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This source is crucial as it compares Hefner to the likes of Great Gatsby, embodying the ideal 'Playboy Man', with an image of silk robes, pipes and beautiful women. With the male gaze in mind, Hefner's star image became an extension of his brand, young men aspiring to be just like him. Hefner made his extraordinary image ordinary as by purchasing the magazine, consumers could become just like him.

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Hugh Hefner, Playboy, and the American Male

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The “Playboy man” of Hugh Hefner’s imagination was as much a creature of his living room as of his lusts.

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Lessons from Hugh Hefner’s Life: The Impact of Infidelity and the Path to Recovery (2023)

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This article questions the source of Hefner's outward rejection of monogamy, discussing how his marriage to his first wife Millie ended in her having an affair. Similarly to the article by the Hollywood Reporter, it shed's a sense of authenticity to Hefner's image, his death revealing cracks and imperfections to his bachelor-esque image.

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Lessons from Hugh Hefner’s Life: The Impact of Infidelity and the Path to Recovery

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From Playboy Mansion to Personal Transformation: Navigating the Emotional Aftermath of Infidelity

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The BBC discusses how as he was praised for pursuing sexual liberation through his magazines, Hefner became a revolutionist, Playboy challenging taboo attitudes towards sex. However, the article also touches on how many argued about him treating women as objects sexual desire. Posted a day after Hefner's official death, the article debates on whether Hefner revolutionised sexual attitudes, or whether the models did, as their decision to pose in playboy challenged traditional norms.

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Hugh Hefner, the founder of Playboy magazine, has died aged 91 after a lifetime of selling not just magazines but a fantastical lifestyle. What did his sexual revolution mean for women?

Much of the press coverage of Hefner's death has focused on the two sides to his legacy, pitting sleaziness against the way he opened American sexual attitudes.

The feminist Camille Paglia called him "one of the principal architects of the social revolution" and Hefner himself said in 1992 that he was proud he had "changed attitudes toward sex".

Playboy was, after all, first published in 1953, when US states could ban contraceptives, and well before the so-called lads' mags of the 1990s and the pornography that is widely available online today.

But some feminists argue there is a third part to Hefner's legacy: that he built his revolution through images of women's bodies.

Dr Thekla Morgenroth, who researches gender stereotypes at the University of Exeter, said: "Hugh Hefner was not a feminist or liberator of women as some claim.

"Sure, he and his empire challenged prudish norms of the 1950s - according to which women were chaste virgins or caring mothers - but women remained sexual objects in his portrayals.

"I don't think there is anything inherently bad about nudity or even pornography but his idea of sexual liberation remained one in which women were objects with the purpose of providing pleasure to men.

"This was equally reflected in how he portrayed his lifestyle - in which women functioned as accessories and status symbols, not as equal partners.

"He did not empower women. He gave them just one more restrictive role to choose from."

Women's activist Kellie Turtle agreed, saying: "It was about putting women back in their place, which was as objects for male desire."

She told the BBC she thinks his success was "part of the backlash against women's move into public life in business and politics".

"It sent that message back to women that you don't really have influence and your place is to look attractive," she said.

"I think the social revolution that I've benefited from is one that was created by women, not by men. What Hefner did was just place men back at the centre of it.

"He was interested in sexual desire but only in how it benefited men."

When feminist Gloria Steinem went undercover as a Playboy Bunny in the 1960s, she found the other women working there to be bound by stringent rules regarding appearance.

Ms Steinem produced a falsified CV but it was brushed aside by a woman who told her: "We don't like our girls to have any background, we just want you to fit the bunny image." She revealed that women would have their pay docked if they failed to show up to the make-up room on time, if their underwear was showing, or if they ate while on duty.

Later, she said: "I think Hefner himself wants to go down in history as a person of sophistication and glamour. But the last person I would want to go down in history as is Hugh Hefner."

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Hefner lived with many women at the same time in what became known as the Playboy mansion - the site of lavish parties.

The women had a strict lifestyle, including a 21:00 curfew and pre-bed routines where the women living there had to change into pyjamas and, a former Playmate wrote in a book, have sex with Hefner.

They were not allowed male visitors.

Holly Madison's book also accused Mr Hefner of playing his girlfriends, of which she was one, off against each other. He responded with a statement saying a few of the women he had had romantic relationships with had later "chosen to rewrite history in an attempt to stay in the spotlight".

