a legal adult, you are now responsible for your actions. If you violate any law, you will be charged as an adult.

3. You can be selected for jury duty.

4. You are legally obligated to pay all debts you incur.

What's still restricted when you turn 18?

While turning 18 comes with many new opportunities, rights, and responsibilities, there are a few restrictions that have yet to be lifted, like purchasing and drinking alcohol (21 years old), purchasing tobacco products in some states (21 years old), going to a casino (21 years old), and renting a vehicle ( 20 to 25 years old).

For more details on your rights and responsibilities as a legal adult, check out additional information on Privileges of Turning 18.

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Turning 18 is a milestone for any young adult, from gaining legal rights and responsibilities to feeling a newfound sense of freedom and maturity. While it's an exciting time in any person's life, it's important to understand exactly what factors change when you turn 18 in order to establish yourself as a respected and valuable member of your community.

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On the website The Law Dictionary the article "What Can You Do At 18 Legally?" it talks about the importance of fully understanding what you can do at the age of 18 and lists all the things you can do legally when you turn 18.

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"Turning 18 is a milestone for any young adult, from gaining legal rights and responsibilities to feeling a newfound sense of freedom and maturity" (The Law Dictionary).

"It is important to keep in mind that the responsibilities and consequences of being 18 are much more severe than they were as a minor. You are legally responsible for all of your actions, assets, and decisions" (The Law Dictionary).

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America has been inconsistent at best when it comes to deciding what 18- to 21-year-olds are too young, or just old enough, to do.

A Selective Service lottery in Washington on July 17, 1941. Eighteen-year-old Americans could be drafted into the armed forces, while the minimum voting age was 21. Credit... Associated Press

The proposed legislation was never meant to be taken seriously, said John Rodgers, a Vermont state senator and a fierce gun rights advocate.

"In light of the dangerous and life-threatening consequences of cellphone use by young people, it is clear that persons under 21 years of age are not developmentally mature enough to safely possess them," Mr. Rodgers wrote in a bill this month proposing to outlaw the use of cellphones by anyone under 21.

It was in part, he said, a rebuke of a law Vermont passed in 2018 that banned the sale of firearms to most people under 21, and an attempt to show the absurdity of allowing 18-year-olds to go to war but forbidding them from enjoying the constitutional rights and vices afforded to older Americans.

Mr. Rodgers, who said his family had been hunting the woods of the Northeast Kingdom since the 1800s, was quickly bombarded with angry tweets, emails and calls to his home that accused him of trying to create a nanny state. His critics missed the point, he said.

"There are all these pushes around some parts of the country for 16-year-olds to vote but we're saying they're not mature enough to smoke or purchase a gun. So which is it?" said Mr. Rodgers. "When are you really an adult?"

It is a question that has possessed both poets and lawmakers.

But there is not much clarity in state laws. In Alaska, teenagers as young as 14 can get married with a court order. Only a handful of states allow drinking under 21 and that is under strict circumstances, like when a parent or legal guardian is present.

Eighteen-year-old adults can run for office, go to strip clubs, be sentenced to life in prison, and volunteer to go to war or be drafted, but as of last December, they cannot vape or smoke tobacco products.

And since 1984, when states began raising the legal age of drinking to 21 from 18 in exchange for federal highway funds - in some cases barely a decade after lowering it - they have not been able to buy a beer at a bar in most of the United States, a restriction that has infuriated college students ever since.

"If 18-year-olds are burdened with the responsibility of adulthood, they should be afforded some of its privileges," said Charlotte Lawson, a 21-year-old fourth-year student at the University of Virginia who wrote an opinion piece in the campus paper in 2018 calling for the drinking age to be lowered from 21.

"It's interesting these are people who work full-time jobs, pay their own rent, pay taxes and are eligible to vote," she said. "Yet none of this constitutes adequate proof that a person is responsible enough to drink."

Charlotte Lawson, 21, a fourth-year student at the University of Virginia says there are inconsistencies in society about adulthood. Like many others, she pointed out that the drinking age is higher than the age to join the armed services. Credit... Julia Rendleman for The New York Times

Most laws that govern age restrictions are set by the states.

For much of the 20th century, the minimum age for drinking in the United States dovetailed with the voting age, said Jonathan Parent, a professor of political science at Le Moyne College in Syracuse.

After the end of Prohibition in 1933, most states set the drinking age at 21, which was also the minimum voting age at the time.

Lawmakers reasoned that if you were old enough to vote, you were old enough to drink, Mr. Parent said.

