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Cubiculum of Leonis, Catacomb of Commodilla

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Cubiculum of Leonis, Catacomb of Commodilla

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Near Rome from the 4th century, painted in a Roman catacomb.
Peter needs water to baptize the prisoners, strikes his staff on a rock and water flows to convert them to Christianity. Peter is the rock who Jesus founded the church and the first bishop of Rome. This scene painted on the walls of the catacomb emphasize the importance of the city the Christians dug the catacomb in.

The painted scene with Jesus wearing a halo is how emperors were shown with haloes. Both narrative images establish the Christian church, the rite of baptism and Christ is king.

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In 586 BCE, the spiritual center of Jewish life was destroyed by the Babylonians. The jews were exiled. Originally built in the 10th century by King Solomon to house the Ark of the Covenant. The materials used were cedar, sandalwood, and cypress sent from Phoenicia. The Holy of Holies was the innermost chamber housing the Ark and attendant of angels. There was courtyard, 2 freestanding, bronze pillars, an entrance and main hall.

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Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon, allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuilt the Second Temple in 539 BCE. Later it was restored by Herod the Great when Canaan became part of the Roman Empire.

By 70 CE, the Romans looted and destroyed the temple, lead by general and later emperor Titus.

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From a house-synagogue in Dura-Europos, Syria in 244-245 CE.
In the narrative, Moses leans left towards the Pharaoh's army marching on the path created for the Hebrews by God, where the waters departed.
To the right, wielding his authoratative staff, Moses washes away the Egyptian soldiers to prevent their pursuit.
The hands above represent God's hand in creating miracles, the water separating. The symbolism is frequent in Christian art.

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The Good Shepherd with Adam and Eve After the Fall

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The Good Shepherd with Adam and Eve After the Fall

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Christianity was recognized by 313 by the imperial government. It rapidly spread and diocese were organized with bishops governing parishes and priests. A cathedral was a bishops church and later viewed as a bishop's throne. Christian art narrative stories that used imagery from Jewish and Roman traditions.

An example is of the Good Shepherd with Adam and Eve After the Fall. Located in a Christian house-church in Duras-Europos, Syria from before 256. The Good Shepherd represented Jesus coming to Earth to guide his sheep or Christian believers toward redemption and eternal life. In pagan art the Good Shepherd was Apollo or Hermes the shepherd.

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Rome, 320-327, atrium added on in 4th century, replaced in 16th century 

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In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan and there became the need for Christians to worship in larger churches and perform ceremonies. St Jerome undertook the work of the official Bible, the Vulgate. He translated Hebrew and Greek versions into the language of the Western Church, Latin.

Old St Peter basilica church was constructed after Constantine ordered it be built as the newest and largest basilica church for Christians. The records we have are reconstructed based off of written descriptions and drawings from before and during the dismantling. The church held up to 14,00 worshipers and was the largest of its time during Christendom until the 11th century. The Christian community could worship, attend special activities like initiate new members, private devotion, and burials.

The church is arranged with a longitudinal plan arrangement with a central plan tomb for baptism and martyrs' shrines. Prior to the entrance, there is an atrium before the basilica with a narthex leading up to the entrance, the width of the atrium. Worshippers who were not baptized, were placed at the narthex. There were 5 doorways with a large central portal and 2 portals on each side leading into the nave of the church. The nave extended down the center of the church in the shape of a rectangle with aisles on each side. The nave colonnade had columns supporting an entablature lining the tall nave. Above were entablature windows within the upper walls, guiding light directly into the nave space. Parallel to the nave colonnade were columns supporting round arches on each side with shorter double side aisles. The roof consisted of wooden rafters for both the nave and aisles. Under the floor were graves with sarcophagi and tombs lining the side aisles.

Further in was a rectangle T-shaped transept running perpendicular to the nave and aisles. The transept allowed the clergy of the church and the pilgrims visiting St. Peter's tomb to use the additional transept space. Directly centered on the other side of the transept was the apse. The apse was in line with the entrance at the other end of the basilica church. It was a semi-circle containing the alter.

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Church of Santa Costanza, Rome. Built before 350. 

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The purpose of the church of Santa Costanza was to dedicate Christian tombs in churches to martyrs and baptisteries. The churches were built over the tombs.

The church is a Roman central plan building with a tall rotunda , encircling barrel vaulted ambulatory, paired columns and richly molded entablature blocks support the arcade and dome. It is a vertical axis from the center to the dome. The interior was covered in mosaics and veneers of fine marble around the ambulatory.

