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The theory that eukaryotic cells formed as a symbiotic relationship wherein one prokaryotic cell engulfed a second cell to produce organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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The process whereby a cell takes in solid matter or microorganisms, usually performed by immune cells and protists for the process of consuming food.

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Colonial organisms are a collection of similar cells that can act separately but usually collaborate.

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Multicellular organisms consist of greater than one cell acting together.

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Unicellular organisms consist of a single cell.

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Temporary, foot-like projections of a cell that are utilized for movement and capturing food, prevalent in amoebas.

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An organism that acquires nutrients by releasing enzymes outside the body to decompose organic material and absorb the nutrients.

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An organism, e.g., fungi or bacteria, that breaks down dead plant material and re-cycles nutrients back into the environment.

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Fungi that have symbiotic relationships with other living things.

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Fungi association with algae or cyanobacteria.

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Fungi that form associations with plant roots to enhance nutrient and water absorption.

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Filamentous growths making up the body of a fungus.

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A tangled web of hyphae utilized for nutrient absorption.

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Fruiting structures of fungi that release spores (mushrooms, for example).

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A hard structural polysaccharide found in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.

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A circular or arc-like natural growth of mushrooms formed as a result of fungal spread emanating outward from underground.

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The ability of some organisms (e.g., lichens, mosses) to withstand extreme dehydration and recover upon rehydration when water becomes available.

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A structural carbohydrate employed to form plant cell walls, imparting rigidity.

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A polymeric organic complex that stiffens plant cell walls, particularly woody plants.

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Small pores on the leaves of plants which allow for gas exchange (CO₂ in, O₂ out) and transpiration.

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A waxy, water-proof layer on plant surfaces that acts to prevent loss of water.

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A group of animals whose mouth develops earlier than the anus during embryonic development (e.g., arthropods, mollusks).

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A group of animals whose anus develops earlier than the mouth during embryonic development (e.g., chordates, echinoderms).

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Seed producing plants without flowers; their seeds are exposed on cones (e.g., pine trees).

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Flowering plants with seeds inside fruits.

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Plant vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.

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Plant vascular tissue that transports sugars and nutrients from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

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Medicine – Part of the antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) and medication (e.g., statins to control cholesterol) comes from fungi.
Food & Beverage – Fungi are the basis for mushrooms, yeast (for bread, beer brewing, and wine making), and fermented foods like soy sauce and cheese.
Biotechnology – Fungi act as instruments for gene research, biofuels, and industrial enzymes.

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Decomposers – Fungi break down organic material, returning nutrients to the environment.
Soil Health – Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, helping them absorb water and nutrients.
Bioremediation – Some fungi can clean up pollution like oil spills and heavy metals.
Carbon & Nitrogen Cycling – They control these essential cycles, keeping ecological balance intact

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Fungal morphology refers to the structural characteristics of fungi, which help in their identification, classification, and function. The basic forms of fungal morphology include: Yeast , Molds, Dimorphic Fungi ,Fruiting Bodies.

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Yeasts are unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding or fission.

Examples include Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) and Candida albicans (pathogenic yeast).

Certain yeasts can create pseudohyphae, which are long chains of budding cells that resemble hyphae.

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Hyphae are lengthy, thread-like structures.

A mycelium is a collection of hyphae.

Hyphae can be septate (with cross-walls) or coenocytic (without them).

Vegetative hyphae absorb nutrients, while aerial hyphae produce spores.

Examples include Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus.

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Can flip between yeast and mold forms according on ambient conditions (e.g., temperature and CO₂ levels).

Important in pathogenic fungi, which cause systemic mycoses.

Example: Histoplasma capsulatum (yeast in the host, mold in the environment).

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Fruiting Bodies, or Reproductive Structures

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Fruiting Bodies, or Reproductive Structures

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Some fungi, like mushrooms, generate huge multicellular fruiting structures (for example, basidiocarps in Basidiomycota).

For example, consider Agaricus bisporus (a common fungus).

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Fruiting Bodies, or Reproductive Structures

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Fungi are heterotrophic, which means they get their nourishment by absorbing organic material from their surroundings. They produce enzymes that convert complicated compounds into simpler ones, which they then ingest.

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Saprophytic: Decomposers that degrade dead organic matter.

Example: Rhizopus (bread mold).

Parasitic organisms absorb resources from living hosts, often causing harm to them.

Example: Candida albicans (causes yeast infections).

Mutualistic: Establish symbiotic connections in which both partners gain.

Examples include mycorrhizal fungus and plant roots.

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Lichen: A mutualistic association between a fungus (providing structure and moisture retention) and a photosynthetic partner (algae or cyanobacteria), which provides food through photosynthesis.

Example: Cladonia rangiferina (reindeer lichen)

Mycorrhizae: A mutualistic relationship between fungi and plant roots. The fungus enhances water and nutrient absorption for the plant, while the plant provides carbohydrates.

Example: Glomus species (arbuscular mycorrhizae)

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Fairy Rings arise when a fungus spreads out in a circular manner from a central point, depleting nutrients in the center. The mycelium extends outward, and mushrooms form at the boundaries where nutrients remain available.

Example: Marasmius oreades.

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Cell Wall: Composed of cellulose, it provides structure and support.

Chloroplasts are structures that contain chlorophyll, which is used for photosynthesis.

Large Central Vacuole: Holds water, nutrients, and waste.

Plasmodesmata are channels that allow cells to communicate.

Rectangular shape is due to stiff cell walls.

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Advantages and Drawbacks of Land Acquisition

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Advantages and Drawbacks of Land Acquisition

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Increased sunlight for photosynthesis.

Air contains a higher percentage of CO₂ than water.

Initially, there was less rivalry for space.

Challenges:

There is a risk of drying out.

Need for structural support without water buoyancy.

Reproduction without the need of water to disperse gametes.

Obtaining nutrients from the earth and air rather than water.

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Advantages and Drawbacks of Land Acquisition

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Cuticle: A waxy coating that prevents water loss.

Stomata: Pores that allow gas exchange while limiting water loss.

Vascular Tissue (Xylem and Phloem): Transports water and nutrients.

Roots and root hairs absorb water and serve as anchors for plants.

Seeds and pollen serve to protect reproductive cells while also aiding dissemination.

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Basic Animal Characteristics and Differences from Other Kingdoms.

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Basic Animal Characteristics and Differences from Other Kingdoms.

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Multicellular and Eukaryotic

Heterotrophic (uses food for energy)

Motile at some life stages.

There have no cell walls (unlike plants and fungi).

Have nerve and muscle tissue (most animals)

Reproduce sexually (with some limitations).

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Basic Animal Characteristics and Differences from Other Kingdoms.

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A body plan describes an animal's structural architecture, including symmetry, tissue layers, and body cavities. It aids scientists in classifying animals based on structural and functional similarities.

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Ectoderm: Outer layer → Skin, nervous system.

Mesoderm: Middle layer → Muscles, bones, circulatory system.

Endoderm: Inner layer → Digestive system, lungs.

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Body cavities:

Provide space for organ development.

Protect internal organs with fluid cushioning.

Allow movement and flexibility.

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Google , convert them into own language some not converted .