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Body image is how you see yourself when you look in the mirror or when you picture yourself in your mind. It encompasses:

What you believe about your own appearance (including your memories, assumptions, and generalizations).

How you feel about your body, including your height, shape, and weight.

How you sense and control your body as you move.  How you physically experience or feel in your body.

Many of us internalize messages starting at a young age that can lead to either positive or negative body image. Having a healthy body image is an important part of mental wellbeing and eating disorders prevention.
https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/body-image-0

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The four aspects of body image:
1. The way you see yourself (Perceptual)

The way you see your body is not always a correct representation of what you actually look like. For example, a person may perceive themselves to be fat when in reality they are underweight. How a person sees themselves is their perceptual body image.

2. The way you feel about the way you look (Affective)

There are things a person may like or dislike about the way they look. Your feelings about your body, especially the amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction you experience in relation to your appearance, weight, shape and body parts is your affective body image.

3. The thoughts and beliefs you feel about your body (Cognitive)

Some people believe that they will feel better about themselves if they are thinner. Others believe they will look better if they develop more muscle. The way you think about your body is your cognitive body image.

4. The things you do in relation to the way you look (Behavioural)

When a person is dissatisfied with the way they look, they may employ destructive behaviours such as excessive exercising or disordered eating as a means to change appearance. Some people may isolate themselves because they feel bad about the way they look. Behaviours in which you engage as a result of your body image encompasses your behavioural body image.
https://www.confidentbody.net/uploads/1/7/0/2/17022536/nedc_body_image_fact_sheet.pdf

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https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/news/millions-men-uk-affected-body-image-issues-mental-health-foundation-survey

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Millions of men in the UK have struggled with body image issues according to findings published by the Mental Health Foundation.

Almost three in ten adult men (28%) aged 18 and above have felt anxious because of body image issues according to the survey findings.

One in five (21%) said concerns about body image had caused them to dress in a way that hid their body or parts of their body in the last year.

One in five (22%) male respondents said they had negatively compared themselves to others because of body image in the last year.

More than one in ten of the men surveyed (11%) have experienced suicidal thoughts and feelings because of body image issues and 4% of male respondents also said they had deliberately hurt themselves because of body image issues.

The new male-specific breakdown of the findings is from a survey of 4,505 UK adults aged 18 and above carried out earlier this year of which 2,103 were male. The survey was carried out to assess the impact of body image on people in the UK.

Chief Executive of the Mental Health Foundation Mark Rowland said: "Body image is often seen as an issue that only affects women - but it is clear from our data that it is affecting millions of men in the UK as well.

"Men are also being surrounded by images of idealised body types - either through advertising or reality TV shows or digital media. It is important to recognize how this media environment can impact on men.

"The consequences of body image issues can be serious. It is shocking that almost one in 20 of the men who responded to our survey said they had deliberately hurt themselves as a result of body image issues.

"It is important we recognise the significant negative impact a media environment can have on mental health."

The Mental Foundation is calling on the UK Government and relevant industries to take action, including the regulation of social media. It has also campaigned for reality TV shows like Love Island to avoid showing unrealistic body types.

Mr Rowland continued: "There is evidence to suggest that body image issues in men are becoming more pronounced and increases the risks of poor mental health. Men also can find it more difficult to talk about their mental health and to seek help.

"But none of this inevitable. There is much we can do as a society to reduce pressures on men and improve their mental health."

For those seeking help on how to manage body image issues - advice can be found on the Mental Health Foundation website here.
Ends Notes to editors:

All calculations extrapolating how many people UK-wide are affected by body image issues were carried out by the Mental Health Foundation.

The survey was carried out by YouGov. Total sample size was 4,505 adults. Fieldwork was conducted between 25th - 26th March 2019. The survey was carried out online. The figures have been weighted and are representative of all UK adults (aged 18+).

The Mental Health Foundation is asking that social media companies sign the Be Real Campaign's Body Image Pledge and investigate new ways of using their platforms to promote positive body image and ensure that a diversity of body types is presented positively to their users.

The Mental Health Foundation is also asking that social media companies have clear systems for users to report bullying and discrimination and targets for action to be taken They should give users greater control over the content they see in an accessible way.

For further information please contact the Mental Health Foundation press office at [email protected] . Tel 0207 803 1110, or out of hours 07786 437249

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Millions of men in the UK affected by body image issues - Mental Health Foundation survey

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Millions of men in the UK have struggled with body image issues according to findings published by the Mental Health Foundation. Almost three in ten adult men (28%) aged 18 and above have felt anxious because of body image issues according to the survey findings.

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How Celebrity Social Media Affects Your Mental Health and Body Image

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How Celebrity Social Media Affects Your Mental Health and Body Image

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https://www.shape.com/lifestyle/mind-and-body/celebrity-social-media-affects-mental-health-body-image

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Social media has become an increasingly dramatic environment for body image in the past few years, and celebrities have had a huge influence on this shift-for better or worse.

On one hand, countless celebrities post Photoshopped and Facetuned images of themselves that portray an unrealistic beauty standard.

On the other hand, many celebs are using social media as a platform to share their own body-image struggles as a way to both relate to their fans and fight back against these unrealistic standards. Case in point, Lady Gaga defended her "belly fat" on Instagram. Chrissy Teigen explained she hasn't lost all of her "baby weight"-and probably won't try to. Demi Lovato called out a journalist for suggesting her weight was the most newsworthy thing about her.

Plus, celebrities who are notorious for being less-than-honest about how they achieve their shapes- ahem, Kim Kardashian and "flat tummy" tea-are getting called out by other celebs for their sheer ridiculousness. Th e Good Place's Jameela Jamil has essentially made it her mission to call out celebrity diet endorsements. Because even though it's safe to assume that Kim K has an army of personal trainers, chefs, dietitians, and plastic surgeons helping her look the ways she does, it can be easy to forget that when someone with physical attributes society admires says they've found a quick, easy way for you to look just like them.

Overall, things are getting better on the celebrity-social-media front. Still, consuming it can have an impact on how you see your own body, how you view other people's bodies, and what you find attractive in general. That's not to say you should stop following celebs completely, but being armed with the knowledge of how celebrity social media culture may affect you-consciously and subconsciously-is key.

Celebrity bodies on social media impact how you see your own body.

Whether you're aware of it or not, you're probably comparing yourself to celebs you see on social. "It is natural-if often unhealthy-for humans to compare themselves to others," says Carla Marie Manly, Ph.D., a clinical psychologist who deals with self-esteem and body image, and author of Joy From Fear. When "perfect" photos of "perfect" celebrities are put on a pedestal as the "ideal" standard, "those who are not able to achieve this truly impossible level of perfection secretly (or not-so-secretly) feel shamed and defective," she explains.

The effect of viewing celebrity images on body image, especially in women, is well-documented in research. In one of the most famous studies on the topic, researchers showed elementary-school children pictures of thin celebrities or models. "The boys were very jokey about what they would have to do in order to look like the pictures, but the girls said things like 'You would have to not eat' or 'You would have to eat and then throw up,'" explains Taryn A. Myers, Ph.D., chair of the department of psychology at Virginia Wesleyan University and a body-image researcher.

Researchers have even looked into what happens when you actually try to look like celebrities: One study showed that middle school-aged girls were more negatively impacted in terms of body image and eating behaviors by manipulating their own selfies than by simply viewing traditional media images. Another study showed that posting selfies made women immediately feel anxious.

Yet another found that girls comparing themselves to images of celebrities on social media was related to body-image dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. (Interestingly, the same was not true for boys.) "So in general, viewing or posting images can really make us feel worse about our bodies, and this effect may be amplified for celebrity photos," says Myers.

And while everyone can be affected to some degree, there are some who are particularly likely to be negatively impacted by celebrity social media posts. "Social media has the biggest impact on those who are the most vulnerable, whose self-esteem comes from how others perceive or respond to them and who want to 'fit in,'" says Adrienne Ressler M.A., LMSW, a body-image specialist and vice president of professional development at The Renfrew Center Foundation. "Today, with reality shows so popular, one can imagine that, with luck, anyone can be a celebrity." (Hello, #BachelorNation.) In other words, if anyone can be a celebrity, it can feel like everyone is expected to be celebrity-worthy.

Even the comments you see on celebrity social media can impact you.

It's not just the celebrities' posts and images themselves that can affect you. Seeing celebrities get trolled or fat-shamed in social media comments may make you more likely to do it to others-whether that happens IRL or just in your head.

This is all thanks to something called social learning theory, experts say. "We often watch others and see what the consequences of their behaviors are before we choose to engage in those behaviors ourselves," explains Myers. "So if we see others making these negative comments with no repercussions (or even praise or 'likes'), then we are more likely to engage in those behaviors ourselves."

Now, that doesn't necessarily mean that everyone is actively trolling each other just because that behavior has been modeled (although it could mean that for some people). More likely, people start trolling others-and themselves-mentally. A new study out of McGill University found that when women were exposed to instances of celebrity fat-shaming, they felt an increase in negative weight-related attitudes.

The researchers used data from an online survey that was available from 2004 to 2015, identifying 20 different fat-shaming events that happened in the media-like that time Scott Disick body-shamed Kourtney Kardashian for not getting back to her pre-pregnancy weight. (Ugh.) Then, they measured the level of implicit weight bias (or people's gut reactions to fatness and thinness) two weeks before and two weeks after these body-shaming incidents. The researchers noticed a spike in women's implicit anti-fat attitudes after each weight-shaming event, and the more "notorious" the event, the higher the spike. So, their instincts were altered to lean toward weight bias. Yikes.

Think about it: Have you ever said to yourself, "Oh, wow, that's really not a flattering outfit" about someone else? Or "Ugh, this dress totally makes me look fat. I shouldn't wear this" about yourself? These thoughts don't come out of nowhere, and even if you're keeping them to yourself, they can have an impact on how you treat yourself and how you approach and treat other people's bodies. "The more we are in the presence of negativity and crudeness, its familiarity causes us to get used to it, maybe not consciously finding it acceptable, but by its repetition over and over it becomes less shocking to us," explains Ressler. (

So the next time you find yourself thinking these thoughts, ask yourself: "Where did I get this idea that having this kind of body is bad? Where did I learn that clothes need to fit a certain way in order to be flattering?" Or even, "Why am I attaching so much value to physical appearance?" A lifetime of aesthetic values and diet culture can't be unlearned in an instant, but questioning the status quo can help you get closer to a healthier body image and avoid contributing to a cultural phenomenon that only serves to knock people down for not looking like a celebrity IRL.

On a positive note, some celebrities are taking the time to call out trolls and show how, even though they're famous, the comments of others still impact them.

After people said she looked fat at a cancer benefit event, Pink clapped back by posting a Notes app screenshot on Twitter: "While I admit that that dress didn't photograph as well as it did in my kitchen, I will also admit that I felt very pretty. In fact, I feel beautiful. So, my good and concerned peoples, please don't worry about me. I'm not worried about me. And I'm not worried about you either. I am perfectly fine, perfectly happy, and my healthy, voluptuous and crazy strong body is having some much deserved time off. Thanks for your concern. Love, cheesecake."

Here's help on how to consume celebrity social media while maintaining your self-assuredness.

While the celebrity social media landscape is changing, there's still plenty of work to be done. Some of that work is on you, to consume celebrity social media content in a way that protects you and your body image.

Media literacy is key. "Inform yourself about how these celebrity images are manipulated even after the celebrities have personal trainers, make-up artists, etc.," suggests Myers. "And realize how unrealistic it is to try to meet that ideal as a normal human."

Keep social media in its place. "If there's something you like about a celebrity, notice what it is and the feelings you have around it-joy, desire, etc.," says Manly. "Notice that you don't have to act on it, buy it, or try to 'be' it; you can simply notice that you are appreciating an aspect of another person's life."

End the shaming cycle. "Stop calling yourself negative names," advises Ressler. "Catch yourself whenever you find yourself defining who you are in harsh or critical terms. Say to yourself, 'That's not me.'"

Put cognitive dissonance to work. Cognitive dissonance means experiencing thoughts or behaviors that are not consistent with your normal beliefs. "In this case, it would be saying things you like about your body rather than things you hate," explains Myers. "Studies show it is really effective as a way to combat body dissatisfaction in general, and a growing literature suggests it is also helpful on social media. I am personally conducting a study where I have women write a positive statement about either their bodies or something other than their appearance and post it to Instagram. I am finding that any type of cognitive-dissonance statement is effective in increasing self-esteem, particularly appearance-related self-esteem, as well as improving mood."

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Following Your Favorite Celebs On Instagram Might Be Bad for Your Mental Health

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Social media has become an increasingly dramatic environment for body image in the past few years, and celebrities have had a huge influence on this shift-for better or worse. On one hand, countless celebrities post Photoshopped and Facetuned images of themselves that portray an unrealistic beauty standard.

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Impact of Social Media Trends on Body Image

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Impact of Social Media Trends on Body Image

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https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/blog/social-media-trend-body-image

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The Impact of Social Media Trends on Body Image

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Social media trends that focus on body image or food behaviors can be triggering for those susceptible to eating disorders.

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The Impact of Social Media Trends on Body Image

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOsubprKOss

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How The Male Perfect Body Type Has Changed This Past Decade

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_industry

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The term culture industry ( German: Kulturindustrie) was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods-films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.-that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of popular culture, made available by the mass communications media, renders people docile and content, no matter how difficult their economic circumstances. The inherent danger of the culture industry is the cultivation of false psychological needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products of capitalism; thus Adorno and Horkheimer especially perceived mass-produced culture as dangerous to the more technically and intellectually difficult high arts. In contrast, true psychological needs are freedom, creativity, and genuine happiness, which refer to an earlier demarcation of human needs, established by Herbert Marcuse.

Members of The Frankfurt School were much influenced by the dialectical materialism and historical materialism of Karl Marx, as well as the revisitation of the dialectical idealism of Hegel; both events are studied not in isolation, but as part of the process of change. As a group later joined by Jürgen Habermas, they were responsible for the formulation of critical theory. In works such as Dialectic of Enlightenment and Negative Dialectics, Adorno and Horkheimer theorized that the phenomenon of mass culture has a political implication, namely that all the many forms of popular culture are parts of a single culture industry whose purpose is to ensure the continued obedience of the masses to market interests.

The essay is concerned with the production of cultural content in capitalist societies. It critiques the supply-driven nature of cultural economies as well as the apparently inferior products of the system. Horkheimer and Adorno argue that mass-produced entertainment aims, by its very nature, to appeal to vast audiences and therefore both the intellectual stimulation of high art and the basic release of low art. The essay does not suggest that all products of this system are inherently inferior, simply that they have replaced other forms of entertainment without properly fulfilling the important roles played by the now-defunct sources of culture.

Horkheimer and Adorno make consistent comparisons between Fascist Germany and the American film industry. They highlight the presence of mass-produced culture, created and disseminated by exclusive institutions and consumed by a passive, homogenised audience in both systems. This illustrates the logic of domination in post-enlightenment modern society, by monopoly capitalism or the nation state. Horkheimer and Adorno draw attention to the problems associated with a system that 'integrates its consumers from above', arguing that in attempting to realise enlightenment values of reason and order, the holistic power of the individual is undermined.

Adorno and Horkheimer's work was influenced by both the broader socio-political environment in which it was written and by other major theorists. Written in California in the early 1940s in an era which characterized them as two ethnically Jewish, German émigrés, The Culture Industry is influenced by European politics and the war by which the continent was consumed. Simultaneously, the American film industry was characterised by an unprecedented level of studio monopolisation, it was "Hollywood at its most classical, American mass culture at its most Fordist".

Horkheimer and Adorno were influenced heavily by major developers of social, political and economic theory, most notably:

Karl Marx's theories of alienation and commodity fetishism,

Max Weber's instrumental reason, and

Georg Lukacs' concept of the reification of consciousness.