Meanwhile, many women who staffed the clubs and lived in the Playboy mansion have paid tribute to Hefner.

Kim Kardashian, a former cover star, tweeted that she was honoured to have been part of Playboy, and Pamela Anderson posted a video of herself crying to Instagram.

The life Hefner led was undoubtedly many men's fantasy, and in the world of magazines, aspiration sells.

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But writing in the feminist magazine Ms six years ago, Gail Dines said: "For women, there is nothing nostalgic about sexism. As feminists continue to fight for equality, men like Hugh Hefner who continue to exploit women should not be held up as 'visionary'.

"This is an insult to women everywhere."

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Hugh Hefner death: Was the Playboy revolution good for women?

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Was the Playboy revolution good for women?

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Hugh Hefner's Playboy empire became an iconic part of pop culture, but struggled to keep up. Here's what led to the company's rise and fall (2019)

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Business Insider discusses how Hefner discovered new ways of expanding the empire, investing in Playboy Clubs, merchandise (clothes, commodities with the Playboy logo), TV and film appearances. In this way, his image could be associated with commodities other than the magazine, further expanding his empire.

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Irene Kim: Playboy used to be everywhere. Its best-selling issue sold over 7 million copies. In the early 2000s, Playboy's logo could be found on everything from jewelry to tattoos, and Bunnies were all over movie screens and reality TV. But Hugh Hefner's gone, the original Playboy Clubs have closed, and magazine sales have shrunk to less than 4% of what they used to be. So, what happened?

In 1953, former copywriter Hugh Hefner saw a demand for a gentleman's magazine. Recruiting 45 investors who cobbled together $8,000, a young Hef was ready to launch what would become Playboy. Originally, Hefner wanted to call it Stag Party, but was challenged by Stag Magazine, so a friend suggested the name Playboy, and it stuck. But Hefner himself came up with Playboy's now iconic logo. He thought a tuxedoed rabbit would be "cute, frisky, and sexy." With no office to work out of, Hef put the first issue of Playboy together in his apartment on the kitchen table. The cover and centerfold featured Marilyn Monroe. But Monroe never posed for Playboy. Hefner bought old photos a struggling Monroe had posed for under a pseudonym, having no idea they would eventually end up as a magazine feature. The star was never paid for her Playboy debut. Regardless, the first issue was released in December 1953. A huge success, the magazine sold out of all 70,000 copies at $0.50 apiece.

Hefner immediately invested his profits back into Playboy, expanding his staff. Circulation grew quickly, partly because of the magazine's lack of competition. But not only was Playboy one of the first to publish colored photographs of nude women, its Playmate concept set it apart from the rest. Each issue featured a "Playmate of the month," starting with Hefner's then girlfriend and subscription-department employee Charlaine Karalus, aka Janet Pilgrim. Hefner described Playmates as women who could be "the new secretary at your office" or the "girl who sells you shirts and ties." In other words, a wholesome woman you could meet in real life, not a distant, professional model. The photo layouts were a seduction, with the Playmate slowly revealing more and more until being fully nude in the centerfold.

By the end of the 1950s, the magazine was selling a million copies a month. And while it was a popular joke to claim that one only bought Playboy for the articles, the magazine did establish a reputation for literary excellence, publishing in-depth interviews with all sorts of cultural icons and excerpts from esteemed writers like James Baldwin. Even when its first true competitor, Penthouse, launched, Playboy stayed on top, with print sales peaking at 7.1 million copies of the November 1972 issue. Playboy made $12 million in profit that year. That's $73 million today. Playboy grew to be more than a magazine; it was a lifestyle. Hefner expanded Playboy Enterprises to include the Playboy Clubs, designed to embody the glamorous and luxurious lifestyle marketed by the magazine. 50,000 members joined the original Playboy Club in Chicago in its first year. Soon, there would be 23 Playboy Clubs around the world.

Bobbie Walters: It was an incredible place to be. It was magical.

Kim: That's Bobbie Walters. She worked as a Bunny at the Playboy Club in New York City and, later, Miami.

Walters: In New York City, there were 100 girls there. There were six different floors. So you could enjoy a show, you could enjoy a gourmet dinner, or you could dance to disco music, or you could just go down into the Playmate bar and have a drink.

