# data[].attributes.body
This image advertising a Volga River cruise is emblematic of how travel today is a commercialized industry, distinct from the voluntary or involuntary journeys of the past that served different purposes. It's particularly intriguing because the Volga River, being the longest in Europe, likely served as a vital resource for numerous communities across a vast geographical area. The image highlights the contrast between historical uses of the river for sustenance and trade, and modern-day leisure travel. Moreover, it reflects how modern industrialization and capitalism have redefined our interactions with landscapes, transforming them from functional resources into commercialized experiences.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
For the First Time in Modern History, the Aral Sea’s Eastern Basin has Gone Dry, https://www.zmescience.com/ecology/aral-sea-dry-environment-29092014/

# data[].attributes.body
This is an image of the decline of the Aral Sea from 1973-2014, which displays how the body of water has dried up in recent years. Below is a quote from ZME Science, an environmental magazine, on the progression and its impact:

"The shrinking and ultimate disappearance of the Aral Sea is often referred to as one of the worst environmental disasters. The region’s once-prosperous fishing industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment and economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted, with consequent serious public health problems. Furthermore, the lack of a body of water has led to increased climate change, with hotter and drier seasons. People have been farming the area for centuries, but agriculture in the area has been virtually eliminated."

This quote highlights pressing contemporary issues, pointing to the economic, environmental, and health-related impacts that result from changes in the landscape. Additionally, it underscores the historical forces that have shaped these topographies and emphasizes how alterations in the physical environment influence how people interact with it. It is important to remember that topographical shifts have long facilitated the way that local and global populations engage with their surroundings, and here it is no different.

# data[].attributes.body
I chose this image because the view of Toledo aligns with my vision of an ancient city. Over time, the city has been shaped by Christian, Jewish, and Muslim influences, which is reflected in its many monuments. This serves as a powerful reminder of how cities evolve through human activity, and how a single place can bear the cultural imprints of diverse groups over the centuries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Nobility and Analogous Traditional Elites, “Catholic Spain’s Fate in the Balance at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa,” Nobility and Analogous Traditional Elites, January 24, 2013, https://nobility.org/2013/01/las-navas-de-tolosa-battle/.

# data[].attributes.body
This painting depicts the 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Commissioned in 1817 and completed by Horace Vernet, it is now part of the French Museum Collection, which features five large rooms dedicated entirely to the Crusades.

I chose this image because, during my search for visual media, I encountered many works of art like this one, which adopts a classical style that beautifies and glorifies the Catholic Crusades. Additionally, the accompanying article (cited below the image) uses language and rhetoric that falsely romanticizes the Crusades, associating conquest with godliness and the preservation of Christendom, thereby justifying it. It is important to distinguish this narrative from objective fact, and I find it intriguing that this perspective continues to be championed in the 21st century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Learning Religions, Parting the Red Sea Bible Story Study Guide, 2012, Learn Religions, 2012, https://www.learnreligions.com/crossing-the-red-sea-bible-story-700078.

# data[].attributes.body
This image depicts Moses parting and crossing the Red Sea. The story, as credited to the cited source, goes as follows: "Moses parting the Red Sea is one of the most spectacular miracles in the Bible. The dramatic story unfolds as the Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt. Trapped between the sea and the pursuing army, Moses tells the people to 'stand firm and see the deliverance of the Lord.' God creates a miraculous escape route by clearing a dry path through the sea. Once the people have crossed safely, God sweeps the Egyptian army into the sea."

I chose this image because religion and religious studies have played a significant role in shaping early understandings of geography. Religion has been closely tied to practices of migration, expulsion, state and empire building, and the development of culture, both in the past and present. Furthermore, the relationship between religion and modern-day territories remains highly relevant today. For example, the ongoing conflict in Palestine highlights how this connection continues to influence geopolitics. This image serves as one example of that dynamic and invites further reflection on the concept.

Works Cited:

Learning Religions. Parting the Red Sea Bible Story Study Guide. 2012. Learn Religions. https://www.learnreligions.com/crossing-the-red-sea-bible-story-700078.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Ariel Fein, The Catalan Atlas – Smarthistory, 2024, Smarthistory.org, 2024, https://smarthistory.org/catalan-atlas/.

# data[].attributes.body
This image displays an atlas and visual encyclopedia of the Mediterranean, created by the Jewish mapmaker Elisha ben Abraham Cresques in 1375. It is often regarded as the pinnacle of medieval mapmaking in Majorca and highlights the territorial power of the Crown of Aragon, which dominated much of the Mediterranean basin at the time.

I chose this image because it is a relic of medieval mapmaking that incorporates distinctive visual, spiritual, and political elements. These include, but are not limited to, representations of power and race (e.g., Mansa Musa), conceptions of mythical spaces, and patronage to political leaders such as the Crown of Aragon. Analyzing this atlas closely provides a unique perspective on maps and the political entities that commissioned them.