Anything made by a person is a materialization of their labour and an expression of their intentions. There will also be a use value: the benefit to the consumer will be derived from its utility. The exchange value will reflect its utility and the conditions of the market: the prices paid by the television broadcaster or at the box office. Yet, the modern soap operas with their interchangeable plots and formulaic narrative conventions reflect standardized production techniques and the falling value of a mass-produced cultural product. Only rarely is a film released that makes a more positive impression on the general discourse and achieves a higher exchange value, e.g. (1970), starring George C. Scott as the eponymous American general, was released at a time of considerable anti-war sentiment. The opening shot is of Patton in front of an American flag making an impassioned speech. This was a form of dialectic in which the audience could identify with the patriotism either sincerely (the thesis) or ironically (the antithesis) and so set the tone of the interpretation for the remainder of the film. However, the film is manipulating specific historical events, not only as entertainment, but also as a form of propaganda by demonstrating a link between success in strategic resource management situations and specified leadership qualities. Given that the subtext was instrumental and not "value-free", ethical and philosophical considerations arise.

Normally, only high art criticizes the world outside its boundaries, but access to this form of communication is limited to the elite classes where the risks of introducing social instability are slight. A film like Patton is popular art which intends controversy in a world of social order and unity which, according to Adorno, is regressing into a cultural blandness. To Hegel, order is good a priori, i.e. it does not have to answer to those living under it. But, if order is disturbed? In Negative Dialectics, Adorno believed this tended towards progress by stimulating the possibility of class conflict. Marx's theory of Historical Materialism was teleological, i.e. society follows through a dialectic of unfolding stages from ancient modes of production to feudalism to capitalism to a future communism. But Adorno felt that the culture industry would never permit a sufficient core of challenging material to emerge on to the market that might disturb the and stimulate the final communist state to emerge.

A center point of the Dialectic of Enlightenment is the topic of "the Enlightenment as the deception of the masses". The term "culture industry" is intended to refer to the commercial marketing of culture, the branch of industry that deals specifically with the production of culture that is in contrast to "authentic culture".

Horkheimer and Adorno contend that industrially produced culture robs people of their imagination and takes over their thinking for them. The culture industry delivers the "goods" so that the people then only have left the task of consuming them. Through mass production, everything becomes homogenized and whatever diversity remains is constituted of small trivialities. Everything becomes compressed through a process of the imposition of schemas under the premise that what's best is to mirror physical reality as closely as possible. Psychological drives become stoked to the point where sublimation is no longer possible.

Movies serve as an example. "All films have become similar in their basic form. They are shaped to reflect facts of reality as closely as possible. Even fantasy films, which claim to not reflect such reality, don't really live up to what they claim to be. No matter how unusual they strive to be, the endings are usually easy to predict because of the existence of prior films which followed the same schemas. Also, for example, erotic depictions become so strong and so pronounced that a transformation to other forms is no longer possible."

The aims of the culture industry are-as in every industry-economic in nature. All endeavors become focused on economic success.

Authentic culture, however, is not goal-oriented, but is an end in itself. Authentic culture fosters the capacity of human imagination by presenting suggestions and possibilities, but in a different way than the culture industry does since it leaves room for independent thought. Authentic culture does not become channeled into regurgitating reality but goes levels beyond such. Authentic culture is unique and cannot be forced into any pre-formed schemas.

As for discovering the causes of the development of the culture industry, Horkheimer and Adorno contend that it arises from companies' pursuit of the maximization of profit, in the economic sense. However, this cannot be said to be culture, or what culture is supposed to be. It can only be described as being a form of commerce, just like any other kind of commerce.

The culture industry argument is often assumed to be fundamentally pessimistic in nature because its purveyors seem to condemn "mass media" and their consumers. However, for Adorno, the term "culture industry" does not refer to "mass culture", or the culture of the masses of people in terms of something being produced by the masses and conveying the representations of the masses. On the contrary, such involvement of the masses is only apparent, or a type of seeming democratic participation. Adorno contends that what is actually occurring is a type of "defrauding of the masses". Horkheimer and Adorno deliberately chose the term "culture industry" instead of "mass culture" or "mass media". "The culture industry perpetually cheats its consumers of what it perpetually promises." The culture industry even encroaches upon the small distractions of leisure activity: "Amusement has become an extension of labor under late capitalism." Horkheimer and Adorno, above all, in their critical analyses, delve into what they call "the fraying of art" and the "de-artification of art", and discuss how the arts are defused by the culture industry. Works of art have become commodified: Beethoven, Mozart and Wagner are only used in fragmentary forms when included in advertisement. According to Critical Theory, "selling out" is not the decisive factor involved, but rather it's the manner in which art is commodified and how art and culture are changed that is the crucial issue.

"Culture today is infecting everything with sameness." For Adorno and Horkheimer, subversion has become no longer possible.

Wiggershaus states: "The other side of Adorno's apparently paradoxical definition was ignored: that rational objectivity was still possible for the modern work of art, in any significant sense, only as a product of subjectivity"This would deny Adorno contemporary political significance, arguing that politics in a prosperous society is more concerned with action than with thought. He also notes that the young generation of critical theorists largely ignore Adorno's work which, in part, stems from Adorno's inability to draw practical conclusions from his theories.

Adorno is also accused of a lack of consistency in his claims to be implementing Marxism. Whereas he accepted the classical Marxist analysis of society showing how one class exercises domination over another, he deviated from Marx in his failure to use dialectic as a method to propose ways to change. Marx's theory depended on the willingness of the working class to overthrow the ruling class, but Adorno and Horkheimer postulated that the culture industry has undermined the revolutionary movement. Adorno's idea that the mass of the people are only objects of the culture industry is linked to his feeling that the time when the working class could be the tool of overthrowing capitalism is over.

Other critics note that "High culture" too is not exempt from a role in the justification of capitalism. The establishment and reinforcement of elitism is seen by these critics as a partial element in the role of such genres as opera and ballet..

Nevertheless, Adorno's work is still of interest. Writing in The New Yorker in 2014, music critic Alex Ross argued that Adorno's work has a renewed importance in the digital age: "The pop hegemony is all but complete, its superstars dominating the media and wielding the economic might of tycoons...Culture appears more monolithic than ever, with a few gigantic corporations-Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon-presiding over unprecedented monopolies.".

Scholar Jack Zipes, influenced by Adorno, critiqued the mass commercialisation and corporate hegemony behind the Harry Potter franchise. He argued that the commodities of the culture industry are "popular" because they are homogenous and obey standard conventions; the media then influences the tastes of children. In his analysis of Harry Potter's global brand, Zipes wrote, "It must conform to the standards of exception set by the mass media and promoted by the culture industry in general. To be a phenomenon means that a person or commodity must conform to the hegemonic groups that determine what makes up a phenomenon ".

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

Adorno, T. W. Negative Dialectics. New York: The Seabury Press. (1973)

Adorno, T.W. A Sample of Adorno's ideas on the culture industry and popular music (Archive)

Adorno, T., & Horkheimer, M. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Stanford University Press (2002)

Cook, D. The Culture Industry Revisited. Rowman & Littlefield. (1996)

Hesmondhalgh, D. The Cultural Industries. Sage. (2002)

Scott, Allen J. The Cultural Economy of Cities. Sage. (2001)

Steinert, H. Culture Industry. Cambridge: Polity (2003)

Wiggershaus, R. The Frankfurt School: its History, Theories, and Political Significance. MIT Press. (1994)

Witkin, R.W. Adorno on Popular Culture. Routledge. (2003)

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The term culture industry ( German: Kulturindustrie) was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods-films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.-that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity.

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https://www.newportinstitute.com/resources/mental-health/male-body-issues/

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It's not just young women who struggle with body image issues. In recent years, eating disorders and problems with excessive exercise have increased among men, along with what's known as "muscle dysmorphia." Exacerbated by the unrealistic expectations set by media and social media, male body image issues are especially prevalent among young adults.

Moreover, men are less likely than women to talk about or get help for these issues. While the body positivity movement among women has grown substantially over the last decade, male body positivity isn't focused on nearly as much. Therefore, the stigma around male body image issues often prevents young men from speaking honestly about their experiences and seeking treatment for related mental health challenges.

The Link Between Male Body Image Issues and Mental Health

Male body image issues don't occur in a vacuum. Mental health conditions and low self-esteem in men are often at the root of these unhealthy behaviors and co-occurring disorders. A meta-analysis of 23 studies, mostly involving young males at Western universities, found that male body image issues are significantly associated with anxiety and depression.

Because young people are particularly focused on their appearance, body dissatisfaction can lead to suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and contribute to other underlying mental health conditions. In addition, teen boys who experience bullying due to their appearance may continue to suffer from body dissatisfaction and related issues as they mature into young adults. Male body image issues can be a result of trauma connected with bullying, sexual trauma, or other childhood trauma.

Moreover, over the past year, isolation and lack of social and physical activity has led to a spike in disordered eating and male body image issues. In a recent survey of 2,000 males in Britain, almost half of the respondents said that their body image issues had impacted their mental health. Furthermore, 58 percent said the pandemic had negatively affected how they feel about their body, and only a quarter said that they were happy with how they look.

A 2020 study led by social psychology professor Viren Swami dug deeper into the link between male body image issues and mental health challenges during COVID. The research team found that pandemic-related anxiety and stress was associated with greater desire for muscularity, and anxiety was also associated with body dissatisfaction. They attributed these results to the stereotypical ideas that society continues to hold about how men should act in stressful situations. Specifically, the attributes of strength and competence are still associated in the collective imagination with body size and muscularity.

The Latest Statistics on Eating Disorders in Males

Negative body image is one of the most frequent causes of eating disorders, and that's true for men as well as women. However, because men are less likely to talk about these issues, it's difficult for researchers to determine accurate rates of eating disorders in males. What is clear is that the numbers are higher than commonly believed. In fact, the National Association for Males with Eating Disorders estimates that men account for between 25 and 40 percent of those with eating disorders. One study found that about a quarter of young adult men reported disordered eating behaviors related to body dissatisfaction.

In general, males are more likely to struggle with binge eating disorder and Avoidant Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) as opposed to anorexia. Experts say that about of quarter of people with anorexia are men, but they are at higher risk of death due to their reluctance to seek help. And other disordered eating behaviors, such as purging, fasting, and laxative abuse, are almost as common in men as in women, some researchers say.

Exercise Addiction in Young Adult Men

While women with eating disorders and body image issues are typically focused on being thin, men tend to focus on gaining muscle. Research shows that 90 percent of teen boys exercise with the specific goal of "bulking up," and this behavior often continues into young adulthood. Hence, researchers have coined the phrase "muscle dysmorphia," also known as "reverse anorexia" or "bigorexia," to describe male body image issues that are focused around the obsessive desire to have a bigger, more muscular body.

Male body image issues like muscle dysmorphia can lead not only to eating disorders in men but also to exercise addiction. The signs of exercise addiction include continuing to work out despite suffering injuries or illness; experiencing withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, when you are unable to exercise; and exercising secretly so others won't realize the extent of your fixation on the behavior.

As with other male body image issues, exercise addiction is linked with poor mental health. A study of 895 graduate students found that males who were dissatisfied with their bodies and with their exercise performance were more likely to be depressed. It's a vicious cyle of sorts: Underlying depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem in men catalyze problems related to body image, and negative body image also intensifies self-esteem and mental health issues.

Male Body Image and Social Media

Many experts attribute the increase in male body issues over the last decade to the influence of social media as well as popular media. The muscular superheroes in action movies and the highly documented body transformations and workout regimens of celebrities contribute to feelings of inferiority among young men with "average" bodies. While some actors, including Robert Pattinson and Sam Smith, have opened up about their body image issues and eating disorders, stars like Chris Pratt and Hugh Jackman have morphed from "regular guys" into superheroes by packing on muscle-convincing young men that they, too, can attain the "ideal" body if they try hard enough.

Social media provides constant exposure to these perceived ideals. In one study, male participants were shown either neutral images of men on Instagram or images of muscular men. The group that was shown images of men who represented the supposed ideal felt worse afterward about their weight and their bodies. The researchers also found that these negative comparisons focused not just on celebrities and models but also on relatives and friends.

Another, similar study confirmed these results, showing that men perceived themselves as weaker, less attractive, and in worse shape after viewing images of physically fit men. "It seems plausible that changes in body esteem and the internalization of media portrayals could contribute to problematic dieting, exercise, and steroid use in men," the researchers concluded.

6 Tips for Coping with Male Body Image Issues

The vast majority of the focus around body image and eating disorders focuses on women. Consequently, young men often have a harder time accessing supportive communities or finding guidance tailored for their male body image issues. Here are a few tips that may help young men establish healthier attitudes and behaviors surrounding body image and exercise.

Limit social media use or adjust what comes into your feed, in order to avoid negative social comparison.

Remember that media portrayals of muscular bodies are often curated and unrealistic.

Be honest about your struggles with male body image issues, and find safe places to talk about what you're going through.

Create exercise and eating goals that emphasize overall health and wellness rather than appearance.

Build confidence through activities that aren't related to body image, such as volunteering, hikes in nature, and creative expression.

Help build male body positivity by accepting your body as it is, and focusing on what you like about it.

Hopefully, the male body positivity movement will begin to grow in momentum as awareness around the prevalence and severity of male body image issues increases.

Treatment for Male Body Image Issues

Mental health treatment may be necessary in order to help young men heal from the anxiety, depression, trauma, and suicidal ideation associated with male body image issues. Modalities such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, mindfulness techniques, and Attachment-Based Family Therapy are effective in enhancing low self-esteem and supporting young people to build healthier habits and coping mechanisms.

Contact us today to learn more about Newport Institute's approach to young adult treatment. Our clinical model of care addresses the root causes of co-occurring disorders like eating disorders and exercise addiction, guiding young people to find thriving and self-acceptance.

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The Truth About Male Body Image Issues | Newport Institute

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It's not just young women who struggle with body image issues. In recent years, eating disorders and problems with excessive exercise have increased among men, along with what's known as "muscle dysmorphia." Exacerbated by the unrealistic expectations set by media and social media, male body image issues are especially prevalent among young adults.

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https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/publications/body-image-report/exec-summary

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'Body image' is a term that can be used to describe how we think and feel about our bodies. Our thoughts and feelings about our bodies can impact us throughout our lives, affecting, more generally, the way we feel about ourselves and our mental health and wellbeing.

How does body image affect mental health?

Having body image concerns is a relatively common experience and is not a mental health problem in and of itself; however, it can be a risk factor for mental health problems. Research has found that higher body dissatisfaction is associated with a poorer quality of life, psychological distress and the risk of unhealthy eating behaviours and eating disorders.

Higher body dissatisfaction is associated with a poorer quality of life, psychological distress and the risk of unhealthy eating behaviours and eating disorders.

Conversely, body satisfaction and appreciation has been linked to better overall wellbeing and fewer unhealthy dieting behaviours. Though feeling unsatisfied with our bodies and appearance is often more common among young women, body image concerns are relevant from childhood through to later life and affect both women and men.

Body satisfaction and appreciation has been linked to better overall wellbeing and fewer unhealthy dieting behaviours.

What causes body image concerns?

The way in which our experiences and environment affect our body image will be different for everyone. However, overall, the research suggests that body image can be influenced by:

our relationships with our family and friends

how our family and peers feel and speak about bodies and appearance

exposure to images of idealised or unrealistic bodies through media or social media

pressure to look a certain way or to match an 'ideal' body type

There are further issues relevant to body image and mental health that are specific to certain factors and experiences, such as:

long-term health conditions

cultural differences around body ideals

gender and sexuality

The above are often linked to other societal factors and discrimination.

New body image statistics

New online surveys were conducted by the Mental Health Foundation with YouGov in March 2019 of 4,505 UK adults 18+ and 1,118 GB teenagers (aged 13-19). The results highlighted that:

Among teenagers, 37% felt upset, and 31% felt ashamed in relation to their body image.

Just over one third of adults said they had ever felt anxious (34%) or depressed (35%) because of their body image.