The church is dedicated to Constantine's daughter, Constantine. Her tomb was built outside of Rome and the church was consecrated as a church in 1256.

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Oratory of Galla Placidia, Ravenna. Attached to the church Santa Croce in 425-426

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Originally dedicated to St. Lawrence but is now named after Galla Placidia. It was believed the family was buried at the oratory and the name changed and was dedicated to Galla Placidia. She ruled the Western Empire from 437 to 438 and was regent for her son in 425.

The building is T-shaped with barrel vaults on each arm, covered with a pendentive dome over each barrel vault and one in the very center of the arms. The exterior is simple, made with brick while the interior has brilliant mosaics and panels of veined marble covering the walls. The arches and barrel vaults are covered in floral design and geometric patterns, figures of standing apostles and gesturing orators are on the upper walls of the central space. Doves around a small fountain with apostles represents eternal life in heaven.

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David Battling Goliath, one of the nine plates, made in Constantinople, 629-630 CE. Made from silver.

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The plates were markers of wealth, education, and meant the owner had refined taste for art collections. This is one of nine of the David Plates with control stamps dated from 613-641 CE during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclitus.

The imagery may be symbolic for their own emperor and enemy situation. Emperor Heraclius was at war with the Sasanian Persians and stepped forward to fight General Razatis and he won. David and the Battle of Goliath may be symbolic for Emperor Heraclitus' victory.

On the plate there are three episodes. The upper level shows David and Goliath challenging each other. David is the good guy with the halo and there's a stream present. The middle level is of the battle in larger imagery than the other two levels. Goliath is visualized wearing a helmet and using a sword, shield and spear. On the bottom, David has won, the stone and slingshot behind him, decapitating Goliath whose weapons are scattered.

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Church of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. Built from 532-537. 

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Early Byzantine:

The church of Hagia Sophia was meant to incorporate imperial rule and Christian glory. Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom" because it was dedicated to Christ as the embodiment of divine wisdom. The church replaced the church burned down by the Nika Revolt in 532. Together Justinian and Theodora fought and won against the rebels. She convinced him to stay and fight by saying "Purple makes a fine shroud" when Justinian considered fleeing.

Justinian chose Anthemius of Tralles, the specialist in geometry and optics, and Isidorus of Miletus, the specialist in physics who studied vaulting. They had the builders execute a design that refined their masonry techniques to build towers and domed rooms for the city's defenses. Hagia Sophia was built from 532-537 and known as the dome that hung from a "golden chain from heaven" according to Procopius of Caesarea. It was said Justinian compared the church to the First Temple in Jerusalem, saying "Solomon, I have outdone you."

The church of Hagia Sophia was built from 532-537 in a central and longitudinal plan arrangement. It has an enormous dome that appeared suspended in heaven, conches on each side of the dome from the narthex end and by the sanctuary apse end, across the entire width of the longitudinal nave. The naos is below the enormous dome with aisles on each side with galleries above.

Due to the gigantic size and weight of the center dome, it had to be fully supported by four pendentives, triangular vault sections. This means at the four corners of the square area beneath needed to have huge supporting piers. The dome is given a floating effect because the huge piers are hidden back in darkness instead of visible from the aisles as part of the support system. The pendentives are triangular, concaved shapes directly between the arches under the dome that go up and inward to create the circular base of support for the dome to sit on.

Between the band of 40 windows at the base of the dome where it meets the support and the gold mosaic that covered the surfaces of the dome and pendentives, the illusion of the floating dome is further reinforced in combination with the hidden pendentives. To help maintain the enormous dome, buttressing was added to the exterior and it shimmered as well.

The gigantic dome has been fixed a few times, the first being in 558 when it first fell due to the dome being too shallow and the outward thrust causing the pier and pendentive to shift. The dome was then fixed to be 20 ft higher with added exterior buttressing but there have been more repairs in 869, 989 and 1346.

At Hagia Sophia, worshipers attended in the aisles or galleries to witness the clergy processions who moved in a circular path from the sanctuary to the nave 5-6 times a ritual. The only layperson to enter the sanctuary was the emperor, again reinforcing imperial rule and Christian glory. The sanctuary was designed with 40,000 pounds of silver around the alter, ciborium, ambo, and screen.

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The Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice, construction began in 1063.

