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In the Special Education in Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Exceptionality (Seventh Edition) by Richard M. Gargiulo and Emily C. Bouck, the textbook glossary states, “An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects an individual’s educational performance. The term includes both visual impairments and blindness”

According to The University of Pittsburgh Department of Ophthalmology vision impairment refers to a condition where a person’s eyesight cannot be fully corrected to achieve normal vision.

https://ophthalmology.pitt.edu/vision-impairment/what-vision-impairment

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According to The University of Pittsburgh Department of Ophthalmology the characteristics of Visual Impairments are as follows:

1. Reduced Visual Acuity:

• Difficulty seeing objects clearly, where the eye cannot focus or resolve details as well as usual.

2. Reduced Visual Field:

• A limited ability to see the full area without moving the eyes or turning the head.

• Low Vision: Visual acuity of 20/70 to 20/400 or a visual field of 20 degrees or less.

• Blindness: Visual acuity worse than 20/400 or a visual field of 10 degrees or less.

• In the U.S., legal blindness is defined as a visual acuity of 20/200 or worse, or a visual field of 20 degrees or less.

4. Functional Impact:

• The effect of vision loss on daily life is not solely dependent on visual acuity.

• Functional vision varies between individuals with the same level of vision loss based on how well they use their remaining vision for everyday tasks.

5. Adaptability and Use of Vision:

• Functional vision evaluations assess how effectively individuals use their sight in different settings and tasks, such as scanning a room, navigating environments, or working under varying lighting conditions.

6. Impact on Development (in Children):

• Vision impairment can hinder a child’s cognitive, emotional, neurological, and physical development.

• Limited exposure to information and experiences due to impaired vision affects how a child interacts with the world.

7. Coexisting Disabilities:

• Many children with vision impairments also experience other developmental disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, hearing loss, epilepsy, or intellectual disabilities.

• The likelihood of additional disabilities increases with the severity of vision impairment.

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According to The University of Pittsburgh Department of Ophthalmology the possible causes of Hearing Impairments are as follows:

1. Loss of Visual Acuity:

• The inability of the eye to see objects as clearly as usual. This can result from conditions that affect the clarity or sharpness of vision.

2. Loss of Visual Field:

• A reduction in the area visible to the eye without moving the eyes or head. This can be caused by conditions that damage peripheral vision or central vision.

https://ophthalmology.pitt.edu/vision-impairment/what-vision-impairment

According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing the possible clauses of Hearing Impairments are as follows:

1. Congenital Causes:

• Genetic Factors: Hearing loss present at birth due to inherited conditions or genetic mutations.

• Prenatal Issues: Exposure to infections during pregnancy, such as rubella, cytomegalovirus, or syphilis.

• Birth Complications: Premature birth, low birth weight, lack of oxygen (hypoxia), or severe neonatal jaundice.

2. Acquired Causes:

• Infections:

• Ear infections (otitis media).

• Meningitis, measles, or mumps.

• Trauma:

• Head injuries or perforation of the eardrum.

• Chronic Conditions:

• Prolonged exposure to loud noises (noise-induced hearing loss).

• Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis).

• Ototoxic Substances:

• Certain medications (e.g., aminoglycosides, chemotherapy drugs) or exposure to toxins.

https://www.asha.org/public/hearing/causes-of-hearing-loss-in-children/?srsltid=AfmBOopqXypbXz6BvmRW_kKH6BOYCDw7TvgF3Urg_F69fuYI8cO-7Os4

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The article discusses Treatment/Interventions and Educational Implications for children with hearing loss in the following ways:

Treatment and Interventions

The article emphasizes that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to treating hearing loss, and intervention plans should be tailored to the needs of each child and family. Early Intervention (0–3 years)

Early intervention services are critical for developing communication and social skills.

Babies diagnosed with hearing loss should start receiving intervention services as soon as possible, ideally by six months of age.

Services may include speech therapy, sign language instruction, and access to communication resources, provided under IDEA 2004 Part C.

Assistive Technology

Hearing Aids: Amplify sound to maximize residual hearing. Especially useful for young children with hearing loss.

Cochlear Implants: Beneficial for children with severe to profound hearing loss when hearing aids are insufficient. These devices directly stimulate the auditory nerve.

Auditory Brainstem Implants: Suitable for children with profound hearing loss due to abnormalities in the auditory nerve or cochlea.

Bone-Anchored Hearing Aids: Useful for conductive or mixed hearing loss, especially for children unable to use traditional hearing aids.

Assistive Devices: Includes FM systems, captioning, telephone amplifiers, flashing alarms, and TTY devices.

Medications and Surgery

Chronic Ear Infections: Managed with medication or surgery (e.g., inserting ear tubes to drain fluid).

Structural Abnormalities: Surgery may correct malformations of the outer or middle ear.

Surgical placement of cochlear implants, brainstem implants, or bone-anchored hearing aids.

Learning Language

Without intervention, children with hearing loss are at risk of language delays.

Families may need to adopt new communication habits or learn skills like sign language, often in combination with assistive devices.

Educational Implications

Hearing loss can significantly impact a child’s education, making timely and appropriate support essential.

Special Education (3–22 years)

Children with hearing loss may qualify for specialized instruction under IDEA 2004 Part B.

Special education services are designed to meet the unique developmental and educational needs of children with disabilities.

Impact on Communication and Learning

Hearing loss can affect the ability to develop speech and language skills, influencing academic and social performance.