That philosophy continued in 1971, when Congress lowered the voting age to 18 in response to fury over the draft during the Vietnam War, which conscripted thousands of men between 18 and 21 into war.

States, in turn, lowered the drinking age to 18, Mr. Parent said.

President Ronald Reagan signed legislation raising the national drinking age to 21 in 1984. Credit... Associated Press

But in 1984, President Ronald Reagan began pushing hard for states to raise their drinking age, citing what he called a "great national problem" of drinking and driving by teenagers.

In July of that year, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise the age of drinking to 21 or risk a 10 percent cut in their federal highway funds.

The law put the United States at odds with the rest of the Western world, where in some European countries people as young as 16 can drink wine and beer.

"It's pretty unique to us," Mr. Parent said. "It probably goes back to more of a Puritan idea in the United States. This is one of the only countries in the Western world that banned alcohol."

It's a question that Apryl Alexander, a psychology professor at the University of Denver, often gets from her graduate students and that has become even more fraught with the growing research around the development of the juvenile brain.

"We don't have a clear answer for them," Ms. Alexander said. The scientific consensus that most brains do not fully develop until age 25 has led to a host of reforms in the criminal justice system and reexaminations about how society should punish young adults.

But it has also fed the confusion over what young adults should be allowed to do when scientists know that they use less restraint and discipline than older people, said Warren Binford, a law professor at Willamette University and founder of the school's Child and Family Advocacy Clinic.

"We're constantly trying to balance the rights to protection and the rights to participation," said Ms. Binford. "We are a society that loves its liberty, but we're also a society that recognizes that children are unique and special and deserving of protection."

A peace group picketed the Draft Board in Great Neck, N.Y., in October 1967. Credit... Stan Wolfson/Newsday RM, via Getty Images

That tension can leave young people feeling disenfranchised and less likely to participate in civic life, said D. Scott Foster, who was 22 in 2010 when he ran successfully for City Council in Williamsburg, Va.

"They don't see themselves as fit for those roles or having an impact," said Mr. Foster, who is now 32. "If laws are skewed against young folks and public perception is skewed against young folks, it's that much harder to get involved. It takes extra effort and willpower."

Benming Zhang, who was elected to the Williamsburg City Council in 2016 during his final undergraduate year at William & Mary in Virginia, said he was surprised to encounter more skepticism about his campaign from people his own age than older residents of the city.

"The first thing my classmates thought was, 'Who is this kid who is running for office?'" said Mr. Zhang, now 25. "It's that disconnect of seeing one of their own, a like-aged person, sitting on that dais with older, largely white male counterparts.Can we envision someone like us sitting on that dais?"

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When Are You Really an Adult? (Published 2020)

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America has been inconsistent at best when it comes to deciding what 18- to 21-year-olds are too young, or just old enough, to do. The proposed legislation was never meant to be taken seriously, said John Rodgers, a Vermont state senator and a fierce gun rights advocate.

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In The New York Times Article written by Maria Cramer called "When Are You Really an Adult?" The main idea is that there is really not a clear set age when you are considered an adult. It varies depending on state and depending on topic. For example there different age limits for drinking and when you are old enough to go to war.

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"But there is not much clarity in state laws. In Alaska, teenagers as young as 14 can get married with a court order. Only a handful of states allow drinking under 21 and that is under strict circumstances, like when a parent or legal guardian is present" (New York times).

"The law put the United States at odds with the rest of the Western world, where in some European countries people as young as 16 can drink wine and beer" (New York Times).

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My Thoughts on this article is that yes 18 is a milestone and there are a lot of privileges that come along with turning 18. But considering that in some states you cant drink to 21 but yet in 48 out of 50 states you can get married seems strange. You would think you would be able to drink an alcoholic drink before getting married to someone.

This article links to an example from the book "Dear Martin" by Nic Stone. In a similar way to example 3.

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This article is similar to the last where my opinion is also the same. There seems to be three main millstones and those are 16, 18 and 21. But when your considered a full blown adult is unclear. But I think what you can do legally at each of these ages are all different some odd like being able to go to war before you are able to drink. But its more based on maturity level than whether you are an adult or not.

This article links to an example from the book "Dear Martin" by Nic Stone. This links because Justyce the main character of the book is most likely 17 almost 18 and he hadn't hit that 18 milestone yet. But being 17 he hit the 16 year milestone so he can do things like get married. But not being 21 or 18 yet he can't have a drink.