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Ancient Times

600 BCE: Thales and Heraclitus explored early ideas of natural phenomena and interactions.

460 BCE: Democritus proposed the concept of atomism, suggesting that matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

Archimedes (287–212 BCE): Advanced principles of levers, buoyancy, and the mathematical explanation of physics.

Ancient China: Shen Kuo (1031–1095) described magnetism and invented the magnetic-needle compass.

Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

11th Century: Ibn al-Haytham revolutionized optics, proposing that light travels in rays and challenging earlier theories of vision.

16th Century

1543: Nicolaus Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

17th Century

1605: Johannes Kepler discovered that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit, formulating his laws of planetary motion.

1611: Johannes Kepler developed the first scientific study of optics and invented the modern astronomical telescope.

1665: Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" and advanced mechanics and elasticity.

1668: Isaac Newton invented the reflecting telescope, revolutionizing observational astronomy.

1687: Newton published Principia Mathematica, introducing the laws of motion and the law of gravitation.

18th Century

1711: Laura Bassi became the first woman physics professor at a European university.

1750s: Carolus Linnaeus classified natural phenomena, laying a foundation for physical categorization.

1780s: Antoine Lavoisier developed the law of conservation of mass, marking the beginning of modern chemistry's overlap with physics.

19th Century

1803: John Dalton proposed the modern atomic theory.

1824: Sadi Carnot published foundational work on thermodynamics and heat engines.

1873: James Clerk Maxwell formulated the equations describing electromagnetism.

1879: Thomas Edison invented the first practical electric light bulb.

1888: Nikola Tesla patented the alternating current (AC) system, forming the foundation of modern power grids.

1895: Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays, earning the first Nobel Prize in Physics.

1898: Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium and polonium, introducing the study of radioactivity.

Early 20th Century

1900: Max Planck introduced quantum theory, marking the beginning of modern physics.

1905: Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity and the famous equation E=mc2E=mc^2.

1911: Ernest Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom.

1913: Niels Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, incorporating quantum mechanics.

1934: Enrico Fermi conducted experiments leading to the first controlled nuclear chain reaction.

1940s: J. Robert Oppenheimer led the Manhattan Project, developing the first atomic bombs.

1949: Maria Goeppert Mayer proposed the nuclear shell model.

Mid-20th Century

1951: Chien-Shiung Wu confirmed the violation of parity conservation in weak interactions, reshaping particle physics.

1963: Allan Cormack developed mathematical principles for CT scans.

1966: Stephen Hawking began publishing groundbreaking work on black holes, gravity, and quantum mechanics.

1983: Sally Ride became the first American woman in space, contributing to laser physics and astrophysics.

1985: Steven Chu pioneered laser cooling techniques for trapping atoms.

Late 20th Century

1991: Shirley Ann Jackson contributed to particle physics, including studies on hadrons and superconductors.

21st Century

2021: The James Webb Space Telescope launched, providing unprecedented views of the universe.

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Ancient Times

3100 BCE: Stonehenge was built in England to observe celestial movements and track time.

1600 BCE: Nebra Disk, one of the oldest star maps, was created in Germany.

2500 BCE: Ancient Egypt’s astronomer-priests used celestial observations to predict the Nile’s annual floods.

2000 BCE: The Maya developed a complex calendar system and accurately predicted eclipses.

1000 BCE: Ancient China created an early calendar and a star catalog; Chinese astronomer Shih Shen compiled a list of stars.

4th Century BCE:

Greeks theorized Earth was round.

Hipparchus mapped over 800 stars and developed a brightness scale still used today.

Ptolemy proposed the geocentric model, placing Earth at the center of the universe, a belief held for centuries.

Medieval Times (500–1400 CE)

9th Century CE: Hindu and Arab astronomers preserved and advanced astronomical knowledge, inventing tools like the quadrant and sextant.

16th Century

1543: Nicolaus Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, introducing the heliocentric theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun.

17th Century

1600: Johannes Kepler became Tycho Brahe’s assistant and later succeeded him as the Holy Roman Emperor’s mathematician.

1605: Johannes Kepler discovered that Mars moves in an oval-shaped orbit.

1609: Kepler published The New Astronomy, detailing his discovery of planetary motion in elliptical orbits.

1611: Kepler published the first scientific study of light and lenses and invented the modern astronomical telescope.

1610: Galileo Galilei used a telescope to observe Jupiter’s moons, sunspots, and lunar craters, supporting the heliocentric model.