Kim: As for what it was like to work as a Bunny...

Walters: The training was one week long. Once we got to the Playboy Club and got on the floor, we learned how to do the Bunny Dip. Tape: OK, once again, let's see the Bunny Dip down just so.

Walters: Which is an extremely ridiculous thing because you're standing on 6-inch heels, leaning backwards, serving liquor.

Kim: Bunnies had to follow strict rules dictated in their Bunny Manuals.

Walters: It told you all about the rules and regulations, how the costume was supposed to look.

Kim: Bunnies also had a specific greeting for guests.

Walters: So, you would walk up to the table slowly, and they would just be looking, "Oh, my God, there's my Bunny," and then you'd just approach a table and say, "Good evening, I'm your Bunny, Bobbie."

Kim: And the Bunnies were what really drew people to the Clubs.

Walters: You could get a scotch and soda anywhere, but you couldn't get a glimpse of a Playboy Bunny.

Kim: But the 750,000 Playboy Club members and 60 million magazines sold yearly wouldn't last forever. Despite their early success, all the Playboy Clubs were closed down by 1986. They had been losing money for years. The changing social and political climate shifted public perception of the clubs. Rather than being daring, they were now seen as degrading to women. And the rise of 1980s video porn was giving the print magazine competition. As magazines like Stuff and Maxim entered the market, circulation continued to decline through the '90s. Playboy also made the fatal mistake of not moving online fast enough. As the internet boomed, online searches for Playboy would literally return ads for their competitors. Playboy tried to offset its losses by licensing out its trademarked logo. Billions of dollars' worth of merchandise with the bunny logo were sold. Playboy merchandise did particularly well in Asia, especially China, despite laws prohibiting the magazine from being sold there. But it wasn't enough. The high sales numbers only returned small licensing revenue for Playboy. Hefner tried to revive his empire with a venture into reality TV. In 2005, he signed up for an E! reality show that followed his life with his then three girlfriends: Holly Madison, Bridget Marquardt, and Kendra Wilkinson. "The Girls Next Door" aired in over 150 countries worldwide and ran for six seasons. It made Hef and Playboy a visible part of early 2000s pop culture. Despite its decline, Playboy helped launch successful careers for the likes of Pamela Anderson and Anna Nicole Smith, while stars like Naomi Campbell and Madonna graced its cover. President Donald Trump is particularly proud of his Playboy feature. But by the time the company finally placed its full archives online, it was too late. When Hefner passed away in 2017, Playboy seemed directionless, and investors had been losing money for decades. With circulation at an all-time low and reported losses of $7 million a year, the magazine was scaled back to release only quarterly. But it isn't over for Playboy just yet. In September 2018, the Playboy Club in New York City reopened, complete with waitresses dressed as bunnies, and the magazine is rebranding to appeal to a younger generation. The 2019 summer issue featured not models or actresses, but instead, three activists. Women also now play a significant role behind the camera. It's a clear contrast to Playboy's origins, when women had very little autonomy. Whether Playboy's efforts to be more empowering can save the magazine remains to be seen. A lot has changed since Hugh Hefner started Playboy, and it's unclear whether it'll survive. But there's always the logo, and that's a billion-dollar legacy.

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Hugh Hefner's Playboy empire became an iconic part of pop culture, but struggled to keep up. Here's what led to the company's rise and fall.

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At its peak print circulation, Hugh Hefner's Playboy magazine generated $12 million in revenue. Here's what caused the rise and fall of Playboy.

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1953: The first edition of Playboy magazine featuring pictures of Marilyn Monroe. Hefner discovered old, nude pictures of the rising star, exploited them and gave himself and Playboy a name in the industry.

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1963: Hefner becomes known as a sexual revolutionist as nudity is now a key theme for the magazine. Covers like this have become more overtly sexualised; a marketing tactic aimed to boost sales towards aspiring 'Playboys'

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1973: The height of the sexual revolution as depicted by the suggestive cover. Sales for Playboy magazine are at their peak, adding commodity value to Hefner's professional and personal image.

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1989: Cover features are becoming more and more aspirational. Pamela Anderson's monthly appearance sky rockets her acting career as one of Hefner's many bombshells, adding to his glamourised image.

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1998: Famous singers, actors and models are featured on front covers promoting their work. Simultaneously, Playboy features are considered to be useful marketing for celebrities and stars, increasing Hefner's visibility.