Children may require additional resources to reach their full potential, such as individualized education plans (IEPs) or accommodations in the classroom.

Use of Assistive Technology in Schools

Devices like FM systems and captioning support learning by enhancing communication in noisy environments.

Access to assistive devices ensures that children with hearing loss can participate fully in classroom activities.

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Treatment and intervention types

Intervention Services

Early Intervention (0-3 years)

Hearing loss can affect a child's ability to develop speech, language, and social skills. The earlier a child who is deaf or hard-of-hearing starts getting services, the more likely the child's communication (speech or sign language) and social skills will reach their full potential.

Early intervention program services help young children with hearing loss learn communication and other important skills. Research shows that early intervention services can greatly improve a child's development.

Babies who are diagnosed with hearing loss should begin to get intervention services as soon as possible, but no later than 6 months of age.

There are many services available through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004 (IDEA 2004). Services for children from birth through 36 months of age are called Early Intervention or Part C services. Even if your child has not been diagnosed with a hearing loss, he or she may be eligible for early intervention treatment services. The IDEA 2004 says that children under the age of 3 years (36 months) who are at risk of having developmental delays may be eligible for services. These services are provided through an early intervention system in your state. Through this system, you can ask for an evaluation.

Special Education (3-22 years)

Special education is instruction specifically designed to address the educational and related developmental needs of older children with disabilities, or those who are experiencing developmental delays. Services for these children are provided through the public school system. These services are available through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004 (IDEA 2004), Part B.

Assistive Technology

Many people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing have some hearing. The amount of hearing a deaf or hard-of-hearing person has is called "residual hearing." Technology does not "cure" hearing loss but may help a child with hearing loss to make the most of their residual hearing. For those parents who choose to have their child use technology, there are many options, including

Hearing aids

Cochlear or brainstem implants

Bone-anchored hearing aids

Other assistive devices

Hearing Aids

Hearing aids make sounds louder. They can be worn by people of any age, including infants. Babies with hearing loss may understand sounds better using hearing aids. This may give them the chance to learn speech skills at a young age.

There are many styles of hearing aids. They can help many types of hearing losses. A young child is usually fitted with behind-the-ear style hearing aids because they are better suited to growing ears.

Cochlear and Auditory Brainstem Implants

A cochlear implant may help many children with severe to profound hearing loss-even very young children. It gives that child a way to hear when a hearing aid is not enough. Unlike a hearing aid, cochlear implants do not make sounds louder. A cochlear implant sends sound signals directly to the hearing nerve.

Persons with severe to profound hearing loss due to an absent or very small hearing nerve or severely abnormal inner ear (cochlea), may not benefit from a hearing aid or cochlear implant. Instead an auditory brainstem implant may provide some hearing. An auditory brainstem implant directly stimulates the hearing pathways in the brainstem, bypassing the inner ear and hearing nerve.

Both cochlear and brainstem implants have two main parts. There are the parts that are placed inside the inner ear, the cochlea, or base of the brain, the brainstem during surgery; and the parts outside the ear that send sounds to the parts inside the ear.

Bone-Anchored Hearing Aids

This type of hearing aid can be considered when a child has either a conductive, mixed, or unilateral hearing loss and is specifically suitable for children who cannot otherwise wear 'in the ear' or 'behind the ear' hearing aids.

Other Assistive Devices

Besides hearing aids, there are other devices that help people with hearing loss. Examples of other assistive devices include

Frequency Modulation (FM) System. An FM system is a device that helps people with hearing loss hear in background noise. FM is the same type of signal used for radios. These systems send sound from a microphone used by someone speaking to a person wearing the receiver. FM is sometimes used with hearing aids. An extra piece is attached to the hearing aid that works with the FM system.

Captioning. Many television programs, videos, and DVDs are captioned. Television sets made after 1993 are made to show the captioning. You don't have to buy anything special. Captions show the conversation spoken in soundtrack of a program on the bottom of the television screen.

Other devices. There are many other devices available for children with hearing loss. Some of these include

Text messaging

Telephone amplifiers

Flashing and vibrating alarms

Audio loop systems

Infrared listening devices

Portable sound amplifiers

TTY (Text Telephone or teletypewriter)

Medications and Surgery

Medications or surgery may also help make the most of a person's hearing. This is especially true for a conductive hearing loss, or one that involves a part of the outer or middle ear that is not working in the usual way.

One type of conductive hearing loss can be caused by a chronic ear infection. A chronic ear infection is a build-up of fluid behind the eardrum in the middle ear space. Most ear infections are managed with medication or careful monitoring. Infections that don't go away with medication can be treated with a simple surgery that involves putting a tiny tube into the eardrum to drain the fluid out.

Another type of conductive hearing loss is caused by either the outer and or middle ear not forming correctly while the baby was growing in the mother's womb. Both the outer and middle ear need to work together in order for sound to be sent correctly to the inner ear. If any of these parts did not form correctly, there might be a hearing loss in that ear. This problem may be improved and perhaps even corrected with surgery. An ear, nose, and throat doctor (otolaryngologist) is the health care professional who usually takes care of this problem.

Placing a cochlear implant, auditory brainstem implant, or bone-anchored hearing aid will also require a surgery.

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Treatment and Intervention for Hearing Loss

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Early intervention, special education, assistive hearing devices, medical and surgical

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Tips for teaching deaf children with a mild hearing loss