# data[].attributes.body
This image shows the present-day overlap of territories surrounding the Indus River. India and Pakistan are the two main countries within the river basin. Although a longstanding treaty exists, the river faces numerous environmental and political challenges, which have been intensified by regional tensions.

This image was chosen because studying maps, even simplistic ones like this, is crucial for understanding both historical and contemporary issues. Additionally, topographies play a key role in examining migration, territorial disputes, and conflicts.

# data[].attributes.body
This is a photo of the Aljafería Palace, a fortified medieval palace located in Zaragoza, Aragon, in what was once the Kingdom of Aragon. It is considered the only well-preserved large example of Spanish Islamic architecture from the era of the taifas (independent kingdoms) and is regarded by many architects and historians as an important relic of Hispano-Muslim architecture.

I chose this structure and photo because they represent an artifact from a time when political entities affiliated with Islam held power in Spain. When I first learned this, I was surprised, as I was not familiar with the extent of Muslim dominance in the Iberian Peninsula. However, in places like Zaragoza, these histories become more evident, making it important to acknowledge and observe them.

# data[].attributes.body
This illustration is from a book about the "Oriental Kingdoms." Although the artist/author is unknown, the work is believed to date back to the mid-14th century. Archivists describe the illustration as depicting a scene from the Mongol invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary, specifically the Battle of Mohi, which took place in 1241. The battle resulted in a decisive Mongol victory and the destruction of the Hungarian Royal Army.

I chose this image not only because it portrays a pivotal battle during a significant invasion that disrupted The Kingdom of Hungary's population and territories, but also because it highlights the intersection of art and literature as storytelling tools. In my experience, literature, particularly historical texts, is often enhanced by illustration. I am eager to learn more about the role of art history in the study of primary sources.

# data[].attributes.body
The Medina of Marrakesh is a historic part of the city that contains many famous and well-preserved monuments. It is a walled area, founded between 1070 and 1072 by the Almoravids, and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985.

This photo was chosen not only for its beauty in showcasing the area, but also because it exemplifies an iconic location in a well-known and steadily growing city. When I discussed it with my friends, they exclaimed that the Medina was "the place to go." I found this interesting because modern travel is vastly different from what it was when the Medina was created. In considering the benefits and challenges of rapid globalization, the Medina also serves as a reflection point for how travel has evolved and how we perceive it today.

# data[].attributes.body
*This is a repeat but I have no recollection of doing it from last Fall so I decided to count it.

The "Ladies in Blue" fresco is a recreated work from the Palace of Knossos in Crete. It depicts three lavishly dressed women and was discovered in the early 20th century. The fresco is believed to have been created between 1600 and 1450 BCE.

This image was chosen because it symbolizes the iconic and long-standing traditions of art and storytelling, which have provided a profound point of reference for understanding the history of this region. In other words, it reflects the enduring legacies of the area we are studying in this course, highlighting a continuous history of habitation linked to the development of a substantive culture.

# data[].attributes.body
This image conveys a widely perpetuated understanding of the Euphrates River in various curricula, often depicting it as a keystone source of resources and agricultural prosperity. It has historically been viewed as a cornerstone of the topographies of ancient empires, including Mesopotamia. Today, the Euphrates River remains critically important for water, food, and energy security in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Flowing southeast for 2,700 kilometers from eastern Turkey to the Persian Gulf, it supports over 60 million people.

This image was chosen because, despite the river’s association with ancient and somewhat mythological history, political and environmental pressures have placed this resource under significant strain. Over-exploitation, population growth, pollution, and other factors have long posed serious threats. However, war and violent upheaval in Syria and Iraq have further damaged policy cooperation and key infrastructure. This serves as a reminder of how human activity has not only displaced populations but also disrupted the preservation of natural resources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Cathy Garrison, Al Faw Castle, Baghdad Iraq | Baghdad, Iraq, Baghdad Iraq, 2024, Pinterest, 2024, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/219972763021494202/.

# data[].attributes.body
This photo captures Al Faw Palace in Baghdad, Iraq. The palace was originally commissioned by Saddam Hussein in the 1990s to commemorate the Iraqi forces' recapture of the Al-Faw Peninsula during the Iran-Iraq War. Later, during the U.S. invasion of Iraq, the palace was repurposed by the U.S. military as a pseudo-headquarters, with the villa being converted into offices and storage spaces.

This image and landmark were selected because they exemplify how places—whether territories, buildings, or objects—are subject to change and reclamation, and how histories can be redefined. This is a key concept in the study of history, material culture, and related fields, where individuals must examine objects and landscapes to understand how interactions have shaped our perceptions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Bill Green, “New Madina HD Wallpapers,” Islamic Quotes About., 2012. 