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2006: Intense pressures from audiences discussing the objectification of women in Playboy. Hefner's attempts to make his bachelor image coherent, often promotes his own convergence into different industries such as TV, with 'Girls Next Door'.

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2017: Hefner dies in his mansion aged 91. The #Metoo movement dominates the media as widespread discussion of sexual harassment leads to huge backlash for Hefner's image. Incoherency is established as his bachelorism is now considered objectifying.

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2020: The final Playboy Magazine is released. Reduced to only a Spring/Summer edition as monthly releases are scrapped. Hefner's legacy had officially stopped printing and he is remembered negatively.

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Sexual Revolutionist and commitment to the First Amendment 

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Sexual Revolutionist and commitment to the First Amendment 

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Despite his eventual infamy in the media, Hefner's image and the Playboy Bunnies became iconic and recognisable. His statement robe and pipe still remains a classic Halloween costume, as well as the iconic ears and bowtie.

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Hugh Hefner: The Sad Secrets of His Final Years Revealed (2017)

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This article was released after Hefner's death, perhaps to shed a more authentic light on his star image. It reveals that despite his legacy being that of sexism and objectification, behind all the blonde bunnies, Hefner was surprisingly alone. Unable to achieve real intimacy away from the fame, he spent many of his last years in his private office, crammed with objects from his childhood.

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Hugh Hefner: The Sad Secrets of His Final Years Revealed

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He’d cultivated an image as a notorious womanizer throughout his life, but he had become an elderly man, living amidst the clutter of his past.

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These contrasting images create a sense of ambiguity when discussing Hefner's authenticity as a star. We are aware of his star image being an extension of his brand, however it is uncertain as to how far this goes.

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Patton's (2013) book discusses how when Playboy was created, 'leisure or adult play was associated with hard work'. Linking to the article by the New Yorker, the substance of the magazine, as such, acted as a tool for men to merge leisure, work and play. Consequently, the Playboy aspiration grew alongside consumer growth in American working class; buyers wanting to achieve the class and sophistication Hefner portrayed.

Patton, E.A. (2015) ‘Transforming Work into Play and Play into Work within the Domestic Sphere’, Media History, 21(1), pp. 101–116

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CONNOLLY, M., 1961. RAMBLING REPORTER. The Hollywood Reporter (Archive: 1930-2015), 164(44), pp. 2.

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BIRO, N., 1961. NIGHT CLUB REVIEWS: Playboy Club Treats Ears & Eyes. Billboard Music Week (Archive: 1961-1962), 73(5), pp. 12.

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Magazine archives from the early 1960's show that after it's first opening in Chicago, the clubs promoted Hefner's sophisticated and elitist experience as depicted in the magazines. Commodifying his lifestyle into a club, they would later expand to cities like London and Tokyo.

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The Playboy clubs were an initial success in the 60's; guests being served and entertained by magazine featured bunnies in their iconic costumes. They embodied the Playboy lifestyle which Hefner portrayed in his magazines, the bunnies coming to life as they served food and drinks to those essentially buying Hefner's lifestyle.

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Inevitably, the clubs began to close in the 1980's, many complaining how they were sexist and objectifying, with women reportedly having to weigh themselves in front of bosses, and being punished if it fluctuated. This created a negative appearance to Hefner's revolutionist and appealing image, his brand to lifestyle connection being incoherent as he is painted as sexist and patriarchal.

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Culture Re-View: The last Playboy Club hops off

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On this day in 1988, the last Playboy Club closed in Lansing, Michigan, bringing to an end nearly 30 years of the iconic nightspot.

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Radio-Television: Playboy Pulling A Rabbit Out Of Santa's Cap: Shopping Service. 1986. Variety (Archive: 1905-2000), 325(3), pp. 58.

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Brotman(2022) also depicts another side to Hefner's bachelor image by discussing his belief in the importance of the First Amendment, inspiring him to create the Hugh M Hefner Foundation in 1964 to support organisations that defend and advocate for civil liberties. The amendment underlay both Playboy Magazine and his scrapbooking, in which free speech and expression were a significant theme in both. Here, we can see how Hefner's personal image as a libertarian became overshadowed by his professional bachelor image.