Just over one in five adults (21%) said images used in advertising had caused them to worry about their body image.

Just over one in five adults (22%) and 40% of teenagers said images on social media caused them to worry about their body image.

What can we do?

Clearly action is needed to build and promote positive body image and support good mental health and wellbeing in relation to our bodies. Everyone has a right to feel comfortable and confident in their own bodies and our report highlights key recommendations for:

Effective regulation of how body image is portrayed.

The need for commitment from social media companies to play a key role in promoting body kindness.

Taking a public health approach to body image by training frontline health and education staff.

Individually being more aware of how we can take care of ourselves and others in relation to body image.

Policy recommendations

Effective regulation of how body image is portrayed

The Online Harms White Paper should address harms relating to the promotion of unhelpful or idealised body image online, beyond content related to eating disorders. An improved practice on how social media platforms promote unhealthy imaging should be enforced by the new independent regulator.

The Advertising Standards Authority should consider pre-vetting high-reach broadcast adverts from high-risk industries - such as cosmetic surgery companies and weight-loss products and services - to ensure all advertising abides by its codes. It should also make greater use of its ability to proactively instigate investigations.

Industry responsibility to promote body kindness

Social media companies should sign the Be Real Campaign's Body Image Pledge and investigate new ways of using their platforms to promote positive body image and to ensure that a diversity of body types is presented positively to their users.

Social media companies should have clear systems for users to report bullying and discrimination and targets for action to be taken. They should give users greater control over the content they see in an accessible way.

Public health and education approaches to body image

Training for frontline health practitioners and the early years childcare workforce should include information about how parents and carers can, from a very early age, positively influence their children's feelings about their bodies through their behaviours and attitudes.

Children and adults in distress should receive fast and empathetic support when they need it, regardless of where they live in the country.

Public campaigns on nutrition and obesity should avoid the potential to create stigma and indirectly contribute to appearance-based bullying. They should focus on healthy eating and exercise for all members of the population, regardless of weight.

A co-produced body image and media literacy toolkit should be a compulsory element of what children learn in schools. This should include the development of a charter for achieving a healthy and positive body image.

Read our policy recommendations in full
Tips for individuals

Individually being more aware of steps we can take for ourselves and others.

If your body image is a significant cause of stress, or if you're being bullied about how your body looks, consider talking to a friend, a trusted adult or a health professional.

Spring-clean your apps on your smartphone.

Notice the people and accounts you're following on social media and be mindful of how you feel about your own body and appearance when you look at them.

If you see an advert in a magazine, on television or online that you think presents an unhealthy body image as aspirational, you can complain to the Advertising Standards Authority.

At home, parents and carers can lead by example, by modelling positive behaviour around body image, eating healthily and staying active.

In our daily lives, we can all be more aware of the ways in which we speak about our own and other people's bodies in casual conversations with friends and family.

Find the best way that works for you to stay active.

Read the full version of our tips for individuals

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New data on the extent of body image concerns across the UK, how poor body image impacts mental health, plus practical steps we can take as a nation, all wrapped up in this easy to read summary of the research.

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The superhero effect: Why do males feel pressure to look a certain way?

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The superhero effect: Why do males feel pressure to look a certain way?

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https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/male-body-image-problems#The-superhero-effect:-Why-do-males-feel-pressure-to-look-a-certain-way?

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It's not just about weight and muscle, male body image affects the whole person - but there are ways to help you manage.

About 40 blocks north of Spring Studios, where chic, slender models walk the runway for New York Fashion Week's biggest showcases, there's another kind of fashion event taking place.

The Curvy Con is the brainchild of two fashion bloggers who wanted to create a space where "plus-size brands, fashionistas, shopaholics, bloggers, and YouTubers" could embrace the curvy female figure.

The event is one of the many examples of recent efforts to lift the long-running stigma associated with having an "imperfect" body. The female body positivity movement is stronger than ever: Brands like Dove and American Eagle have launched campaigns to help women learn to be appreciative of their bodies, regardless of how they compare to media standards.

The movement's intent seems well-meaning, but it also raises a question: Is there a body positive movement for men? While there's a plethora of evidence that women are judged more by their looks than men are, research shows that body image issues facing men are just as complex.

Celebrities like Sam Smith and Robert Pattinson have opened up about their struggles with the way they look in recent years, providing more confirmation that body image is a problem for men - even famous and successful ones. And similar to women, research shows men are often caught feeling either too thin or too heavy to meet the male ideal.

But what's causing men today to feel so much pressure about their appearances? What specifically are they unhappy with and how can they deal with it?

One thing is for certain: Just like the challenges faced by women, male body image issues are deeper than just weight.

Research by psychiatrists at UCLA shows that overall, people today feel worse about the way they look than they did in the 1970s. The problem goes beyond a college guy hitting the gym to try to get a date: 90 percent of boys in middle and high school exercise at least occasionally with the specific goal of "bulking up."

Most celebrities, scientists, and average guys agree that there's one major contributing factor we can credit for the rise of negative body perception for men and boys: the silver screen. Stars like Hugh Jackman and Chris Pratt pack on muscle to transform into superheroes to join the likes of Dwayne Johnson and Mark Wahlberg. This increases male public interest in obtaining their recipes for chiseled abs and bulging biceps. A vicious cycle ensues.

A 2014 feature about today's fitness-crazy world of Hollywood is especially eye-opening. When famous celeb trainer Gunnar Peterson was asked how he'd respond to a male actor trying to succeed on acting talent alone without being in great shape, he responded:

"All of a sudden you go, 'Oh, maybe you can be the friend.' Or: 'We'll do an indie film.' "

For the last three years, at least 4 out of the top 10 grossing movies in the U.S. have been superhero stories, according to data observed from Box Office Mojo. In these films, "ideal" male physiques are shown constantly, sending a message: To be brave, dependable, and honorable, you need big muscles.

"These bodies are attainable for a small number of people - maybe half a percent of the male community," says Aaron Flores, a registered dietitian nutritionist from Calabasas specializing in male body image. "Yet they're associated with the idea of masculinity - the notion that as a man, I have to look a certain way, act a certain way."

The big screen isn't the only place guys are being exposed to unrealistic bodies. A recent GQ feature about Instagram's influence on fitness reported that 43 percent of people take photos or videos at the gym.

So thanks to the prevalence of Facebook and Instagram, whose combined monthly user count represents over 43 percent of the global population, our younger - and soon to be largest - generations are exposed to images and videos of others working out every day.

Some find the uptick in social fitness content motivational, but there's a degree of intimidation involved - particularly for those new to exercise.

"Social media shows us all these folks hitting the gym, losing weight, getting ripped... you'd think it'd inspire me, but most times it makes me want to hide in a corner," a friend told me.

It's estimated that the average American adult now spends over $110,000 throughout their lifetime on health and fitness costs. The Anytime Fitness franchise alone has added 3,000 new gyms worldwide in the last 10 years.

Between our Instagram feeds, TV shows, and movies, it's difficult for guys to avoid images of muscular, built men. But how much you can bench is far from the only body image concern - male body image is far more complex than just muscle.

The media tells men that we should be lean, strong, and muscular. But the male body image struggle is about more than the shape of our bodies. Among other concerns, men are figuring out how to deal with hair loss, height perception, and skin care.

The hair loss industry alone is estimated to be worth $1.5 billion. No thanks to the stigma, men with thinning or no hair may face the stereotype that they're less attractive, agreeable, and assertive. Research has also found that hair loss is linked to feelings of inadequacy, depression, stress, and low self-esteem.

As for height, data indicates that people associate taller men with higher levels of charisma, education or leadership qualities, increased career success, and even a more robust dating life.

But in a newer space, male-targeted skin care brands are increasingly marketing products that target the same concerns as female-targeted brands:

wrinkles

skin discoloration

face symmetry, shape, and size

Male cosmetic procedures have increased 325 percent since 1997. The top surgeries are:

liposuction

nose surgery

eyelid surgery

male breast reduction

facelifts

Another sensitive area of judgment for the male body that incorporates all the above? The bedroom. A 2008 study reported penis size as one of the top three body image concerns for heterosexual men, along with weight and height.

"It's an unspoken thing, but if you don't look a certain way or perform a certain way [sexually], it can really challenge your masculinity," Flores says.

Research shows that a majority of men feel their penises are smaller than average. These negative feelings about genital size can lead to low self-esteem, shame, and embarrassment about sex.

And it's no surprise that brands have already caught on. Hims, a new wellness brand for men, heavily markets itself as a one-stop shop - from skin care to cold sores to erectile dysfunction. According to Hims, only 1 in 10 men feel comfortable talking to their doctor about their looks and health.

The darker side of the recent increase in male cosmetic surgeries, social media posts about fitness, and celebrity "transformations" is the underlying notion that guys need to improve their bodies. The corporate marketing race to embrace body positivity can also lead to negative self-perception and may be rapidly becoming trite and unnecessary.

Even knowing the problems, body image is tough to address. One of the main challenges is relatively simple - not enough people are talking about the self-image issues that men face.

"While the issue [of male body image] is no longer surprising, there's still really no one talking about it or doing work to make it better," says Flores. He told me he frequently takes female-centric social media posts about body positivity and makes them into male-friendly versions.

Flores said deciding to be happy with your physique and not devoting your entire life to "fixing it" is in itself an act of rebellion, since our society is so focused on achieving the ideal body.

It's also helpful to adjust your social media sites to only show content that will inspire positive feelings about your body.

"I'm very discerning about what comes into my feed," says Flores. "I'll mute or unfollow people who exhibit a lot of diet or fitness talk, just because it's not how I interact. I don't care if my friends are doing keto or Whole30, or how many times they can squat - that's not what defines our friendship."

Other ways guys can cope with body image issues:

Talk about it in the real world. Commiserating with a male friend can help ease the pressure to look a specific way. Online groups for body positivity are great, but it's also valuable to get away from social media and spend time in places with realistic images of people, like your local coffee shop or restaurant.

Embrace your body. It doesn't matter if you're an athlete or totally out of shape - try to be happy with the way you look. If you're taking active steps to be healthier through exercise or diet, embrace the journey. Instead of focusing on what you don't like, be proud of yourself for trying to change what you can control.

Don't be afraid of vulnerability. "It's not a challenge to your masculinity," says Flores about being open and honest about body image struggles. "If we can learn to share our experiences, both negative and positive, that's where healing comes from."

Remind yourself that media-portrayed body images aren't realistic. The media is really good at portraying unrealistic bodies and misrepresenting the average physique - and that includes male bodies. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that there's no significant difference in prevalence of obesity between men and women. It's OK to challenge the pictures you see. Confidence should be built in yourself and your efforts, not what other people say.

Above all, remember it's totally normal to feel some insecurity about the way you look. Be kind to yourself, develop positive habits, and do your best to accept what you can't change to give yourself a healthy outlook on your body.
Raj is a consultant and freelance writer specializing in digital marketing, fitness, and sports. He helps businesses plan, create, and distribute content that generates leads. Raj lives in the Washington, D.C., area where he enjoys basketball and strength training in his free time. Follow him on Twitter.

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From Hair to Height: How Male Body Image Struggles Go Beyond Muscle

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While research about how men struggle with body image is not as robust as female body image, there are suggestions of where the problems may come from. Male body image isn't just about muscle - it's about skin, hair, and height, too. Here's how to tackle unrealistic body expectations.

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https://metro.co.uk/2021/05/10/the-true-impact-of-social-media-on-mens-bodies-14502212/

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The true impact of social media on men’s bodies

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A recent survey found that almost 40% of men aged 18-40 feel pressure to have a ‘perfect body,’.

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https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/31/learning/what-students-are-saying-about-how-social-media-affects-their-body-image.html

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What Students Are Saying About How Social Media Affects Their Body Image (Published 2022)

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A recent article put a spotlight on how social media can fuel body dysmorphia in boys. We asked teenagers how these apps make them feel about the way they look.

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https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/male-body-shaming-this-less-talked-about-social-issue-can-affect-mental-health-well-being/articleshow/90608560.cms

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Male body shaming: This less-talked about social issue can affect mental health well-being

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From athletes to the commoner, body shaming can happen to anyone.

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https://www.emilyprogram.com/blog/the-impacts-of-bullying-on-body-image/

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October is World Bullying Prevention Month. In recognition of this, we want to address the impact of bullying on body image due to weight stigma/weight bias and how these factors relate to eating disorders.

It has been reported that school-age students are most commonly bullied about physical appearance, race or ethnicity, gender, disability, religion, or sexual orientation. One type of "physical appearance" bullying is weight-based bullying. When someone is bullied about their weight, it can have a major effect on their body image and overall self-esteem. In this blog, we will describe what bullying is, the different types of bullying, and how it can relate to eating disorders.

What is bullying?

Bullying is aggressive or otherwise hurtful behavior that often occurs in settings like elementary, middle, and high school, in the workplace, or at the gym. It is unwanted behavior that might be repeated over an extended period of time.

Those who bully often use either physical strength, access to personal information, or their own popularity to control another person. Actions might include making threats, exerting physical violence, spreading rumors, verbally putting someone down, or intentionally excluding a person from an event or gathering.

Types of bullying

There are three main types of bullying:

Verbal bullying

Name-calling

Teasing

Inappropriate or unwanted comments

Taunting

Threatening

Physical bullying

Hitting or kicking

Tripping or pushing

Spitting

Taking or breaking another person's belongings

Making rude gestures

Social bullying

Hurting someone's reputation

Hurting someone's relationships

Spreading rumors

Leaving someone out of an event or gathering

Telling others to not be friends with or talk to someone

Embarrassing someone on purpose

A person can be subject to one, two, or all three types of bullying. Bullying can happen at any point in a person's life and these bullying events may occur in-person or online.

Linking Bullying and Body Image with Eating Disorders

Bullying can happen at any age; however, it commonly occurs in elementary through high school. Those who are in larger bodies or those in smaller bodies tend to get bullied more often because of their appearance. Those who are bullied based on weight or appearance have a higher chance of struggling with low self-esteem or negative body image.

Bullying can negatively affect body image because individuals may start to believe what a bully says. Some people may develop an eating disorder after being bullied out of a desire to change their body type to fit in with their peers, or because they think something is "wrong with them." It's also possible that individuals who have been bullied may turn to food as a way to cope, either by binge eating or restricting, or to have a form of control in their life.

Bullying itself may not directly cause an eating disorder, but it might contribute by adding to the eating disorder voice, personal body dissatisfaction, or thoughts that something is "wrong with their body." Individuals who are bullied might also face depression, anxiety, PTSD symptoms, and thoughts of suicide, along with feelings of shame, guilt, fear, or sadness, which can also exacerbate or co-occur with eating disorders.

Change the body image narrative

Clearly, bullies need to take personal responsibility for their actions. But also, the media and we as a society should work to encourage body acceptance at any size and address the stigmas about weight that are unfortunately common. Weight bias is the negative ideology associated with body size, while weight stigma is the result of weight bias. Stigma involves seeing someone in a negative light because of their weight, which could lead to treating someone in a hurtful way. Far too often, bullying starts during adolescence because someone doesn't fit the ideal beauty standard. The more we accept that there isn't a beauty standard and that beauty comes in all forms, the less weight stigma and bias will exist.

To combat bullying, promote healthy body image and body acceptance as much as possible. A good place to start is to incorporate these practices into your life:

Set a good example

Refrain from criticizing your own body or others' bodies

Try your best not to comment on someone else's body, period

Focus on what our bodies can do, rather than how they look

Educate others on body diversity

Support others who have been bullied

Be there for the people in your life who have been bullied

Help others focus on things they can control and assist them in walking away from negative situations

Encourage others to do things they love and build self-esteem through activities

Understand unrealistic media standards

Be aware of the effect of photo editing and make-up on media images

Don't support diet culture narratives in the media

To help prevent bullying, explain to kids what bullying is, why it is unacceptable, how to stand up for themselves, and how to get help with bullying. Listen to kids when they are discussing school, and keep lines of communication open with school staff and other parents. By encouraging activities they love, they may gain confidence, meet new friends, and give them something else to focus on.