# data[].attributes.body
Medina, originally known as Yathrib but later renamed "the city of the prophet" after Muhammad's migration, holds a significant place in Islamic history. It was the destination Muhammad fled to when he departed from Mecca, and it became the backdrop for numerous pivotal events in the early history of Islam.

The image depicted here showcases the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. This mosque stands as an exemplar of later Islamic architectural design. While it serves as a prominent religious and architectural focal point within the city, it also carries a deeper significance as a symbol of the history and teachings of Islam that we have explored thus far.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Fyodor Bogorodsky, Evening over the Caspian Sea, 1959, Acrylic on canvas., Soviet Art: USSR Culture. 

# data[].attributes.body
This image portrays a painting of the Caspian Sea. Despite falling outside the scope of our course timeline, it serves as a poignant reminder of the Soviet frame of reference, given that it was created in modern-day Russia. It underscores how topographical features, particularly bodies of water, transcend various cultural and political boundaries, becoming integral to the lives and narratives of many. To elucidate, the Caspian Sea shares its borders with Kazakhstan, Iran, Azerbaijan, Russia, and Turkmenistan, thereby playing a significant topographical role in all these nations. Incorporating this knowledge into our understanding of topographies and territorial disputes is thus a compelling endeavor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Mike Zimon. Sunrise at Makhtesh Ramon, Negev Desert, Israel. 2017. Photograph. Pentax Forums: Friendly Pentax Camera Forum. https://www.pentaxforums.com/forums

# data[].attributes.body
This photograph captures the Negev Desert at sunrise in modern-day Israel, portraying the immense expanse and innate beauty of the landscape. Remarkably, despite its rugged appearance, the Negev has experienced periods of flourishing economic activity, and in more recent times, it became a subject of contention within the UN Partition plan during the establishment of the state of Israel.

I selected this image because I believe it was taken during a tour offered by several Israeli tourist organizations, shedding light on the Negev's significance. It's important to note that the Negev hosts numerous IDF bases and is celebrated on pilgrimages like Birthright. In a climate where the Israeli government propagates its territorial claims over areas like the Negev, it is vital to remain anchored in the region's rich histories and cultures, which thrived for centuries before. I want to explore the history of human settlement in Negev and how it shifted during the Crusades.

# data[].attributes.body
This photograph showcases the fortified tower and inner gate of the Aleppo Citadel. The photographer of this image mentioned that the present structure is predominantly medieval, with some fortifications having endured on the hill for many millennia. Additionally, it was noted that the current appearance of the tower is largely a result of renovations and additions during the reign of Saladin.

I selected this image because it documents a significant medieval monument. Furthermore, I am intrigued by the far-reaching influence of entities like Saladin's Army across various regions and cultures. I am curious about the dynamics between communities and their conquerors and how this interaction impacts material culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Unknown Artist. Saladin’s Army. 1337. Paris. National Library of France.

# data[].attributes.body
This image is an illustration of the Army of Saladin, prominently featured within a French manuscript known as Histoire d'Outremer (History of the Outremer) authored by William Tyre. Within this portrayal of the Muslim armies under Saladin, renowned for their decisive victory and the elimination of the majority of Crusader forces during the Battle of Hattin, the artist employs vibrant colors and markers to convey a sense of triumph and prestige.

It is intriguing to contemplate the artist's perception of ethnicity during this era, and whether racial divisions held significant prominence within society at the time. Notably, the depiction of these armies, presumed to be Muslim based on available historical knowledge, does not exhibit the visual racism or stereotyping that often permeates later artistic works.

I chose this image because it embodies the distinctive colors, attire, and artistic styles that I have commonly associated with the Crusades. I want to be able to either verify or debunk these depictions through further examination and analysis.

‌

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Buondelmonti, Cristoforo. “Map of Crete.” London: Svakia-Crete, 1420.‌

# data[].attributes.body
This image is a map of Crete from 1420, created by the Italian cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti. The map is particularly intriguing due to its unique style; it is not drawn to scale but instead enlarges important monuments and locales. Moreover, it speaks to how people in the fifteenth century perceived the scale of their surroundings and whether this perception is reflected in the work of cartographers.

I have chosen this image because I aspire to gain a better understanding of medieval cartography. It is thought-provoking to consider how map-making might have evolved concurrently with conquest and territorial expansion. I am eager to learn more about the field of cartography and its development, particularly in the context of the Crusades.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Vernet, Claude-Joseph. Night: A Mediterranean Coast Scene with Fishermen and Boats. 1753. Oil on canvas. Madrid. Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum.‌

# data[].attributes.body
This painting documents several scenes and landmarks: individuals gathering and cooking by a makeshift fire, fishermen boarding boats to commence their night's work, and larger sailboats alongside a fortified tower looming in the distance. Although the artist, Vernet, did not intend to depict a specific maritime scene, this piece was created to evoke the typical activities that transpired during an evening on the Italian coastline.

