# data[].attributes.body
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) was a pivotal Supreme Court case where Dred Scott, an enslaved African American, sued for his freedom, arguing his residence in free states and territories made him free. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney's Court ruled against Scott, stating African Americans, whether free or enslaved, were not citizens and Congress couldn't ban slavery in territories, nullifying the Missouri Compromise. This decision intensified tensions between pro- and anti-slavery factions, contributing to the lead-up to the Civil War. The ruling profoundly undermined civil rights for African Americans and reinforced the notion of white supremacy, perpetuating systemic racism in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. This landmark amendment marked the official end of slavery in the United States, overturning the legal basis of the institution established in the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision. The amendment represented a significant victory for civil rights, particularly for African Americans, as it granted them freedom and autonomy.

# data[].attributes.body
The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves, and guaranteed equal protection of the laws. It also provided due process of law to individuals, ensuring that no state could deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process. Additionally, it addressed the issue of representation in Congress by reducing a state's representation if it denied suffrage to male citizens. The 14th Amendment was a cornerstone in the fight for civil rights, aiming to secure equal treatment under the law for all citizens, regardless of race or background. It represented a significant step forward in protecting the rights and liberties of individuals against infringement by state governments.

# data[].attributes.body
Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern and border states of the United States after the Reconstruction era to enforce racial segregation and undermine the civil rights granted to African Americans by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution. These laws mandated racial segregation in public facilities, transportation, schools, and housing, effectively creating a system of legal racial discrimination and segregation. Jim Crow laws reinforced racial segregation and discrimination, directly contradicting the principles of equality and civil rights established by the Reconstruction Amendments.

# data[].attributes.body
The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, prohibits the federal government and each state from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment aimed to enfranchise African American men, particularly those who had been freed from slavery after the Civil War. However, despite its passage, Southern states implemented various tactics, such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses, to disenfranchise African American voters.

# data[].attributes.body
First major inquiry into the meaning of the 14th amendment eauql-protection clause. Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The case centered around Homer Plessy, a mixed-race man who challenged a Louisiana law requiring segregated railroad cars. The Court ruled against Plessy, establishing the legal precedent for segregation

# data[].attributes.body
The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote, marking a significant milestone in the fight for women's suffrage. The amendment stated, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

# data[].attributes.body
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was a landmark Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson. This decision marked a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement and paved the way for the desegregation of schools nationwide.

# data[].attributes.body
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a key event in the civil rights movement, sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat to a white passenger in 1955. Lasting 381 days, it was a nonviolent protest against racial segregation on buses in Montgomery, Alabama.

# data[].attributes.body
The Central High School integration crisis, also known as the Little Rock Nine, occurred in 1957 when nine African American students were prevented from attending Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas due to racial segregation laws. Despite facing intense opposition and violence, the students bravely persevered, escorted by federal troops ordered by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

# data[].attributes.body
De facto segregation refers to racial or ethnic segregation that occurs without explicit government policies but instead through societal norms, economic disparities, and residential patterns.

# data[].attributes.body
De jure segregation refers to racial or ethnic segregation that is enforced by law or government policies. This type of segregation was prevalent in the United States prior to the Civil Rights Movement and included laws that mandated separate facilities, such as schools, transportation, and public accommodations, for individuals based on their race.

# data[].attributes.headline
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom- 1963

# data[].attributes.subject
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom- 1963

# data[].attributes.body
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom occurred on August 28, 1963, in Washington, D.C., drawing over 200,000 people. Led by civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., it aimed to advocate for civil rights and economic justice. King's "I Have a Dream" speech, delivered at the event, remains iconic and helped galvanize support for civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

# data[].attributes.body
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that aimed to end segregation and discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, the Civil Rights Act prohibited unequal treatment in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs. It also granted the federal government the power to enforce desegregation and combat discriminatory practices through legal action.

# data[].attributes.body
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was a landmark piece of legislation aimed at combating racial discrimination in voting. Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, the act outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, that had been used to disenfranchise African American voters in many Southern states. It also provided federal oversight of election practices in areas with a history of voter suppression.

# data[].attributes.body
Affirmative action refers to policies and programs implemented to address historical and systemic discrimination by providing opportunities for underrepresented groups, particularly in areas such as education and employment. Executive Order 11246, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965, required federal contractors to take affirmative action to ensure equal employment opportunities regardless of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

# data[].attributes.body
Roe v. Wade (1973) was a landmark Supreme Court case that established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The decision invalidated state laws restricting abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy and remains a central issue in debates over reproductive rights and government regulation of personal medical decisions.

# data[].attributes.headline
Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978) 

# data[].attributes.body
Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978) was a landmark Supreme Court case that addressed affirmative action in college admissions. The Court ruled that while race could be considered as one of many factors in admissions decisions, the use of quotas or set-asides based solely on race was unconstitutional. This decision upheld the principle of affirmative action but placed limits on its implementation, influencing future policies regarding diversity and equal opportunity in higher education.