Remember that kids often learn actions from their parents. Treat others, and yourself, with kindness and respect. Promote body acceptance and self-love tactics and teach them that all bodies are good bodies.

Getting Help

If you are being bullied, please remember that it is not your fault. Confide in someone you trust and be honest about your feelings. Sometimes walking away from the situation is the best option.
If bullying is affecting your eating habits or you notice any warning signs of eating disorders in yourself or others, please contact The Emily Program at 1-888-364-5977.
Tags: Body Image, Eating Disorders, Education, School

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The Impacts of Bullying on Body Image - The Emily Program

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October is World Bullying Prevention Month. In recognition of this, we want to address the impact of bullying on body image due to weight stigma/weight bias and how these factors relate to eating disorders. It has been reported that school-age students are most commonly bullied about physical appearance, race or ethnicity, gender, disability, religion, or sexual orientation.

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https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/rave/reader.action?docID=334577

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Debate 1: In the Age of Social Media Self-Promotion, Do Creatives Still Need Personal Websites?

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Debate 1: In the Age of Social Media Self-Promotion, Do Creatives Still Need Personal Websites?

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https://99u.adobe.com/articles/64017/design-debate-in-the-age-of-social-media-self-promotion-do-creatives-still-need-personal-websites

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All creatives need a personal website: for many years, this has been considered a guiding maxim. What better way to flash your skills and previous projects than a custom design with your very own domain name? And what simpler way to connect with prospective clients than a clearly marked "Contact Me" page with a mailto hyperlink?

But with art directors and managers now trawling through social media streams for inspiration-and often finding collaborators along the way-a personal website may no longer be the best way for getting your name out there. A personal website takes substantial time to create and update, whereas social networks can quickly communicate what you're about (and without the added burden of service fees). So, one might ask: is a self-designed online portfolio still required or relevant? We speak with designers working in different areas of the industry to explore how the function of a personal website has shifted in the age of social networking.

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"It's not just work that attracts new clients but your personality. Social media communicates both what you do and how you do it"
-Amanda-Li Kollberg and Siri Lee Lindskrog, co-founders of Studio jetzt-immer

Social media has become a natural extension of in-person networks, and for us, it's been very effective for getting clients.

People we met at some birthday party ten years ago, or people we went to high school with, follow what we're doing because we post our work on our personal Facebook pages. And then some of these people we thought we'd never talk to again end up in positions to hire designers and they reach out to us. When you post your work online, you remind people of your existence and what you do. If they happen to be looking for a designer, they might remember having connected with our work, prompting them to reach out.

"On Instagram, we don't just upload our final work but also behind-the-scenes glimpses of our process."

Social media has the added potential of highlighting not just you do but you do it. On Instagram, we don't just upload our final work but also behind-the-scenes glimpses of our process. Our stories show us traveling to teach workshops and printing posters, for example; they have a huge role in communicating who we are as people and how we work. We think that's really important because a design team doesn't necessarily get chosen by a client only when they have the best work. Often it's because they're nice people to work with. A client is going to think about what kind of people they want to spend time with if they have to be around them for eight hours a day. Instagram shows the human side of a studio.

We've definitely had clients who have followed us closely on social and understood our personality before hiring us. A school in Denmark recently got in contact with us regarding a project and said, "you have the perfect personality for this." It was putting on an event with typography and animation but also a performance and dance. We were like, "Dance? How did they know that Siri is a dancer?" It's because they follow our Instagram, of course.

When we graduated years ago, there was so much emphasis on creating your studio website. But now, when we ask people how they found us, it's always via another channel. Websites have become a second step: First, you have the personal connection, then the website legitimizes you. But in a time that's so personality-driven, we can imagine that the generation below us-who are growing up only on those mediums-won't need a website any more.

"You have freedom and control with your website. It stands out far more than a 3 x 3 grid of expandable pictures"

-Ben Wegscheider, creative director and founder of Bureau Cool

On social platforms, everything is very unified and uniform: grids make all content appear similar, which doesn't necessarily showcase your work in the best and most effective way.

A website, on the other hand, your portfolio, and the portfolio's design can be just as much a part of the portfolio as the rest of the content. It can set the tone for your work and it shows your direction-and if you're a web designer, it can show off your abilities, too. A lot of my clients will reference my site when they approach me; they'll mention that it's how they picked up on my name. They remember it as it sticks out a bit more than others. I designed it to communicate the atmosphere of my studio, and I think of it as a sculpture-as a world that encapsulates Bureau Cool's tone and energy.

"You ultimately don't have control over your own content and work [on social media], and could potentially even lose ownership."
"Illustrations tend to live well on social media. But for more complex design projects, personal websites might be better."
You limit yourself if you don't have a website, because every social or portfolio platform has its limitations. On Instagram, for instance, nobody writes long descriptions of work. People don't read on Instagram, they just look at things. With a personal website, you have your own space so you can work out how to put all of your content together and display it in the most suitable way. You're not confined to small image sizes. And if you're only visible on social media, what happens if they change their algorithm or the design of the content's presentation? You ultimately don't have control over your own content and work, and could potentially even lose ownership.

If designers only consider how their work is going to be presented in a grid because of the layout of social media platforms, then that's also having a homogenizing effect on design itself. I've noticed that a lot of design is starting to look so similar on these platforms-there's a lack of design that breaks from the rules, or experiments with new treatments, because people are designing for the grid and the "like" button. The blank canvas of a website pushes you to do more; it gives you the space to play in a very flexible way.

-Tala Safié, art director at The New York Times

I'm both an art director and a freelance graphic designer. And so for me, social media-especially Instagram-has a very different function depending on which hat I'm wearing.

As an art director, Instagram has become integral for finding new people to work with. Illustrators sometimes find and follow me there: they know I'm an art director because other illustrators that I work with tag me when they upload a new piece. If I like their work, I'll often follow them back. Or I'll use the save tool so that I can find them again later.

Instagram makes sense for illustrators. I have a giant Google Doc where I put all the names of people that I come across online along with their website and handle. I'll go to their website to understand a bit more about how they divide their personal, editorial, and client work. That can be important as I usually want to see how they work with an article and whether they're good at responding to text. But I find that it's on Instagram that illustrators post most of their recent work, and increasingly, I've noticed that they don't regularly update their websites. So if I want to get a good idea of how an illustrator currently works, then Instagram is the place to go.

Instagram gives exposure to illustrators far more than websites. I wouldn't hesitate to hire someone if they didn't have a website and it wouldn't bother me at all. In fact, a couple people on my Google Doc don't have websites and only use social media. But I don't think the same idea holds true for a graphic designer. I definitely don't use Instagram like an illustrator uses it.

"If I want to get a good idea of how an illustrator currently works, then Instagram is the place to go."

A website is important for graphic designers because it allows them to divide and present their work however they see fit, without being bound to Instagram's timeline, grid, or image specs. I use Instagram more as an informal blog or diary rather than a portfolio. I'd rather display my work on my website where I have room and freedom to organize my projects and provide more context around them.

My work as a graphic designer doesn't follow a particular aesthetic; it's often context-specific and responds to the specificity of a brief. Unlike illustrators, posting images of all of my work doesn't necessarily increase my chances of getting hired: the diverse nature of the projects I work on doesn't reflect one distinguished polished aesthetic that is appealing to someone who is quickly scrolling through my Instagram feed. It might appear as inconsistent and a little confusing.

Ultimately, what platform you choose to showcase yourself on really depends on the nature of your work, how you want to talk about it, and how you want to show the different skill sets that you have.

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Design Debate: In the Age of Social Media Self-Promotion, Do Creatives Still Need Personal Websites?

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All creatives need a personal website: for many years, this has been considered a guiding maxim. What better way to flash your skills and previous projects than a custom design with your very own domain name? And what simpler way to connect with prospective clients than a clearly marked "Contact Me" page with a mailto hyperlink?

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https://99u.adobe.com/articles/64883/design-debate-to-cowork-or-not-to-cowork

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Design Debate: To Cowork or Not to Cowork?

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Are memberships spaces really worth the price tag, and should we embrace them as the future of work?

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Debate 3: Should You Work In-House or Freelance?

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Debate 3: Should You Work In-House or Freelance?

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https://99u.adobe.com/articles/60462/design-debate-should-you-work-in-house-or-freelance

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In our newest design debate, Gordon Reid, Melissa Deckert, and Mike Kruzeniski weigh in on the pros and cons of designing in-house versus as a freelancer. Ready, set, debate.

"Being my own boss, if I want to do something, I can make it happen."

-Gordon Reid, Art Director and Founder, Middle Boop

I love being my own boss at the studio I run, Middle Boop. I still have bosses, but they are clients. What I don't have is that extra level of massive red tape that you get if you're working in an agency or in-house.

As my own boss, whether an idea manifests into something or stays in the back of my head is all up to me. Coming from a long advertising background, one of my main frustrations was that I wasn't being allowed enough creative input into ideas. At Middle Boop, it is just me and the clients. We'll come up with a strategy ourselves, and we'll collaborate. I always feel like I've made a difference to a client's business at the end of a project. When you're not your own boss, there are many layers of people to try to convince before anything takes off. Great ideas get lost. Probably 70 to 80 percent of the work I've done at agencies never saw the light of day.

At the end of the day, freelancing is worth the hassle, struggles, and worries because I get to properly put my own stamp on my work.

While working in an agency context, I would often look at the work and think, No one is going to know that I had any involvement. Except for maybe me pointing to a bus poster while I'm with a friend saying, "Oh, I did some of that." At the end of the day, freelancing is worth the hassle, struggles, and worries because I get to properly put my own stamp on my work.

This summer, I took two months off to do a self-initiated projected called My friend Callum and I commissioned 20 illustrators and designers to create beer mats based around the artists' favorite weird or humorous moment from a World Cup-then all the money went to charity and we got global press. You can't do this kind of thing when you're in a full-time job.

I occasionally take time to freelance as a consultant in agencies or in-house. Right now, I'm in-house at a large tech company, and it's definitely a breath of fresh air. There are many perks-free food, free gym. The other day, my partner asked me, if the company offered me a full-time job, whether I would take it. I said no. The lifestyle of running your own business is just too good. I couldn't work for someone else's vision for a long time. I would get bored and feel like my time was being wasted.

"In-house experience was essential for starting my own studio."

-Melissa Deckert, Designer and Co-Founder, Party of One

I started working at Etsy almost right out of college. During my time there, the company grew considerably. As the brand grew so did our team-my experience scaled from small internal projects to large international campaigns. I became comfortable pitching and presenting work in front of a lot of people. I was able to travel extensively, not necessarily something I would have been able to do at that age. Working in-house was an important part of my growth as a designer and a huge learning experience. Ironically, it fueled my confidence in starting my own studio.

After some time at Etsy, it seemed the only way to grow at the company was by taking on a role in management, which I wasn't interested in. I wanted to expand my practical skills, as well as experiment with my own style, which was at odds with in-house work.

When you're working independently, your livelihood is deeply tied to what you produce, which places a heavier association between your work and your self worth.

Eventually, I decided to go freelance, which opened up a whole new world of adjustments. When you're working independently, your livelihood is deeply tied to what you produce, which places a heavier association between your work and your self worth. There is also the constant fear of never getting another job. At the start of my freelance career, I worked from home which lent me certain freedoms, but ultimately felt isolating and devoid of community. I quickly realized that I thrived from having other people to bounce ideas off and craved creative kinship.

I began collaborating with my friend Nicole Licht, who had hired me at Etsy. She started freelancing around the same time as me, and, while I was leaning towards traditional design with an interest in things like lettering, Nicole was leaning towards illustration and paper craft.

After two years of regular collaborations we decided to form Party of One. By combining our skills, we now have the opportunity to do many kinds of work with a wider variety of clients. Together, we also keep one another from spiraling into thoughts of "I'm never going to get work again" and "I don't know how much to price for this." It was valuable to work in a big team in-house-to garner skills and learn what we liked-but, on our own, it is hugely satisfying to have our name behind what we create.

"To do really big, ambitious work takes time and direct connection with a company."

-Mike Kruzeniski, Design & Research lead, Twitter

The entirety of my career has been in-house, except for a short time freelancing. From that brief experience, I found I got to work on a lot of projects, but it never felt like I could get into them in a deep way. I was attracted to the idea of getting very close to products and the companies that make them.

For a handful of years, I was a Principal Design Lead at Microsoft. Since 2012, I've been at Twitter, growing with the company over the last six and a half years. To do big, ambitious work takes time. By being in-house, you can get all the foundational information of what a company is trying to achieve and build on that in a multi-year way. You're directly connected to the people that are building the products with you. If there is something I need to achieve, I can talk directly to our data scientists or to the marketing or engineering teams. I can work with them on projects over long periods of time. This is more difficult to do as a consultant.

You learn leadership and communication skills, organizational management-skills that you might not learn if you're only working with other designers.

In-house, you learn skills from other people in other departments, too. A lot of time over your career, the things that you learn aren't always just specific to your discipline. You learn leadership and communication skills, organizational management-skills that you might not learn if you're only working with other designers. You can learn a broader set of skills by working with a more diverse group of people and disciplines.

One of the myths around in-house work is that there is no variety. In reality though, variety appears in different ways. Quite literally while at Microsoft, I would go from product to product. At Twitter, we also have a range of different products that people work on. We'll have designers that will spend time on one of those, and then jump to another. Within the product itself, we put so much intense focus into all the different features that people will can move from designing video experiences, to conversations, to profiles, and those will feel like very different projects. Then of course we have products like Periscope and our advertiser products. So there are a lot of different areas to put your energy into.

As well as the product variety, there is also a variety in terms of roles. People will try on different types of roles during an in-house career. We've had designers pick up project management skills and then even gravitate over to the product management team. Similarly, we've had engineers that join the design team. There is not just a skills exchange, but also a sense of career fluidity. At Twitter, a designer might also help the company design a long-term strategy in a way that's not typically considered design work-there's no mock-ups for example. There is a role shift that can happen here, which is very interesting for a long-term career.

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Design Debate: Should You Work In-House or Freelance?

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In our newest design debate, Gordon Reid, Melissa Deckert, and Mike Kruzeniski weigh in on the pros and cons of designing in-house versus as a freelancer. Ready, set, debate. I love being my own boss at the studio I run, Middle Boop. I still have bosses, but they are clients.

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022399903001296

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Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature

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Objective: Most past research has focused on body dissatisfaction among females. This paper provides a review and evaluation of studies that have exam…

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https://www.stephenmcculley.co.uk/resource-centre/male-body-image-and-mental-health/

"As far as mental health goes I think most men are still pretty closed. Perhaps it stems from being afraid to show a weakness, so they may be more inclined to hide away from any issues than speak openly about it.”

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Find out more about how male body image affects mental health

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We look at the impact male body image has on mental health and highlight 10 simple changes men can make to help them take better care of themselves.

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3 part video about; masculinity, depression & suicidal thought and the battle with body image!

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=man+up+part+1+2+3

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The Silent Battle: Men, Body Image, and Mental Health

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The Silent Battle: Men, Body Image, and Mental Health

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https://www.mcleanhospital.org/video/silent-battle-men-body-image-and-mental-health

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https://www.blacks.co.uk/blog/a-brief-discussion-men-talk-body-image

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"I’ve Studied Body Image For 25 Years. Here’s What Boys Don't Know How To Tell You."

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"I’ve Studied Body Image For 25 Years. Here’s What Boys Don't Know How To Tell You."

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https://www.huffpost.com/entry/body-image-boys-eating-disorders_n_624e231ce4b068157f800861

"One boy recounted taping his chest before heading to school one day because he was tired of his friends teasing him about his “man titties.”"

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I always worried about my daughter. Would she grow up feeling happy in her body? I vowed that she would learn that brains were more valuable than boobs and humor is more attractive than hair. I tried to weave these sentiments into our conversations over the years, and although I'm not ready to declare victory yet (she's only 14), I think she's gotten the message.