Despite its completion in 1753, this painting appears to poignantly capture the essence of medieval life on the Mediterranean coast. The Mediterranean Sea served as a vital conduit for trade, industry, and exploration. While I am eager to delve deeper into these activities, it is compelling to consider the sea as a pivotal backdrop in the daily existence of "ordinary" people. Exploring the intricacies of everyday life often provides symbolic insights into broader themes and conflicts, and I am eager to learn more about how people lived and worked in this context.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Snuffy. Fort Bokar, Old Town, Dubrovnik, Croatia. May 2008. Photograph. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/snuffy/2598430156.‌

# data[].attributes.body
This image is a photograph of the Bokar Fortress, constructed in 1461 by the Italian architect Michelozzo di Bartolomeo to safeguard the western entrance to the city of Dubrovnik. Having been completed in 1570, the Bokar Fortress holds the distinction of being the oldest casemated fortress in Europe and stands as an iconic landmark along Croatia's Dalmatian Coast.

I chose this landmark due to its profound historical significance, particularly in the context of the military history of the Balkans. My current understanding of the Balkans suggests a region characterized by ongoing conflicts over territory and culture. I am eager to delve deeper into these aspects throughout our course. I want to learn more about this during our course.

# data[].attributes.body
This image is a photograph of the Cefalù Cathedral. Construction of the cathedral itself commenced in 1131 during the Norman rule of Sicily. The monument is characterized by a Norman Romanesque style infused with Arabic influences, symbolizing a unique fusion of Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture that emerged in Sicily under Norman influence.

I chose to explore this monument more closely because it aligns with the chronological focus of this course. Furthermore, after conducting further research on this landmark, I feel that it serves as a quintessential representation of the cultural dynamism born from frequent conquests. As previously stated, Sicily during the medieval period is often characterized as embodying a hybrid culture that integrated Norman-Catholic, Byzantine-Orthodox, and Arab-Islamic elements. My interest lies in gaining deeper insights into the intricate relationship between conquest and culture.

# data[].attributes.body
This photograph captures a segment of a larger series of frescoes that adorn the exterior of the Moldovița Monastery in Romania. These frescoes, often referred to as "the holy scriptures in color," remain as a testament to the monastery's historical significance. Initially established as a defensive bastion against the encroaching Ottoman conquerors from the East, the Moldovița Monastery played a crucial role in the region's history.

The specific fresco depicted here portrays the momentous event of the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Despite the appearance of a formidable city protected by towering walls, the dimensions of this painting poignantly emphasize its vulnerability to incoming conquerors.

I have chosen this image due to its exquisite preservation and its connection to a standing architectural marvel. It not only visually captivates but also encapsulates an event that held profound religious and cultural importance for the people of Constantinople and its surrounding regions in 1537. I wish to learn more about Constantinople and its importance, and I feel that this painting serves as a powerful representation of the city's enduring place in medieval and early modern history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Boyer, David, and National Geographic. Women and Children on the Banks of the Nile. 2020. Photograph. National Geographic.‌

# data[].attributes.body
This image captures families embarking on a journey to the banks of the Nile River, where they gather water against the majestic backdrop of Ancient Egyptian ruins. This twentieth-century practice follows in the footsteps of millennia-long traditions of distinctive food cultivation and agriculture.

The Nile Delta region spans across ten countries and remains a vital hub for farming, fishing, transportation, and recreation. I selected this image because the river continues to serve as a crucial resource. Moreover, the Nile stands as a pivotal topographical feature that validates an extensive and profound cultural history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Master of the Little Passion. Martyrdom of Saint Ursula in Cologne. 1411. Internet Archive.‌

# data[].attributes.body
This image depicts Cologne at the time of the alleged mass martyrdom of Saint Ursula and an alleged 11,000 virgin martyrs who were purportedly slaughtered on the banks of the River Rhine. Although these figures and the story itself may not be accurate, the painting showcases the city's medieval architecture in a characteristic style.

I selected this image because I believe it illustrates how I envision Cologne, or Köln (Ich spreche Deutsch), during the medieval and early modern periods. Given that Cologne has a rich urban history spanning nearly 2000 years and was consistently one of the largest cities in Europe, this depiction aligns with my current understanding of fifteenth-century Cologne's development. Nevertheless, it is intriguing to contemplate how my perception draws from a collective reservoir that interprets Europe through the lenses of sophistication and advancement.