Brotman, S.N. (2022) The First Amendment lives on : conversations commemorating Hugh M. Hefner’s legacy of enduring free speech and free press values / Stuart N. Brotman. 1st ed. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press.

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Differentiating from Playmates, Hefner's bunnies often worked in his infamous Playboy Clubs, serving food, cocktails, cigarettes and even blackjack dealing. This article shows how the iconic bunny image remained coherent to Hefner's persona, despite the changing opinions of him throughout the decades.

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History of the Playboy Bunny Costume: How the Cheeky ’60s Cocktail Waitress Suit Evolved Into an Ever-popular Halloween Outfit

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Not all work uniforms are drab: just take it from the Playboy Bunny. The popular Halloween costume has evolved from ’60s waitresses attire and beyond.

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This image depicts the standards Hefner had on the bunnies, their costuming and behaviour. The iconic 'bunny dip' was even enforced for the bunnies to serve drinks appropriately. On appearance, the bunnies created an air of sophistication and sensuality for clients attending Hefner's clubs. However beneath this professional visage, it was extremely objectifying, an issue which only arose much after the 60's.

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Crystal Hefner's tour as one of Hefner's girlfriend, filmed before his death, provides insightful access to the inside of the Playboy Mansion, allowing viewers to see a more intimate side of Hefner's home. It's likely that although the vlog feels authentic, Hefner actually had tight control into what was posted, making the vlog seem personal, but realistically more artificial.

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Crystal Hefner // Tour of the Playboy Mansion Master Bedroom

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Beggan, J.K. and Allison, S.T. (2005) ‘Tough Women in the Unlikeliest of Places: The Unexpected Toughness of the Playboy Playmate’, Journal of popular culture, 38(5), pp. 796–818.

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Critics Began and Allison (2005) stated that Playmates have an unexpected toughness in their nature and actually, Hefner presented them as having much more complex characters. In a way, when Hefner presents Playmates in tough conditions, it encourages men to see these women in a non-traditional perspective, challenging gender roles. This discussion provides a different feminist approach to Hefner's image, insinuating that the centrefolds were deliberately liberating for women, rather than objectifying.

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Other critics study the Playmate from a more unified approach, arguing that Hefner's branding of Playmates as sexual, docile and possessable objects was apparent in many of the centrefolds. Regan (2021) concludes in her study that a somewhat paradox was created as women were objectified in the images, however weren't in the narrative text that accompanies them as they speak from their own voice, not Hefner's.

Regan, H. (2021) ‘Playboy and Pornification: 65 Years of the Playboy Centerfold’, Sexuality & culture, 25(3), pp. 1058–1075

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Aside from it's cultural significance, many remember the Playboy Mansion as a 'house of horrors rather than a pleasure palace' (Chesney, 2023). Before and after Hefner's death, many advocated for the erasure of the Playboy Mansion, not only helping to improve the Los Angeles housing shortage, but also to demolish the long sexualised history of its residents, many women testifying experiences of sexual harassment or assault. Chesney's work is crucial as it also shows the incoherencies in Hefner's image; him being surrounded by women actually having many issues behind the scenes.

Chesney, P.S. (2023) ‘The Playboy Mansion Must Be Destroyed’, Critical planning, 26(1).

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The tour shows the lavish and sophisticated interior of the mansion, with exclusive access to the master bedroom and entertainment spaces. Here, we can see how both Hefner's image and lifestyle blur; the mansion a perfect representation of how he both liberalised sexual freedom, and controlled it. The rooms act as an almost set to his life, restricted access to who can see them and when.

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By Crystal herself doing the tour, we can see a more humane side to her image which is portrayed in Playboy. She is still a young, impressionable girl, having Disney and Mickey Mouse collections whilst living in a lavish sex mansion. This oxymoronic portrayal of her image further shines a negative light on Hugh; many of the girls not fully knowing what they are signing up for, but being influenced by his fame and star image.

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Feminist Interview: The Dick Cavett Show (1970)

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Feminist Interview: The Dick Cavett Show (1970)

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Hugh Hefner CLASHES With Feminists Over Playboy Models | The Dick Cavett Show

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Holly Madison: Down the Rabbit Hole (2016)

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Holly Madison: Down the Rabbit Hole (2016)

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In her book, Hefner's former girlfriend and bunny, Holly Madison provides a deep insight to her life while being Hefner's girlfriend. This source is extremely useful as it shows how successfully Hefner made his ordinary image extraordinary to the public, when in reality, life in the mansion was not as perfect.