But what about my son? Unexpectedly, it's actually his body image I find myself worrying about. Is he happy in his body? Even more concerning: Would I know if he weren't?

I am a health psychologist, professor and body image scientist. And yet, when I recently tried to engage my son in a conversation about body image, he was reluctant to talk. It was actually more than that - it was as though he didn't have the words to talk about his body. Across 25 years of conducting research on body image, I've found that my personal experience is reflected by many.

I interviewed dozens of boys ages 14 to 24 for my forthcoming book " Being You: The Body Image Book for Boys," and conversations often started slowly and awkwardly (a real contrast to my experience interviewing girls for my other books). Boys could tell me they wanted bigger abs and pecs, and thought they should eat a ton of protein, but were often at a loss to articulate why.

One boy recounted taping his chest before heading to school one day because he was tired of his friends teasing him about his "man titties." Scotch tape was not up to the task and created an embarrassing mess for him to extract himself from when he got home that afternoon.

The more I spoke with boys, the more it became clear to me that they couldn't win. It's nearly impossible for them to be tall, lean muscular like the guys they see on TikTok bragging about their gym routines. Those bodies require a certain genetic predisposition and an unhealthy attention to diet and lifting weights.

One boy told me, "Any moment where my shirt was off in public just caused me to feel embarrassed and uncomfortable."

It was clear from their actions - whether it be weightlifting, carb-cutting, grooming or dressing ― that boys care and worry about their appearances. And yet, boys didn't think of their appearance concerns as body image issues.

Boys (and many of us adults, too) tend to think body dissatisfaction only plagues girls. But research suggests otherwise. One recent study found that 75% of adolescent boys are dissatisfied with their bodies. Up to half of boys are using supplements such as protein powders during their teens thinking it will boost their muscularity. (It won't.) A growing portion ― one-fourth to one-third ― of eating disorder patients are male. Clearly boys are suffering, but they seem to mostly be suffering in silence.

In addition to interviewing teen boys for " Being You ," I spoke to young men with a history of eating disorders. I heard them confirm what recent research suggests: Boys' eating disorders are often not identified until their condition is dire. This is, in part, because boys who develop eating disorders don't necessarily have the same symptoms as girls. Boys may "purge" with excessive exercise; they are more likely to eat but eliminate entire food groups from their diets. Their preoccupation and psychological distress is present but not discussed.

All too often, boys' parents, peers, coaches and sometimes even medical providers believed boys were "getting healthy," when in fact they were sinking into a serious disorder. As one boy told me, "It didn't take long before all that exercise and my 'healthy' eating resulted in notable weight loss. I also found myself becoming obsessed with food. I was always thinking about what I was eating ― and not eating ― next."

Dr. Jason Nagata, an expert in boys' body image and eating disorders at the University of California, San Francisco, is one of a growing number of scientists and advocates helping to shed light on boys' vulnerabilities and signs to watch for. He told me: "Boys with eating disorders may pursue a body ideal that is big and muscular. They may engage in muscle-enhancing behaviors such as excessive exercise and use of performance-enhancing substances."

Of course, some boys want to lose weight, and many want to lose weight and bulk up, which has led to new language and techniques - bulking, cutting and shredding - flourishing online. The scientific basis for these practices is questionable at best and the possibility of them leading to disordered eating habits is likely.

What makes the situation worse is that boys are less likely than girls to for mental health issues. Nagata emphasizes that the longer food and body image concerns go unaddressed, the more habitual they can become. And, the long-term consequences of an eating disorder can be extremely serious and life-threatening; physical, social and cognitive development can be affected.

When I started writing " Being You ," I wanted to develop a resource for my son and tween and teen boys everywhere, but I wasn't convinced that boys' experiences were as complex or serious as girls' experiences. I've changed my mind.

Boys' experiences of their bodies are different from girls' but just as challenging. They are also bombarded with messages that they need to "fix" their bodies, but aren't socialized to understand how to get help when they need it. They may be unlikely to find themselves squeezing into a bikini, but they still don't want to take their shirts off at the pool. Until we normalize conversations about body image among boys, they'll stay stuck in a parallel universe to what girls and women have known for decades.

Recently, my son went to the gym with a friend to lift weights for the first time. I asked him when he got home if he thought he'd do this regularly. He said, "Nah, I really don't think so. Don't worry. I'm happy with myself as I am. Body positive, Mom!" I guess maybe he's been listening all along.

Do you have a compelling personal story you'd like to see published on HuffPost? Find out what we're looking for here and send us a pitch.

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I've Studied Body Image For 25 Years. Here's What Boys Don't Know How To Tell You.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
I always worried about my daughter. Would she grow up feeling happy in her body? I vowed that she would learn that brains were more valuable than boobs and humor is more attractive than hair. I tried to weave these sentiments into our conversations over the years, and although I'm not ready to declare victory yet (she's only 14), I think she's gotten the message.

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-To what extent do models encourage men in terms of body image?
- To what extent does instagram put pressure on young male adults when its comes to body image?
- How has social media effected mens mental health in terms of body image?
- How do role models effect mens mental health on body image?
- To what extent has social media platforms negatively effected mens self-esteem on body image?
- To what extent has social media negatively effected mens mental health on body image?
- How does men in films effect mental health in terms of body image?
- To what extent does the perfect body effect mens mental health?
- How do celebrities effect mens self-esteem on body image?
- To what extent do role-models have a negative impact on mens mental health talking about body image.
- what contributes to males perception of body image and their mental?

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Body Image and Psychopathology in Male Bodybuilders

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Body Image and Psychopathology in Male Bodybuilders

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/48511191?seq=1

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Body Image Disorder in Adolescent Males: Strategies for School Counselors

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Body Image Disorder in Adolescent Males: Strategies for School Counselors

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/42732620?seq=1

"In recent decades, men have been bombarded with images in society that depict the "ideal" male: strong, muscular, lean, with perfect features."

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Diagnosing the male steroid user: drug use, body image and disordered masculinity

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Diagnosing the male steroid user: drug use, body image and disordered masculinity

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/26649748?seq=1

The second locates steroid use within the field of body image disorder, producing the steroid user as a damaged and feminized male, a vivid example of masculinity in crisis.

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Superstars, superheroes and the male body image: The visual implications of football uniforms

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Superstars, superheroes and the male body image: The visual implications of football uniforms

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https://www.proquest.com/docview/200584918/fulltextPDF/1FD2B464AD3743CEPQ/1?accountid=26453

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Looking Good: Male Body Image in Modern America

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Looking Good: Male Body Image in Modern America

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https://www.proquest.com/docview/197046023/fulltextPDF/5B5254A6F1C145AAPQ/1?accountid=26453

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https://www.proquest.com/docview/911902121/fulltext/CA6368360C8D44BBPQ/1?accountid=26453

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-discrepancy_theory

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The self-discrepancy theory states that individuals compare their "actual" self to internalized standards or the "ideal/ought self". Inconsistencies between "actual", "ideal" (idealized version of yourself created from life experiences) and "ought" (who persons feel they should be or should become) are associated with emotional discomforts (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Self-discrepancy is the gap between two of these self-representations that leads to negative emotions.

Developed by Edward Tory Higgins in 1987, the theory provides a platform for understanding how different types of discrepancies between representations of the self are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. Higgins sought to illustrate that internal disagreement causes emotional and psychological turmoil. There were several previous theories proving this concept such as the self-inconsistency theory, the cognitive dissonance theory, and the imbalance theory (e.g., Heider, 1958); however, Higgins wanted to take it one step further by determining the specific emotions that surfaced as a result of these internal disagreements. Previous self-imbalance theories had recognized only positive or negative emotions. The self-discrepancy theory was the first to assign specific emotions and affects to the disparity.

The structure of the theory was built based on three ideas. First classify the different kinds of discomfort felt by those people holding contrasting ideals experienced, as well as the various types of emotional vulnerabilities felt by the different types of discrepancies. Lastly, to consider the role of the different discrepancies in influencing the kind and type of discomfort individuals are most likely to experience.

The theory postulates three basic domains of the self:

Actual self is one's representation of the attributes that one believes one actually possesses, or that one believes others believe one possesses. The "actual self" is a person's basic self-concept. It is one's perception of their own attributes (intelligence, athleticism, attractiveness, etc.).

Ideal self is one's representation of the attributes that someone (oneself or another) would like one, ideally, to possess (i.e., a representation of someone's hopes, aspirations, or wishes for one). The "ideal-self" is what usually motivates individuals to change, improve and achieve.

The ideal self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of positive outcomes (e.g., love provided or withdrawn).

Ought is one's representation of the attributes that someone (oneself or another) believes one should or ought to possess (i.e., a representation of someone's sense of one's duty, obligations, or responsibilities).

The ought self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of negative outcomes (e.g., criticism administered or suspended).

Self-discrepancy theory initiates the importance of considering two different standpoints (or vantage points) in which "the self" is perceived. A standpoint on the self is defined as "a point of view from which you can be judged that reflects a set of attitudes or values."

An individual's own personal standpoint.

The standpoint of some significant other. Significant others may comprise parents, siblings, spouses, or friends. The "other" standpoint is what the self perceives their significant other's standpoint to be.

Except for theories focusing on the actual self, previous theories of the self had not systematically considered the different domain of self in terms of the different standpoints on those domains. These two constructs provide the basis from which discrepancies arise; that is, when certain domains of the self are at odds with one another, individuals experience particular emotional affects (ex: one's beliefs concerning the attributes one would personally like ideally to possess versus your beliefs concerning the attributes that some significant other person, such as your mother, would like you ideally to possess).

Discrepancies create two major types of negative physiological situations: absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions, and the presence of negative outcomes which is associated with agitation-related emotions.

These self-state representations are the basic self-concept (from either or both standpoints). Discrepancies between own self-concept, and other self-concept can be described as an identity crisis, which often occurs during adolescence. Guilt is a characteristic result of discrepancy from the own perspective. Shame is a characteristic result of discrepancy from the other perspective.

In this discrepancy, a person's view of their actual attributes does not match the ideal attributes they hope to develop. Discrepancy between these self-guides is characterized by dejection-related emotions such as disappointment and dissatisfaction. Actual/ideal discrepancies are associated with low self-esteem and characterized by the threat of absence of positive outcomes. Specifically, an individual is predicted to be vulnerable to disappointment or dissatisfaction because these emotions are associated with people believing that their personal wishes have been unfulfilled. These emotions have been described as being associated with the individuals' own standpoint and a discrepancy from his or her hope, desire, or ideals. The motivational nature of this discrepancy also suggests that it could be associated with frustration because of these unfulfilled desires. Emotions such as blameworthiness, feeling no interest in things, and not feeling effective was also associated with this discrepancy. In addition, this discrepancy is also associated with dejection from perceived lack of effectiveness or self-fulfillment. This discrepancy is uniquely associated with depression.

This discrepancy exists when a person's own standpoint does not match what they believe a significant other considers to be his or her duty or obligation to attain. Agitation-related emotions are associated with this discrepancy and results in the presence of negative outcomes. More specifically, because violation of prescribed duties and obligations is associated with punishment, this particular discrepancy represents the presence of negative outcomes. The individual experiencing this discrepancy will have an expectation of punishment; therefore, the person is predicted to be vulnerable to fear and feeling threatened, because these emotions occur when danger or harm is anticipated or impending. Analyses of such emotions have described them as being associated with the standpoint of one or more other people and discrepancy from norms or moral standards. The motivational nature of this discrepancy suggests that one might experience feelings of resentment. The feeling of resentment arises from the anticipated pain to be inflicted by others. The person might also experience anxiety because of apprehension over negative responses from others. This discrepancy is associated with agitation from fear and threat. In addition, it is also associated with agitation from self-criticism. Social anxiety is uniquely associated with this discrepancy.

Ideal self and ought self act as self guides with which the actual self aspires to be aligned. The ideal self represents hopes and wishes, whereas the ought self is determined through obligation and sense of duty. In terms of the ideal or ought discrepancy and specific to self-regulatory approach vs. avoidance behaviors, the ideal domain is predisposed to approach behavior and the ought domain is predisposed to avoidance behavior.

In 1999 Charles Carver and associates made a new amendment to the theory by adding the domain of feared self. Unlike the self guides proposed by Higgins which imply an actual or desired (better) self, the feared self is a domain that measures what one does not desire to be. In many cases, this may have a different level of influence in terms of priority on the self than previous domains and self-guides. It is human nature to avoid negative affect before approaching positives.

Beliefs that are incongruent are cognitive constructs and can vary in both their availability and accessibility. In order to establish which types of discrepancies an individual holds and which are likely to be active and produce their associated emotions at any point, the availability and accessibility of self-discrepancies must be distinguished.

The availability of the self-discrepancy is not enough to influence emotions. In order to do so, the self-discrepancy must also be activated. The variable that influences the probability of activation is its accessibility.

Self-discrepancy theory hypothesizes that the greater the magnitude of a particular type of self-discrepancy possessed by a person, the more strongly the person will experience the emotion associated with that type of discrepancy.

Self-discrepancy theory becomes applicable when addressing some of the psychological problems individuals face with undesired self-image. The theory has been applied to psychological problems faced by college students compromising their career choice, understanding clinically depressed students, eating disorders, mental health and depression in chronically ill women and even developing self-confidence in athletes. Self-Discrepancy Theory inherently provides a means to systematically lessen negative affect associated with self-discrepancies by reducing the discrepancies between the self domains in conflict of one another (Higgins, 1987). Not only has it been applied to psychological health, but also to other research and understanding to human emotions such as shame and guilt. The self-guided pressure society and ourselves induce throw an individual into turmoil. The theory finds many of its uses geared toward mental health, anxiety, and depression. Understanding what emotions are being aroused and the reasoning is important to reinstate psychological health.

Studies have correlated the theory and procrastination. Specifically, discrepancies in the actual/ought domain from the own perspective, are the strongest predictor of procrastination. Avoidance is the common theme. The actual/ought self-regulatory system responds through avoidance. Procrastinators also have an avoidance relationship with their goals.

Depression is associated with conflict between a person's perceived actual self, and some standard, goal or aspiration. An actual/ought discrepancy triggers agitated depression (characterized by feelings of guilt, apprehension, anxiety or fear). An actual/ideal discrepancy triggers dejected depression (characterized by feelings of failure, disappointment, devaluation or shame).

Since its original conception in 1987, there have been a number of studies that have tested the legitimacy of self-discrepancy theory. Some of their findings do in fact contradict certain aspects of the theory, while another finds further evidence of its validly. These studies give insight into the research that has been done regarding self-discrepancy theory since its original conception in 1987.

Conducted in 1998, "Are Shame and Guilt Related to Distinct Self-Discrepancies? A Test of Higgins's (1987) Hypotheses", brought into question the correlations between specific discrepancy and emotional discomforts laid out by self-discrepancy theory. Researches believed that there was no way to tie a unique emotional discomfort to one internal discrepancy, but rather that various internal discrepancies result in a variety of discomforts. The study was carried out and the hypothesis was confirmed based on the results. The findings displayed no evidence suggesting a direct tie between specific discomforts and type of internal discrepancy.

"Self-discrepancies: Measurement and Relation to Various Negative Affective States", also brought into question the core aspect of self-discrepancy theory - The correlation between specific discrepancies and the emotional discomforts that result. This study went one step further, also testing the validity of two methods used to observe internal discrepancies; "The Selves Questionnaire" or "SQ" along with the "Adjective Rating List" or "ARL". The study found a strong relationship in results from both methods, speaking to their validly. The results, though, did bring into question the original research done by Higgins, as there were no ties found between specific internal discrepancies and unique emotional discomforts. One of the researchers in this study wrote "Overall, these findings raise significant concerns about the relevance of self-discrepancies as measured by the SQ and ARL and fail to support the main contentions of self-discrepancy theory".