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Due to the location of Venice on the Adriatic near Europe and Asia Minor, it was heavily influenced with Byzantine art in Italy. Venice was under the rule of Byzantine from the 6th and 7th centuries through the 10th century. Venice was granted a special trade status to allow merchants to control most of the commerce from east to west, thanks to Constantinople. The result ended with the city of Venice becoming extremely wealthy. Venetian architects looked to Byzantine domed churches to influence the construction of the Cathedral of St. Mark and replace the palace chapel in 1063. St. Mark was the third church built on this site. Prior was the palace chapel of doge and a burial place to house the bones of the patron of Venice, St. Mark. The relics of St. Mark the apostle came from Alexandria in 828-829. Later the church was consecrated as a cathedral in 1807.

The cathedral of St. Mark was built to look like a Greek cross. The arms cross and are equal length with a dome covering each arm, as well as in the center. They are separated by barrel vaults and held up by pendentives. The domed arms are very complex and not open like previous churches. They are more like separated, large rooms on a vertical axis.

In the dome arms, there are golden mosaics brilliantly shimmering above the vaults, pendentives and domes. The lower walls are covered in marble veneer.

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The Chora Church, Constantinople. Expansion in 1315-1321. 

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During the late Byzantine period beginning in 1261, the Christian crusaders who occupied Constantinople for almost 60 years, were driven out and a resurgence began. Also known as the Palaeologue Renaissance where the dynasty of emperors took over, wealthy courtiers and the Church encouraged church building, production of icons, books and precious objects.

The church of the monastery of Christ in Chora was renovated and expanded  amongst many others. Theodore Metochites was a wealthy poet, scientist and administrator of the imperial treasury at Constantinople. He sponsored the renovation of the Chora Church.

A two story annex was added on the north side, two narthexes in the west, and a parekklesion added to use it as a funerary chapel to the south. The walls and vaults of the parekklesion are covered in frescos while the narthex vaults are covered in mosaics.

The Funerary Chapel or parekklesion was intended by Theodore Metochites to be the location for his funeral and tomb. He sponsored the renovation of the Chora Church when he was at his peak of influence and wealth under the Emperor Andronicus ll. The emperor had called Metochites to court service but eventually lost everything when the emperor's grandson overthrew him in 1328. Metochites was exiled for two years before retiring to house arrest at the Chora Church. He later died and was buried in 1332.

As mentioned above, the parekklesion was covered in frescos on the walls and vaults. The funerary themes represented the expectation of salvation and the rewards with it. There is imagery of 34 military saints ready to be protectors of those buried, made from imitation marble and on the side walls are stories from the Hebrew Bible. It is with a Byzantine and Christian influence the Virgin Mary's intercessory powers and Jacob's ladder reinforces the Virgin Mary's position between heaven and earth, death to life. The pendentives have imagery of Byzantine hymn writers at their desk surrounded by quotations from their work.

In the half dome of the apse is the narrative imagery of Anastasis. It pictures the Resurrection of Jesus demonstrating his powers of salvation to save his righteous Hebrew forebears from satan by descending into limbo after death on the cross. Jesus appears heavenly wearing pure white drapery, boldly standing out in the fresco. He grasps Adam and Eve, yanking them from their tombs to float within his spell. Satan lies below at his feet while the others, patriarchs, kings and prophets gaze at him with adoration. This fresco is above the deceased during their funerals where they would face upward to the painting of the Last Judgement. Mosaics like this cover every wall, except for the marble revetment covering the lower walls. This includes groin vaults, wall lunettes and the underside of the arches.

Byzantine art showcased the humanness of the figures, except they were wealthier and holier. An example of this human tenderness was in the Infant Virgin Mary Caressed by her Parents Joachim and Anna. They openly are pictured showing affection and love.

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Palace Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, Germany. 792-805

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The Palace Chapel was Charlemagne's private place of worship, where he held his imperial court, housed relics, and later became the imperial mausoleum when the emperor died.

The westward was added to the west entrance with a ground floor vestibule and upper story throne room. The emperor was able to have an unobstructed view of the liturgy at the high alter from the chapel interior that opened off of the throne room. It gave him a sense of privacy and safety. The room opened to a large walled forecourt as well. The emperor was able to speak to large crowds from here.