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Co-produced by Playboy Enterprises, The Girls Next Door (2005) provided an inside look into Hefner's life with his three girlfriends Holly, Bridget and Kendra.

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The Girls Next Door Season 1 Episode 1 : Meet the Girls

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The Inside Hook provides valuable insight to a hobby no one on the surface knew about Hefner, him winning the Guinness World Record of the biggest scrapbook collection of an astounding 2396 items in 2010. Again, this article is crucial as it was published after Hefner died, including 'artwork, cartoons and correspondence, and 700 pages of autobiographical text about his youth […] and eventual success with Playboy.' This provides an increased level of authenticity to Hefner's professional image, the blur between professional and personal spheres becoming clearer.

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Much like Crystal's tour of the mansion on YouTube, The Girls Next Door shows a surface-level look into the life of a bachelor like Hefner. Both of these sources were later dismissed into being artificial and scripted, in reality, Hefner having strict rules and emotional manipulation towards the girls. Both Holly and Bridget revealed the darker side of living with Hefner after the show was released, creating inconsistencies with Hefner's image.

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Holly discuses how she had to sleep with Hefner to secure a place in the mansion and that many of the girls were often invited for group sex with Hefner. He was also very controlling, monitoring her jobs, plastic surgery and who she flirted with. The book provided a different take into Hefner's image as controlling, rather than the other sources depicting him as glamourous.

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Almost 50 years before Holly's book was published, the Women's Liberation Movement also clashed with Hefner on a talk show, stating that Hefner "built an empire on oppressing women". The talk show is crucial as it develops Hefner's image through a first hand perspective, him stating that the "girls don't find it degrading as they wouldn't be working with us". At the time, Hefner restored his legitimacy, however it was years later when his image would be fully changed negatively.

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In this article by Variety (2022), it discusses how the Me Too movement caused the Playboy Enterprise to abandon Hefner's legacy, now going by PLBY Group and reportedly not associating with Hefner. In such, they made many statements to Variety claiming that 'As a brand with sex positivity at its core, we believe safety, security and accountability are paramount'. This confirms that Hefner's image has completely changed after the movement, his previous empire entirely diminishing his 'empowering' image and affirming the accusations made against him.

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Drugs, Threats & Coercion: Why Hugh Hefner’s Playboy Empire Is Being Re-Examined After #MeToo

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The filmmaker behind A&E’s “Secrets of Playboy” speaks about her docuseries and investigation into allegations against Hugh Hefner.

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Change in Meaning of Hugh Hefner and Playboy: From Horatio Alger to Sexual Predator (2024)

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Change in Meaning of Hugh Hefner and Playboy: From Horatio Alger to Sexual Predator (2024)

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In Beggan's article (2024), he discusses how Hefner's death narrowly escaped the refocus on the #metoo movement, however 'The feminist movement and the Me Too movement made it more difficult to construct an image of Hugh Hefner and Playboy that excluded exploitation'. In such, Hefner's image transformed from entrepreneur to predator as women's liberation movements grew.

Beggan, J.K. (2024) ‘Change in Meaning of Hugh Hefner and Playboy: From Horatio Alger to Sexual Predator’, The Journal of communication inquiry, 48(4), pp. 541–558

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Interestingly, Hefner's image always had always been under some attack, especially as seen in the Dick Cavett Interview back in 1970. What recent sources depict though, is that the WLM acted as a grassroots movement which after many decades eventually altered Hefner's image. Its debatable whether Hefner himself altered his public perception or whether it was societal justice groups like this

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In this article, ABC news reveals how in 2019, the FBI released files on Hugh Hefner's 'obscenity charges' and whether pornographic material was being transported across state lines. Despite this, they found that no laws were violated, reaffirming Hefner's image as a free speech advocate and sexual liberationist,

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The FBI released its file on Playboy founder Hugh Hefner. So, what’s in it?

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The FBI has released its file on Playboy founder Hugh Hefner, one of many celebrities the agency has investigated.

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The official Playboy website with a wide range of domestic goods, clothes and amenities

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Shop All Playboy Clothing, Merch & Accessories

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Official Playboy clothing, apparel, accessories and merchandise. Lifestyle essentials, streetwear collabs and more.