"Self-discrepancy: Long-term test-retest reliability and test-criterion predictive validity", published in 2016, tested the long-term validity of self-discrepancy theory. Researchers found evidence to support the long-term validity of the self-discrepancy personality construct along with anxiety and depression having a direct relationship with internal discrepancies.

1. ^ Higgins, E. Tory; Roney, Christopher J. R.; Crowe, Ellen; Hymes, Charles (1994). "Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance distinct self-regulatory systems". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66 (2): 276-286. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.2.276. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 8195986.

2. Festinger, L. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press^ [verification needed ]

3. ^ Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York:Norton.

4. ^ Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy; A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.

5. ^ Higgins, E.T., Roney, C.J.R., Crowe, E., Hymes C. (1994). Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 276-286.

6. ^ Higgins, E. T. (1999). Who do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? The second-generation question of Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, and Barlow (1998). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1313-1317.

7. ^ Tangney, June Price; Niedenthal, Paula M.; Covert, Michelle Vowell; Barlow, Deborah Hill (1998). "Are shame and guilt related to distinct self-discrepancies? A test of Higgins's (1987) hypotheses". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 75 (1): 256-268. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.256. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 9686463.

8. ^ Ozgul, Salih; Heubeck, Bernd; Ward, Jeff; Wilkinson, Ross (2003). "Self-discrepancies: Measurement and Relation to Various Negative Affective States". Australian Journal of Psychology. 55 (1): 56-62. doi:10.1080/00049530412331312884. ISSN 1742-9536.

9. ^ Watson, Neill; Bryan, Brandon C.; Thrash, Todd M. (January 2016). "Self-discrepancy: Long-term test-retest reliability and test-criterion predictive validity". Psychological Assessment. 28 (1): 59-69. doi:10.1037/pas0000162. ISSN 1939-134X. PMID 26029943. S2CID 40661494.

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The self-discrepancy theory states that individuals compare their "actual" self to internalized standards or the "ideal/ought self". Inconsistencies between "actual", "ideal" (idealized version of yourself created from life experiences) and "ought" (who persons feel they should be or should become) are associated with emotional discomforts (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness).

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For the 3rd week I focused on gathering some more research for my topic and making a presentation with a breakdown of my dissertation.
The presentation I made is below. I will be posting the feedback on here too.

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Theories I have found that link to my topic

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Theories I have found that link to my topic

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-discrepancy_theory

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The self-discrepancy theory states that individuals compare their "actual" self to internalized standards or the "ideal/ought self". Inconsistencies between "actual", "ideal" (idealized version of yourself created from life experiences) and "ought" (who persons feel they should be or should become) are associated with emotional discomforts (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Self-discrepancy is the gap between two of these self-representations that leads to negative emotions.

Developed by Edward Tory Higgins in 1987, the theory provides a platform for understanding how different types of discrepancies between representations of the self are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. Higgins sought to illustrate that internal disagreement causes emotional and psychological turmoil. There were several previous theories proving this concept such as the self-inconsistency theory, the cognitive dissonance theory, and the imbalance theory (e.g., Heider, 1958); however, Higgins wanted to take it one step further by determining the specific emotions that surfaced as a result of these internal disagreements. Previous self-imbalance theories had recognized only positive or negative emotions. The self-discrepancy theory was the first to assign specific emotions and affects to the disparity.

The structure of the theory was built based on three ideas. First classify the different kinds of discomfort felt by those people holding contrasting ideals experienced, as well as the various types of emotional vulnerabilities felt by the different types of discrepancies. Lastly, to consider the role of the different discrepancies in influencing the kind and type of discomfort individuals are most likely to experience.

The theory postulates three basic domains of the self:

Actual self is one's representation of the attributes that one believes one actually possesses, or that one believes others believe one possesses. The "actual self" is a person's basic self-concept. It is one's perception of their own attributes (intelligence, athleticism, attractiveness, etc.).

Ideal self is one's representation of the attributes that someone (oneself or another) would like one, ideally, to possess (i.e., a representation of someone's hopes, aspirations, or wishes for one). The "ideal-self" is what usually motivates individuals to change, improve and achieve.

The ideal self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of positive outcomes (e.g., love provided or withdrawn).

Ought is one's representation of the attributes that someone (oneself or another) believes one should or ought to possess (i.e., a representation of someone's sense of one's duty, obligations, or responsibilities).

The ought self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of negative outcomes (e.g., criticism administered or suspended).

Self-discrepancy theory initiates the importance of considering two different standpoints (or vantage points) in which "the self" is perceived. A standpoint on the self is defined as "a point of view from which you can be judged that reflects a set of attitudes or values."

An individual's own personal standpoint.

The standpoint of some significant other. Significant others may comprise parents, siblings, spouses, or friends. The "other" standpoint is what the self perceives their significant other's standpoint to be.

Except for theories focusing on the actual self, previous theories of the self had not systematically considered the different domain of self in terms of the different standpoints on those domains. These two constructs provide the basis from which discrepancies arise; that is, when certain domains of the self are at odds with one another, individuals experience particular emotional affects (ex: one's beliefs concerning the attributes one would personally like ideally to possess versus your beliefs concerning the attributes that some significant other person, such as your mother, would like you ideally to possess).

Discrepancies create two major types of negative physiological situations: absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions, and the presence of negative outcomes which is associated with agitation-related emotions.

These self-state representations are the basic self-concept (from either or both standpoints). Discrepancies between own self-concept, and other self-concept can be described as an identity crisis, which often occurs during adolescence. Guilt is a characteristic result of discrepancy from the own perspective. Shame is a characteristic result of discrepancy from the other perspective.

In this discrepancy, a person's view of their actual attributes does not match the ideal attributes they hope to develop. Discrepancy between these self-guides is characterized by dejection-related emotions such as disappointment and dissatisfaction. Actual/ideal discrepancies are associated with low self-esteem and characterized by the threat of absence of positive outcomes. Specifically, an individual is predicted to be vulnerable to disappointment or dissatisfaction because these emotions are associated with people believing that their personal wishes have been unfulfilled. These emotions have been described as being associated with the individuals' own standpoint and a discrepancy from his or her hope, desire, or ideals. The motivational nature of this discrepancy also suggests that it could be associated with frustration because of these unfulfilled desires. Emotions such as blameworthiness, feeling no interest in things, and not feeling effective was also associated with this discrepancy. In addition, this discrepancy is also associated with dejection from perceived lack of effectiveness or self-fulfillment. This discrepancy is uniquely associated with depression.

This discrepancy exists when a person's own standpoint does not match what they believe a significant other considers to be his or her duty or obligation to attain. Agitation-related emotions are associated with this discrepancy and results in the presence of negative outcomes. More specifically, because violation of prescribed duties and obligations is associated with punishment, this particular discrepancy represents the presence of negative outcomes. The individual experiencing this discrepancy will have an expectation of punishment; therefore, the person is predicted to be vulnerable to fear and feeling threatened, because these emotions occur when danger or harm is anticipated or impending. Analyses of such emotions have described them as being associated with the standpoint of one or more other people and discrepancy from norms or moral standards. The motivational nature of this discrepancy suggests that one might experience feelings of resentment. The feeling of resentment arises from the anticipated pain to be inflicted by others. The person might also experience anxiety because of apprehension over negative responses from others. This discrepancy is associated with agitation from fear and threat. In addition, it is also associated with agitation from self-criticism. Social anxiety is uniquely associated with this discrepancy.

Ideal self and ought self act as self guides with which the actual self aspires to be aligned. The ideal self represents hopes and wishes, whereas the ought self is determined through obligation and sense of duty. In terms of the ideal or ought discrepancy and specific to self-regulatory approach vs. avoidance behaviors, the ideal domain is predisposed to approach behavior and the ought domain is predisposed to avoidance behavior.

In 1999 Charles Carver and associates made a new amendment to the theory by adding the domain of feared self. Unlike the self guides proposed by Higgins which imply an actual or desired (better) self, the feared self is a domain that measures what one does not desire to be. In many cases, this may have a different level of influence in terms of priority on the self than previous domains and self-guides. It is human nature to avoid negative affect before approaching positives.

Beliefs that are incongruent are cognitive constructs and can vary in both their availability and accessibility. In order to establish which types of discrepancies an individual holds and which are likely to be active and produce their associated emotions at any point, the availability and accessibility of self-discrepancies must be distinguished.

The availability of the self-discrepancy is not enough to influence emotions. In order to do so, the self-discrepancy must also be activated. The variable that influences the probability of activation is its accessibility.

Self-discrepancy theory hypothesizes that the greater the magnitude of a particular type of self-discrepancy possessed by a person, the more strongly the person will experience the emotion associated with that type of discrepancy.

Self-discrepancy theory becomes applicable when addressing some of the psychological problems individuals face with undesired self-image. The theory has been applied to psychological problems faced by college students compromising their career choice, understanding clinically depressed students, eating disorders, mental health and depression in chronically ill women and even developing self-confidence in athletes. Self-Discrepancy Theory inherently provides a means to systematically lessen negative affect associated with self-discrepancies by reducing the discrepancies between the self domains in conflict of one another (Higgins, 1987). Not only has it been applied to psychological health, but also to other research and understanding to human emotions such as shame and guilt. The self-guided pressure society and ourselves induce throw an individual into turmoil. The theory finds many of its uses geared toward mental health, anxiety, and depression. Understanding what emotions are being aroused and the reasoning is important to reinstate psychological health.

Studies have correlated the theory and procrastination. Specifically, discrepancies in the actual/ought domain from the own perspective, are the strongest predictor of procrastination. Avoidance is the common theme. The actual/ought self-regulatory system responds through avoidance. Procrastinators also have an avoidance relationship with their goals.

Depression is associated with conflict between a person's perceived actual self, and some standard, goal or aspiration. An actual/ought discrepancy triggers agitated depression (characterized by feelings of guilt, apprehension, anxiety or fear). An actual/ideal discrepancy triggers dejected depression (characterized by feelings of failure, disappointment, devaluation or shame).

Since its original conception in 1987, there have been a number of studies that have tested the legitimacy of self-discrepancy theory. Some of their findings do in fact contradict certain aspects of the theory, while another finds further evidence of its validly. These studies give insight into the research that has been done regarding self-discrepancy theory since its original conception in 1987.

Conducted in 1998, "Are Shame and Guilt Related to Distinct Self-Discrepancies? A Test of Higgins's (1987) Hypotheses", brought into question the correlations between specific discrepancy and emotional discomforts laid out by self-discrepancy theory. Researches believed that there was no way to tie a unique emotional discomfort to one internal discrepancy, but rather that various internal discrepancies result in a variety of discomforts. The study was carried out and the hypothesis was confirmed based on the results. The findings displayed no evidence suggesting a direct tie between specific discomforts and type of internal discrepancy.

"Self-discrepancies: Measurement and Relation to Various Negative Affective States", also brought into question the core aspect of self-discrepancy theory - The correlation between specific discrepancies and the emotional discomforts that result. This study went one step further, also testing the validity of two methods used to observe internal discrepancies; "The Selves Questionnaire" or "SQ" along with the "Adjective Rating List" or "ARL". The study found a strong relationship in results from both methods, speaking to their validly. The results, though, did bring into question the original research done by Higgins, as there were no ties found between specific internal discrepancies and unique emotional discomforts. One of the researchers in this study wrote "Overall, these findings raise significant concerns about the relevance of self-discrepancies as measured by the SQ and ARL and fail to support the main contentions of self-discrepancy theory".

"Self-discrepancy: Long-term test-retest reliability and test-criterion predictive validity", published in 2016, tested the long-term validity of self-discrepancy theory. Researchers found evidence to support the long-term validity of the self-discrepancy personality construct along with anxiety and depression having a direct relationship with internal discrepancies.

1. ^ Higgins, E. Tory; Roney, Christopher J. R.; Crowe, Ellen; Hymes, Charles (1994). "Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance distinct self-regulatory systems". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66 (2): 276-286. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.2.276. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 8195986.

2. Festinger, L. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press^ [verification needed ]

3. ^ Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York:Norton.

4. ^ Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy; A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.

5. ^ Higgins, E.T., Roney, C.J.R., Crowe, E., Hymes C. (1994). Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 276-286.

6. ^ Higgins, E. T. (1999). Who do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? The second-generation question of Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, and Barlow (1998). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1313-1317.

7. ^ Tangney, June Price; Niedenthal, Paula M.; Covert, Michelle Vowell; Barlow, Deborah Hill (1998). "Are shame and guilt related to distinct self-discrepancies? A test of Higgins's (1987) hypotheses". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 75 (1): 256-268. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.256. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 9686463.

8. ^ Ozgul, Salih; Heubeck, Bernd; Ward, Jeff; Wilkinson, Ross (2003). "Self-discrepancies: Measurement and Relation to Various Negative Affective States". Australian Journal of Psychology. 55 (1): 56-62. doi:10.1080/00049530412331312884. ISSN 1742-9536.

9. ^ Watson, Neill; Bryan, Brandon C.; Thrash, Todd M. (January 2016). "Self-discrepancy: Long-term test-retest reliability and test-criterion predictive validity". Psychological Assessment. 28 (1): 59-69. doi:10.1037/pas0000162. ISSN 1939-134X. PMID 26029943. S2CID 40661494.

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The self-discrepancy theory states that individuals compare their "actual" self to internalized standards or the "ideal/ought self". Inconsistencies between "actual", "ideal" (idealized version of yourself created from life experiences) and "ought" (who persons feel they should be or should become) are associated with emotional discomforts (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory

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Self-perception theory ( SPT) is an account of attitude formation developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that people develop their attitudes (when there is no previous attitude due to a lack of experience, etc.-and the emotional response is ambiguous) by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes determine behaviors. Furthermore, the theory suggests that people induce attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood states. The person interprets their own overt behaviors rationally in the same way they attempt to explain others' behaviors.

Bem's original experiment

In an attempt to decide if individuals induce their attitudes as observers without accessing their internal states, Bem used interpersonal simulations, in which an "observer-participant" is given a detailed description of one condition of a cognitive dissonance experiment. Subjects listened to a tape of a man enthusiastically describing a tedious peg-turning task.

Subjects were told that the man had been paid $20 for his testimonial and another group was told that he was paid $1. Those in the latter condition thought that the man must have enjoyed the task more than those in the $20 condition. The results obtained were similar to the original Festinger-Carlsmith experiment. Because the observers, who did not have access to the actors' internal cognition and mood states, were able to infer the true attitude of the actors, it is possible that the actors themselves also arrive at their attitudes by observing their own behavior. Specifically, Bem notes how "the attitude statements which comprise the major dependent variables in dissonance experiments may be regarded as interpersonal judgments in which the observer and the observed happen to be the same individual."

There are numerous studies conducted by psychologists that support the self-perception theory, demonstrating that emotions do follow behaviors. For example, it is found that corresponding emotions (including liking, disliking, happiness, anger, etc.) were reported following from their overt behaviors, which had been manipulated by the experimenters. These behaviors included making different facial expressions, gazes, and postures. In the end of the experiment, subjects inferred and reported their affections and attitudes from their practiced behaviors despite the fact that they were told previously to act that way. These findings are consistent with the James-Lange theory of emotion.

In 1974, James Laird conducted two experiments on how changes in facial expression can trigger changes in emotion. Participants were asked to contract or relax various facial muscles, causing them to smile or frown without awareness of the nature of their expressions. Participants reported feeling more angry when frowning and happier when smiling. They also reported that cartoons viewed while they were smiling were more humorous than cartoons viewed while they were frowning. Furthermore, participants scored higher on aggression during frown trials than during smile trials, and scored higher on elation, surgency, and social affection factors during smile trials than during frown ones. Laird interpreted these results as "indicating that an individual's expressive behavior mediates the quality of his emotional experience." In other words, a person's facial expression can act as a cause of an emotional state, rather than an effect; instead of smiling because they feel happy, a person can make themselves feel happy by smiling.