In the 19th century, the Palace Chapel was renovated when reconsecrated as the Cathedral of Aachen and again in the 20th century from the damage of World War ll. It is octagon shaped with a lower level ambulatory, gallery on the upper level and a clerestory above the gallery but below the octagonal dome. The gallery level has two tiers of paired Corinthian columns, railings form a screen for the flat, pierced walls . The mosaics cover the walls and dome with richly patterned and lumpy-stone veneer influenced by the Byzantine architecture.

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Speyer Cathedral, Rhine River Valley. Built between 1030-1060.

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The Speyer Cathedral is imperial, Ottonian wooden-roofed church. It has a masonry vault, the nave is lined with compound piers that alternate with smaller piers to support the transverse groin vault. The vault is over 100 ft high and the smaller piers support the aisle bays. The heavy to light theme of the piers suggest Ottonian wooden-roofed architecture. Large windows are located in the bays allowing for the light to enter uninterrupted.

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Durham Cathedral, Durham, New England. Built from 1087-1133. 

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Durham Cathedral was Norman Romanesque style that has been renovated multiple times. It has a longitudinal nave with an added Gothic circular window in the choir and a transept creating a T-shape cross., perpendicular to the nave.

The cathedral has rotating column piers creating the nave arcade. They are decorated with carved chevrons, spiral fluting, diamond patterns and some are scalloped, cushion shaped capitals. Arches are supported by the columns decorated with rounded moldings and chevron ornaments. The stone rib groined vaults are supported by the enormous piers. Two pairs of diagonal crisscrossing rounded ribs  are divided on each bay, the crowns of the vaults are similar height to the pointed transverse arches. The zigzagging moldings of the ribs is appealing to the eye, causing one to linger over the details.

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Located in North Paris, France. Founded in the fifth century. Reconstruction beginning 1130s.

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There was a building boom so that French Kings could establish their authority and it created an urban center by the mid-twelfth century.

The church of the Benedictine abbey of Saint-Denis was considered the first Gothic church. It was built over the tomb of St Denis, one of the Early Christian martyrs. The monastery was dedicated St. Denis in the fifth century because he was the first Bishop of Paris who came from Rome to convert the local pagan people.

Why is the abbey of of St. Denis important? Over time it has become a significant church because it has housed the tombs of the kings of France, the regalia of the French crown and the relics of St. Denis, the patron saint of France (Marilyn Stokstad and Michael Cothren). Abbot Suger argued the intent to build was to create a larger space for pilgrims to come, view the relics and venerate the body of St. Denis, which the existing church was too modest for St. Denis. There was too much overcrowding and the added space was necessary.

First reconstruction was in the 1130s to replace the existing church. Building began for a new west facade and narthex in 1135. In the 1140s, reconstruction of the choir included stain glass windows. Abbot Suger supervised and oversaw construction to the church and heavily valued precious materials, magnificence and fine workmanship. This led to a team of international group of masons, sculptors, metalworkers, and glass painters to come together to build a highly expensive piece of architecture. To do this, Abbot Suger forged documents to increase landholdings and used the annual revenue from the town's inhabitants to bring to life his magnificent ideas.

The new facade and narthex were attached to the original old church and was built in the new choir in 1135. Later it would be consecrated on June 14, 1144. This may have been the first Gothic style building.

There were pointed arches and rib groined vaults with large, non-load-bearing walls of stained glass windows to create an open space of uninterrupted light. In the choir, the ambulatory was open space surrounded by seven chapels. The combination of the rib vaults and webbing covering the pointed arches, pressed the weight of the thrust downward towards the ground through the piers they rested on.

The Flight into Egypt was one of the stained glass windows representing Jesus's childhood in the abbey church. It was painted with vitreous enamel on colored pieces of glass showing the Virgin reaching to grab a date from the palm tree. The tree was bent to young Jesus's command to help the Virgin. The faces are clear and elegant along with the foliage and clothing. To make a stained glass window, sand and ash need to come to a molten state using intense heat, then stain it with color. To do so, metallic oxides had to be added. Once fully heated to an intense temperature, the glass was blown and flattened to the desired width and size. The sheets of glass were cut according to the drawing it was placed on using a hot iron to accurately cut the glass to a figural scene or ornamental passage. An iron tool was used to chip to a more accurate shape. The vitreous paint was thickened or diluted to either block the light or create facial expressions or drapery folds. To fuse the paint to the glass, it had to be fired in the kiln. Strips of lead held the pieces together after being puzzled together in a narrative form.