In 2006, Tiffany Ito and her colleagues conducted two studies to investigate if changes in facial expression can trigger changes in racial bias. The explicit goal of the studies was to determine "whether facial feedback can modulate implicit racial bias as assessed by the Implicit Association Test (IAT)." Participants were surreptitiously induced to smile through holding a pencil in their mouth while viewing photographs of unfamiliar black or white males or performed no somatic configuration while viewing the photographs (Study 1 only). All participants then completed the IAT with no facial manipulation. Results revealed a spreading attitude effect; people made to smile (unconsciously) at pictures of black males showed less implicit prejudice than those made to smile at pictures of white males. Their attitudes change as a result of their behavior.

Chaiken and Baldwin's 1981 study on self-perception theory dealt with environmental attitudes. Each participant was identified as having well or poorly defined prior attitudes toward being an environmentalist or conservationist. Participants then completed one of two versions of a questionnaire designed to bring to mind either past pro-ecology behaviors or past anti-ecology behaviors. For example, questions such as "Have you ever recycled?" call to mind the times an individual has recycled, emphasizing their engagement in environmentalist behavior. On the other hand, questions like "Do you always recycle?" bring to mind all the times an individual did not recycle something, emphasizing a lack of environmentalist behavior. Afterward, participants' attitudes toward being an environmentalist/conservationist were re-measured. Those with strong initial/prior attitudes toward the environment were not really affected by the salient manipulation. Those with weak prior attitudes, however, were affected. At the end, those in the pro-ecology condition ("Have you ever recycled?") reported themselves as being much more pro-environment than those in the anti-ecology condition ("Do you always recycle?"). Bringing to mind certain past behaviors affected what people believed their attitudes to be.

Evidence for the self-perception theory has also been seen in real life situations. After teenagers participated in repeated and sustained volunteering services, their attitudes were demonstrated to have shifted to be more caring and considerate towards others.

Research incorporating self-perception theory has continued in recent years, appearing in conjunction with studies dealing with motivational "crowding out," terrorism, mindwandering, and the inclusion of others in the self.

Guadagno and her fellow experimenters did a study in 2010 addressing the recruitment of new members by terrorist organization via the internet. In addition to looking at how such an organization might influence its targets to support more extreme ideologies (primarily through simple requests gradually increasing to larger commitments-an example of the foot-in-the-door technique), the authors looked at how "the new converts may form increasingly radical attitudes to be consistent with their increasingly radical behavior." Self-perception theory, then, has strong ties to social identity and social influence in this scenario.

Also in 2010, Clayton Critcher and Thomas Gilovich performed four studies to test a connection between self-perception theory and mindwandering. Self-perception theory posits that people determine their attitudes and preferences by interpreting the meaning of their own behavior. Critcher and Gilovich looked at whether people also rely on the unobservable behavior that is their mindwandering when making inferences about their attitudes and preferences. They found that "Having the mind wander to positive events, to concurrent as opposed to past activities, and to many events rather than just one tends to be attributed to boredom and therefore leads to perceived dissatisfaction with an ongoing task." Participants relied on the content of their wandering minds as a cue to their attitudes unless an alternative cause for their mindwandering was brought to their attention.

Similarly, Goldstein and Cialdini published work related to self-perception theory in 2007. In an extension of self-perception theory, the authors hypothesized that people sometimes infer their own attributes or attitudes by "observing the freely chosen actions of others with whom they feel a sense of merged identity - almost as if they had observed themselves performing the acts." Participants were made to feel a sense of merged identity with an actor through a perspective-taking task or feedback indicating overlapping brainwave patterns. Participants incorporated attributes relevant to the actor's behavior into their own self-concepts, leading participants to then change their own behaviors. The study addresses the self-expansion model: close relationships can lead to an inclusion of another person in an individual's sense of self.

One useful application of the self-perception theory is in changing attitude, both therapeutically and in terms of persuasion.

Psychological therapy

For therapies, self-perception theory holds a different view of psychological problems from the traditional perspectives. Traditionally, psychological problems come from the inner part of the clients. However, self-perception theory perspective suggests that people derive their inner feelings or abilities from their external behaviors. If those behaviors are maladjusted ones, people will attribute those maladjustments to their poor adapting abilities and thus suffer from the corresponding psychological problems. Thus, this concept can be used to treat clients with psychological problems that resulted from maladjustments by guiding them to first change their behavior and later dealing with the "problems".

One of the most famous therapies making use of this concept is therapy for "heterosocial anxiety". In this case, the assumption is that an individual perceives that he or she has poor social skills because he/she has no dates. Experiments showed that males with heterosocial anxiety perceived less anxiety with females after several sessions of therapy in which they engaged in a 12-minute, purposefully biased dyadic social interactions with a separate females. From these apparently successful interactions, the males inferred that their heterosocial anxiety was reduced. This effect is shown to be quite long-lasting as the reduction in perceived heterosocial anxiety resulted in a significantly greater number of dates among subjects 6 months later.

Marketing and persuasion

Self-perception theory is also an underlying mechanism for the effectiveness of many marketing or persuasive techniques. One typical example is the foot-in-the-door technique, which is a widely used marketing technique for persuading target customers to buy products. The basic premise of this technique is that, once a person complies with a small request (e.g. filling in a short questionnaire), he/she will be more likely to comply with a more substantial request which is related to the original request (e.g. buying the related product). The idea is that the initial commitment on the small request will change one's self-image, therefore giving reasons for agreeing with the subsequent, larger request. It is because people observe their own behaviors (paying attention to and complying with the initial request) and the context in which they behave (no obvious incentive to do so), and thus infer they must have a preference for those products.

Self-perception theory was initially proposed as an alternative to explain the experimental findings of the cognitive dissonance theory, and there were debates as to whether people experience attitude changes as an effort to reduce dissonance or as a result of self-perception processes. Based on the fact that the self-perception theory differs from the cognitive dissonance theory in that it does not hold that people experience a "negative drive state" called "dissonance" which they seek to relieve, the following experiment was carried out to compare the two theories under different conditions.

An early study on cognitive dissonance theory shows that people indeed experience arousal when their behavior is inconsistent with their previous attitude. Waterman designed an experiment in which 77 male college freshmen were asked to write an essay arguing against the position they actually agreed with. Then they were asked immediately to perform a simple task and a difficult task; their performance in both tasks was assessed. It was found that they performed better in the simple task and worse in the difficult task, compared to those who had just written an essay corresponding to their true attitude. As indicated by social facilitation, enhanced performance in simple tasks and worsened performance in difficult tasks shows that arousal is produced by people when their behavior is inconsistent with their attitude. Therefore, the cognitive dissonance theory is evident in this case.

Debate ensued over whether dissonance or self-perception was the valid mechanism behind attitude change. The chief difficulty lay in finding an experiment where the two flexible theories would make distinctly different predictions. Some prominent social psychologists such as Anthony Greenwald thought it would be impossible to distinguish between the two theories.

In 1974, Zanna and Cooper conducted an experiment in which individuals were made to write a counter-attitudinal essay. They were divided into either a low choice or a high choice condition. They were also given a placebo; they were told the placebo would induce either tension, relaxation, or exert no effect. Under low choice, all participants exhibited no attitude change, which would be predicted by both cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory. Under high choice, participants who were told the placebo would produce tension exhibited no attitude change, and participants who were told the placebo would produce relaxation demonstrated larger attitude change.

These results are not explainable by self-perception theory, as arousal should have nothing to do with the mechanism underlying attitude change. Cognitive dissonance theory, however, was readily able to explain these results: if the participants could attribute their state of unpleasant arousal to the placebo, they would not have to alter their attitude.

Thus, for a period of time, it seemed the debate between the self-perception theory and cognitive dissonance had ended.

Fazio, Zanna, and Cooper conducted another experiment in 1977, demonstrating that both cognitive dissonance and self-perception could co-exist.

In an experimental design similar to Zanna and Cooper's 1974 study, another variable was manipulated: whether or not the stance of the counter-attitudinal essay fell in the latitude of acceptance or the latitude of rejection (see social judgment theory). It appeared that when the stance of the essay fell into the latitude of rejection, the results favoured cognitive dissonance. However, when the essay fell in the latitude of acceptance, the results favoured self-perception theory.

Whether cognitive dissonance or self-perception is a more useful theory is a topic of considerable controversy and a large body of literature. There are some circumstances in which a certain theory is preferred, but it is traditional to use the terminology of cognitive dissonance theory by default. The cognitive dissonance theory accounts for attitude changes when people's behaviors are inconsistent with their original attitudes which are clear and important to them; meanwhile, the self-perception theory is used when those original attitudes are relatively ambiguous and less important. Studies have shown that, in contrast to traditional belief, a large proportion of people's attitudes are weak and vague. Thus, the self-perception theory is significant in interpreting one's own attitudes, such as the assessment of one's own personality traits and whether someone would cheat to achieve a goal.

According to G. Jademyr and Yojiyfus, the perception of different aspect in the interpreting theory can be due to many factors, such as circumstances regarding dissonance and controversy. This can also be because of balance theory as it applies to the attitude towards accountability and dimensions.

1. Bem, D. J. (1967). ^ Self-Perception: An Alternative Interpretation of Cognitive Dissonance Phenomena. Psychological Review, 74, 183-200.

2. ^ Guadagno, R. E., Lankford, A., Muscanell, N. L., Okdie, B. M., & McCallum, D. M. (2010). Social influence in the online recruitment of terrorists and terrorist sympathizers: Implications for social psychology research. Revue Internationale De Psychologie Sociale, 23(1), 25-56.

3. ^ Critcher, C. R., & Gilovich, T. (2010). Inferring attitudes from mindwandering. Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(9), 1255-1266.

4. ^ Fazio, R. H., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1977). Dissonance and self-perception: An integrative view of each theory's proper domain of application. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(5), 464-479. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90031-2

5. Tice, D. M. (1993). Self-concept change and self-presentation: The looking glass self is also a magnifying glass. ^ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 435-451.

Gilovich, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (2006). Social Psychology. New York: Norton & Company.

Bem, D. J. (1972). "Self-perception theory". In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social psychology, Vol. 6, 1-62. New York: Academic Press. Full text (PDF). Summary.

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Self-perception theory ( SPT) is an account of attitude formation developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that people develop their attitudes (when there is no previous attitude due to a lack of experience, etc.-and the emotional response is ambiguous) by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it.

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https://study.com/learn/lesson/social-influence-theory-examples.html

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Robert Cialdini's book Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion discusses the importance of social influence in a person's daily life. Cialdini defines socialization as the process whereby an individual takes on the appropriate customs and beliefs of their society or culture. The process of socialization starts with family, schools, peers, and society in general to shape our opinions on how a person should act.

Individual socialization describes the process of learning about one's self and society through interactions with other people in one's environment. This includes learning how to behave appropriately in public through parental instruction at home or being taught by being on the playground with friends.

There are many examples of this that have been studied through empirical research. For example, Cialdini's study on conformity discusses how individuals will conform to others in a group because they want to fit in with them.

Social institutions are institutions that are influential in shaping society. They can be made up of individuals, organizations, or both. The institutions shape society by creating social norms and protocols. Such institutions include educational institutions, religious institutions, and governmental institutions.

Educational institutions refer to any establishment where people learn about the world around them and the skills they need to function in it. These could include schools, universities, libraries, museums, and other educational facilities. Religious institutions are any organization or individual whose beliefs teach others how they should behave in this world and prepare for the afterlife. A governmental institution is any type of organization that has authority over citizens within its territory.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the process of communicating with people outside of a person's immediate sphere. In this way, a person can learn from them about new ideas or practices that they were uneducated on before.

Social influence theory also posits that if enough people feel a similar emotion, others around them may begin to feel this same emotion. For example, if the majority is happy, an individual may begin to feel happy too.

Interpersonal communication can be seen as one of three key sources of social influence theory. Communication at its most basic level is a social process that makes it easy for people to share information and experiences with one another. People are able to use interpersonal communication in many different ways- either directly or indirectly, openly or covertly, positively or negatively.

Communication has been proven as one source of persuasion within social influence theory- often times more persuasive than any other source. Meaningful interpersonal communication can have a huge impact on the way people think and act.

In the last few decades, the concept of interpersonal communication has been altered from a linear model to a non-linear one. This means that the relationships between people and groups are not just a one-way street, but that people can have an impact on each other.

People have a great influence on each other through verbal and nonverbal communication. The way they communicate can affect how an individual feels about themselves, for example being complimented makes them feel more confident. They may also feel as if they are accepted by others and like they belong in their group of friends or at their place of work. People also influence others by giving advice or encouraging them to do something specific such as go for an interview, take up a hobby, etc.

The reciprocity principle is at the heart of social influence. It states that people are more likely to be persuaded by an argument or request if they've already given it to someone who has asked for something in the past.

Put more simply, reciprocity is the act of repaying something with something of similar value. It can be applied to social interactions as well, and it is often an important factor in influencing people to comply with requests.

Below are some examples of reciprocity in everyday life:

The free sample at the grocery store entices shoppers to buy more items by offering them a taste at no cost.

New car dealerships offer buyers their first service for free, which makes them more likely to purchase that service again down the road because they already got one for free.

A restaurant may give an appetizer or dessert on the house, which makes people want to come back and dine there again in the future.

Another example of the social influence theory in action is found in social proofing. The most common social proofing methods are positive feedback, testimonials, and expert opinions.

Some examples of social proofing include:

Laughing because a friend is laughing (wanting to share a sense of humor).

The Bystander Effect: this happens when bystanders do not try to help someone in need because each individual feels as though others will step up to help instead.

Taking a selfie at a famous landmark or concert (even if the individual does not like selfies) because everyone else is doing it.

There are several key principles to the social influence model.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_industry

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The term culture industry ( German: Kulturindustrie) was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods-films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.-that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of popular culture, made available by the mass communications media, renders people docile and content, no matter how difficult their economic circumstances. The inherent danger of the culture industry is the cultivation of false psychological needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products of capitalism; thus Adorno and Horkheimer especially perceived mass-produced culture as dangerous to the more technically and intellectually difficult high arts. In contrast, true psychological needs are freedom, creativity, and genuine happiness, which refer to an earlier demarcation of human needs, established by Herbert Marcuse.

Members of The Frankfurt School were much influenced by the dialectical materialism and historical materialism of Karl Marx, as well as the revisitation of the dialectical idealism of Hegel; both events are studied not in isolation, but as part of the process of change. As a group later joined by Jürgen Habermas, they were responsible for the formulation of critical theory. In works such as Dialectic of Enlightenment and Negative Dialectics, Adorno and Horkheimer theorized that the phenomenon of mass culture has a political implication, namely that all the many forms of popular culture are parts of a single culture industry whose purpose is to ensure the continued obedience of the masses to market interests.

The essay is concerned with the production of cultural content in capitalist societies. It critiques the supply-driven nature of cultural economies as well as the apparently inferior products of the system. Horkheimer and Adorno argue that mass-produced entertainment aims, by its very nature, to appeal to vast audiences and therefore both the intellectual stimulation of high art and the basic release of low art. The essay does not suggest that all products of this system are inherently inferior, simply that they have replaced other forms of entertainment without properly fulfilling the important roles played by the now-defunct sources of culture.

Horkheimer and Adorno make consistent comparisons between Fascist Germany and the American film industry. They highlight the presence of mass-produced culture, created and disseminated by exclusive institutions and consumed by a passive, homogenised audience in both systems. This illustrates the logic of domination in post-enlightenment modern society, by monopoly capitalism or the nation state. Horkheimer and Adorno draw attention to the problems associated with a system that 'integrates its consumers from above', arguing that in attempting to realise enlightenment values of reason and order, the holistic power of the individual is undermined.

Adorno and Horkheimer's work was influenced by both the broader socio-political environment in which it was written and by other major theorists. Written in California in the early 1940s in an era which characterized them as two ethnically Jewish, German émigrés, The Culture Industry is influenced by European politics and the war by which the continent was consumed. Simultaneously, the American film industry was characterised by an unprecedented level of studio monopolisation, it was "Hollywood at its most classical, American mass culture at its most Fordist".

Horkheimer and Adorno were influenced heavily by major developers of social, political and economic theory, most notably:

Karl Marx's theories of alienation and commodity fetishism,

Max Weber's instrumental reason, and

Georg Lukacs' concept of the reification of consciousness.

Anything made by a person is a materialization of their labour and an expression of their intentions. There will also be a use value: the benefit to the consumer will be derived from its utility. The exchange value will reflect its utility and the conditions of the market: the prices paid by the television broadcaster or at the box office. Yet, the modern soap operas with their interchangeable plots and formulaic narrative conventions reflect standardized production techniques and the falling value of a mass-produced cultural product. Only rarely is a film released that makes a more positive impression on the general discourse and achieves a higher exchange value, e.g. (1970), starring George C. Scott as the eponymous American general, was released at a time of considerable anti-war sentiment. The opening shot is of Patton in front of an American flag making an impassioned speech. This was a form of dialectic in which the audience could identify with the patriotism either sincerely (the thesis) or ironically (the antithesis) and so set the tone of the interpretation for the remainder of the film. However, the film is manipulating specific historical events, not only as entertainment, but also as a form of propaganda by demonstrating a link between success in strategic resource management situations and specified leadership qualities. Given that the subtext was instrumental and not "value-free", ethical and philosophical considerations arise.

Normally, only high art criticizes the world outside its boundaries, but access to this form of communication is limited to the elite classes where the risks of introducing social instability are slight. A film like Patton is popular art which intends controversy in a world of social order and unity which, according to Adorno, is regressing into a cultural blandness. To Hegel, order is good a priori, i.e. it does not have to answer to those living under it. But, if order is disturbed? In Negative Dialectics, Adorno believed this tended towards progress by stimulating the possibility of class conflict. Marx's theory of Historical Materialism was teleological, i.e. society follows through a dialectic of unfolding stages from ancient modes of production to feudalism to capitalism to a future communism. But Adorno felt that the culture industry would never permit a sufficient core of challenging material to emerge on to the market that might disturb the and stimulate the final communist state to emerge.

A center point of the Dialectic of Enlightenment is the topic of "the Enlightenment as the deception of the masses". The term "culture industry" is intended to refer to the commercial marketing of culture, the branch of industry that deals specifically with the production of culture that is in contrast to "authentic culture".

Horkheimer and Adorno contend that industrially produced culture robs people of their imagination and takes over their thinking for them. The culture industry delivers the "goods" so that the people then only have left the task of consuming them. Through mass production, everything becomes homogenized and whatever diversity remains is constituted of small trivialities. Everything becomes compressed through a process of the imposition of schemas under the premise that what's best is to mirror physical reality as closely as possible. Psychological drives become stoked to the point where sublimation is no longer possible.

Movies serve as an example. "All films have become similar in their basic form. They are shaped to reflect facts of reality as closely as possible. Even fantasy films, which claim to not reflect such reality, don't really live up to what they claim to be. No matter how unusual they strive to be, the endings are usually easy to predict because of the existence of prior films which followed the same schemas. Also, for example, erotic depictions become so strong and so pronounced that a transformation to other forms is no longer possible."

The aims of the culture industry are-as in every industry-economic in nature. All endeavors become focused on economic success.

Authentic culture, however, is not goal-oriented, but is an end in itself. Authentic culture fosters the capacity of human imagination by presenting suggestions and possibilities, but in a different way than the culture industry does since it leaves room for independent thought. Authentic culture does not become channeled into regurgitating reality but goes levels beyond such. Authentic culture is unique and cannot be forced into any pre-formed schemas.

As for discovering the causes of the development of the culture industry, Horkheimer and Adorno contend that it arises from companies' pursuit of the maximization of profit, in the economic sense. However, this cannot be said to be culture, or what culture is supposed to be. It can only be described as being a form of commerce, just like any other kind of commerce.

The culture industry argument is often assumed to be fundamentally pessimistic in nature because its purveyors seem to condemn "mass media" and their consumers. However, for Adorno, the term "culture industry" does not refer to "mass culture", or the culture of the masses of people in terms of something being produced by the masses and conveying the representations of the masses. On the contrary, such involvement of the masses is only apparent, or a type of seeming democratic participation. Adorno contends that what is actually occurring is a type of "defrauding of the masses". Horkheimer and Adorno deliberately chose the term "culture industry" instead of "mass culture" or "mass media". "The culture industry perpetually cheats its consumers of what it perpetually promises." The culture industry even encroaches upon the small distractions of leisure activity: "Amusement has become an extension of labor under late capitalism." Horkheimer and Adorno, above all, in their critical analyses, delve into what they call "the fraying of art" and the "de-artification of art", and discuss how the arts are defused by the culture industry. Works of art have become commodified: Beethoven, Mozart and Wagner are only used in fragmentary forms when included in advertisement. According to Critical Theory, "selling out" is not the decisive factor involved, but rather it's the manner in which art is commodified and how art and culture are changed that is the crucial issue.

"Culture today is infecting everything with sameness." For Adorno and Horkheimer, subversion has become no longer possible.

Wiggershaus states: "The other side of Adorno's apparently paradoxical definition was ignored: that rational objectivity was still possible for the modern work of art, in any significant sense, only as a product of subjectivity"This would deny Adorno contemporary political significance, arguing that politics in a prosperous society is more concerned with action than with thought. He also notes that the young generation of critical theorists largely ignore Adorno's work which, in part, stems from Adorno's inability to draw practical conclusions from his theories.

Adorno is also accused of a lack of consistency in his claims to be implementing Marxism. Whereas he accepted the classical Marxist analysis of society showing how one class exercises domination over another, he deviated from Marx in his failure to use dialectic as a method to propose ways to change. Marx's theory depended on the willingness of the working class to overthrow the ruling class, but Adorno and Horkheimer postulated that the culture industry has undermined the revolutionary movement. Adorno's idea that the mass of the people are only objects of the culture industry is linked to his feeling that the time when the working class could be the tool of overthrowing capitalism is over.

Other critics note that "High culture" too is not exempt from a role in the justification of capitalism. The establishment and reinforcement of elitism is seen by these critics as a partial element in the role of such genres as opera and ballet..

Nevertheless, Adorno's work is still of interest. Writing in The New Yorker in 2014, music critic Alex Ross argued that Adorno's work has a renewed importance in the digital age: "The pop hegemony is all but complete, its superstars dominating the media and wielding the economic might of tycoons...Culture appears more monolithic than ever, with a few gigantic corporations-Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon-presiding over unprecedented monopolies.".

Scholar Jack Zipes, influenced by Adorno, critiqued the mass commercialisation and corporate hegemony behind the Harry Potter franchise. He argued that the commodities of the culture industry are "popular" because they are homogenous and obey standard conventions; the media then influences the tastes of children. In his analysis of Harry Potter's global brand, Zipes wrote, "It must conform to the standards of exception set by the mass media and promoted by the culture industry in general. To be a phenomenon means that a person or commodity must conform to the hegemonic groups that determine what makes up a phenomenon ".

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

Adorno, T. W. Negative Dialectics. New York: The Seabury Press. (1973)

Adorno, T.W. A Sample of Adorno's ideas on the culture industry and popular music (Archive)

Adorno, T., & Horkheimer, M. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Stanford University Press (2002)

Cook, D. The Culture Industry Revisited. Rowman & Littlefield. (1996)

Hesmondhalgh, D. The Cultural Industries. Sage. (2002)

Scott, Allen J. The Cultural Economy of Cities. Sage. (2001)

Steinert, H. Culture Industry. Cambridge: Polity (2003)

Wiggershaus, R. The Frankfurt School: its History, Theories, and Political Significance. MIT Press. (1994)

Witkin, R.W. Adorno on Popular Culture. Routledge. (2003)

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The term culture industry ( German: Kulturindustrie) was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods-films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.-that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity.

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Can Our Body Image Handle Social Media: Live Life Unfiltered

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Can Our Body Image Handle Social Media: Live Life Unfiltered

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https://www.ted.com/talks/keisha_and_teagan_simpson_can_our_body_image_handle_social_media_live_life_unfiltered

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Keisha and Teagan Simpson: Can Our Body Image Handle Social Media: Live Life Unfiltered

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Instagram is significantly linked to body image issues in young women. Twin sisters, Keisha and Teagan, share their own experiences with comparisons on social media and pressures for perfection. The sisters discuss the damaging effects that photoshop can have on one's self-image and encourage us all to live life less filtered.

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Body Positivity or Body Obsession? Learning to See More and Be More

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Body Positivity or Body Obsession? Learning to See More and Be More

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https://www.ted.com/talks/lindsay_kite_body_positivity_or_body_obsession_learning_to_see_more_and_be_more

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Body Positivity or Body Obsession? Learning to See More and Be More

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Objectification and body image are prevalent sources of poor mental health. Dr. Lindsay Kite, based on her own research and experiences, describes how body obsession can be turned into body positivity.

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https://www.ted.com/talks/mary_jelkovsky_our_bodies_are_not_an_image?language=en

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Our bodies are not an image | Mary Jelkovsky | TEDxCherryCreekWomen

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In a society surrounded by pictures, videos, and social media, body-image concerns continue to be on the rise. 96% percent of women report wanting to change their body in some way which shows that this is not an individual problem of low self-esteem, but rather a collective disconnect with how we se…

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https://www.ted.com/talks/rani_st_pucchi_is_your_body_image_holding_you_back

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Are you proud of your body, or ashamed of it? Is your body image holding you back from bringing your best to the world? Award-winning fashion designer Rani St.Pucchi shares her personal story and thoughts on body image, what happens behind the scenes, and its impact in our society.

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This talk was presented to a local audience at TEDxWilmington, an independent event.

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Are you proud of your body, or ashamed of it? Is your body image holding you back from bringing your best to the world? Award-winning fashion designer Rani St.Pucchi shares her personal story and thoughts on body image, what happens behind the scenes, and its impact in our society.

global issues

This talk was presented to a local audience at TEDxWilmington, an independent event.

Read more about TEDx.

About TEDx

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Rani St. Pucchi: Is Your Body Image Holding You Back?

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Are you proud of your body, or ashamed of it? Is your body image holding you back from bringing your best to the world? Award-winning fashion designer Rani St.Pucchi shares her personal story and thoughts on body image, what happens behind the scenes, and its impact in our society.

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What I did for the last couple of weeks:

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What I did for the last couple of weeks:

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Overall, I feel like I have collected enough research and data so far for my dissertation topic on mens mental health on body image. Obviously there is a vast amount of research still to gather over the summer but I feel like I have enough to start writing my dissertation preparation essay.

Therefore, for the last week and a half, I have been writing my dissertation preparation essay using the data and research I have gathered so far. Overall, Im happy with how my essay turned out as I managed to mention all the key sub-topics for my dissertation topic and spoke about them in more detail.

The next thing I need to think about is what my future plan is with my research over the summer...

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My plan for the summer for my secondary research is to keep doing this style of research spread across the 3 months and to dive in deep with all the subtopics I have mentioned in my essay.

My plan for my primary research was to create a survey online for men to participate in so I can gather data from them on how they feel and what affects them the most. Im also looking to conduct some interviews. Im looking to interview phycologists and organisations that talk to toxic masculinity as I believe that this information and data can really help back up any points in my future dissertation.

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Thanks for reading my dissertation prep essay and looking at my progress map.

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https://theconversation.com/body-image-issues-affect-close-to-40-of-men-but-many-dont-get-the-support-they-need-179046

"It’s estimated that around one in ten men have experienced suicidal thoughts and feelings and 4% have deliberately hurt themselves because of their body image issues."

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Many men wish they were more muscular or lean. chaiyawat chaidet/ Shutterstock

Lead guitarist of The Vamps, James Brittain-McVey, recently spoke out about the pressures he experienced with his body image. These pressures, which began when he was a teenager, led him to undergo liposuction at age 20. Speaking to a parliamentary committee on body image and mental health, he told MPs that he had struggled with anorexia since he was a teenager and that he still feels pressure to "look a certain way".

Brittain-McVey is not alone in his struggles with body image. It's estimated that between 30% and 40% of men are anxious about their weight and that up to 85% are dissatisfied with their muscularity. Many men desire a lean and muscular physique - which is often seen as synonymous with masculinity.

But without proper support, body image issues can have a major impact on both physical and mental health. Yet many men are hesitant to speak up about their body image issues - largely because of the stigma attached to it. Brittain-McVey also highlighted in his discussion with MPs the lack of support available for young men experiencing body image issues - which could further worsen poor mental health for those already struggling.
Working to make a difference in the world but struggling to save for a home. Trying to live sustainably while dealing with mental health issues. For those of us in our twenties and thirties, these are the kinds of problems we deal with every day. This article is part of Quarter Life, a series that explores those issues and comes up with solutions. More articles: Would you bring your dog to a shop? Why retailers should be more pet-friendly News of war can impact your mental health - here's how to cope How your colleagues affect your home life (and vice versa)
Mental health problems

Negative body image is more than just disliking the way your body looks - its outcomes can often be debilitating. Research shows that, in men, body image issues are linked with lower self-esteem, lower life satisfaction and a lack of confidence.

Body image issues can also lead to a host of mental health problems, such as severe anxiety and depression. It's estimated that around one in ten men have experienced suicidal thoughts and feelings and 4% have deliberately hurt themselves because of their body image issues.

Body image issues can also lead to disordered eating and muscle dysmorphia - an extreme preoccupation with having muscles. Exercise addiction - an insatiable craving for physical activity - has also been reported as a consequence of negative body image.

Not only can this lead to burnout and injury, it can in turn cause poorer psychological wellbeing and increases risk of developing an eating disorder. It can also have a severe impact on a person's social and work life, and may lead to other unhealthy behaviours - such as abusing anabolic steroids to build muscle.

These concerns have likely only become worse over the course of the pandemic. In a recent study, my colleagues and I showed pandemic-related stress and anxiety were linked with men's dissatisfaction with their weight and muscles.

Media influences

Many experts think the increase in men struggling with negative body image is due to the influence of mass media. Men often compare themselves to the hyper-muscular or lean models they see in action movies and health and fitness magazines. Because these comparisons are usually unrealistic, it increases the likelihood of experiencing weight and muscularity concerns.

In fact, reviews of research have shown that when men are exposed to idealised depictions of appearance in various forms of mass media, they end up feeling worse about their own bodies.

Social media only worsens these problems. Apps like Instagram are full of posts featuring hyper-muscular and lean men - and these posts often receive very high numbers of likes and comments. Unsurprisingly, reviews of evidence have found that men who frequently engage with these kinds of social media posts tend to have a more negative body image.

But it can sometimes be easy to over-emphasise the importance of social media - or any mass media, for that matter - on men's body image. Some research has suggested that the link between media exposure and negative body image may be very weak in men. Instead, it is likely that a range of sources - mass media, parents, peers - all contribute to negative body image in men.

Getting help

Body image issues are often viewed as a problem that disproportionately affects women - leaving many men reluctant to talk about their problems with friends and family or seek professional help. While men are increasingly encouraged to talk about their mental health, being open about body image concerns can still feel tricky - especially if men worry about appearing "unmasculine" or being stigmatised and dismissed by others.

Health services can play an important role in helping men receive the help they need, but healthcare professionals are often hesitant to address body image issues in men because of a lack of knowledge, limited time and resources and inadequate training and guidelines on how to assist men.

Even when men seek help, they are sometimes dismissed or not taken seriously because negative body image is viewed as a "woman's illness". But when men are able to access preferred healthcare pathways for body image concerns, they often respond well to treatment.

Raising awareness more widely in society about negative body image in men is also crucial. An increasing number of men have opened up about their body image struggles - including other celebrities such as talk show host James Corden and actor Sebastian Stan. Bringing greater awareness to the fact that many men struggle with body image is one way of normalising the experience and helping men to recognise symptoms and seek help before their experiences become debilitating.

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Body image issues affect close to 40% of men - but many don't get the support they need

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It's estimated between 30-40% of men worry about their body image.