1687: Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica, formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

1670: Maria Kirch became the first woman to discover a comet.

18th Century

1783: Caroline Herschel detected three nebulae using a small Newtonian reflector.

1786: Caroline Herschel became the first woman to discover a comet; over the next 11 years, she discovered seven additional comets.

1798: Caroline Herschel presented a catalog of 560 stars omitted from the British Catalogue and corrections to the Royal Society.

19th Century

1800s: Photography revolutionized astronomy, enabling detailed mapping of celestial bodies.

1814: The invention of the spectroscope allowed analysis of starlight, revealing the composition of stars.

1857: Williamina Paton Stevens Fleming pioneered the classification of stellar spectra.

1863: Annie Jump Cannon created a stellar classification system, cataloging tens of thousands of stars.

1868: Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the relationship between the period and luminosity of Cepheid variables, enabling measurement of cosmic distances.

20th Century

1923: Edwin Hubble discovered Cepheid variables in the Andromeda Nebula, proving it was a galaxy beyond the Milky Way.

1927: Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away from each other, leading to the concept of an expanding universe and the formulation of Hubble's constant.

1961: Katherine Johnson calculated the trajectory for Freedom 7, the first U.S. crewed spaceflight.

1968: Carl Sagan became the director of a laboratory at Cornell University and helped plan Mars probe landings.

1968: NASA launched Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2 (Stargazer), the first attempt to study the wider universe from space.

1969: Apollo 11 successfully landed humans on the moon, with Katherine Johnson contributing launch and landing calculations.

21st Century

2021: The James Webb Space Telescope was launched, offering unprecedented views of the universe.

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Ancient Times

3500 BCE: Assyrians and Babylonians had knowledge of agriculture and medicine.

2500 BCE: Knowledge of agriculture and medicine was widely applied in China, Egypt, and India.

600 BCE: Greeks proposed the concepts of cause and effect and natural law governing the universe.

460 BCE: Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine," was born on the island of Cos, Greece.

400 BCE: Hippocrates observed the effect of the environment on human nature.

Mid-4th Century BCE: Aristotle presented a system for classifying animals, and Theophrastus created a system for classifying plants.

2nd Century AD

2nd Century: Galen’s medical writings influenced biology and medicine for centuries.

Middle Ages (AD 500–1400)

9th Century: Al-Jahiz expanded on Greek observations in biology.

11th Century: Avicenna’s writings helped revive European interest in biology.

Renaissance (AD 1300–1650)

16th Century: Anatomy studies advanced through dissections by Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius.

17th Century (1600s)

1665: Robert Hooke introduced the concept of "cells."

1668: Francesco Redi conducted experiments disproving spontaneous generation.

1670s: Anthony van Leeuwenhoek improved the microscope and observed bacteria, protozoa, and spermatozoa.

18th Century (1700s)

1750s: Carolus Linnaeus published the biological classification system using binomial nomenclature.

19th Century (1800s)

1859: Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, introducing the theory of evolution.

1859: Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed similar ideas on evolution.

1866: Gregor Mendel published his findings on inheritance, introducing the concept of the gene.

20th Century (1900s)

1900: Mendel’s work was rediscovered, and chromosomes were identified.

1928: Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, beginning the antibiotic revolution.

1945: Fleming, along with Florey and Chain, received the Nobel Prize for isolating and purifying penicillin.

1953: James Watson and Francis Crick announced the discovery of DNA’s double-helix structure, revolutionizing biology.

Mid-20th Century: Advances in antibiotics, insulin, and molecular biology transformed medicine.

Mid-20th Century: Biotechnology emerged, allowing genetic code sequencing and manipulation.

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1. 300 BCE

In places like China, people were fascinated by alchemy.

18th Century (1700s)

1789: Antoine Lavoisier developed the metric system, the Conservation of Mass rule, and rules for naming compounds.

1803: John Dalton proposed the atomic theory and developed laws of proportions and pressure.

19th Century (1800s)

1863: Louis Pasteur developed the process of pasteurization to eliminate microorganisms in milk.

1866: Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and started the Nobel Prize award.

1869: Dmitri Mendeleev published the first version of the periodic table, organizing elements by properties and predicting unknown elements.

1896: Henri Becquerel discovered the unusual rays of energy given off by uranium.

1898: Marie and Pierre Curie announced the discovery of radium and polonium.

20th Century (1900s)

1914: George Washington Carver innovated agricultural chemistry, focusing on crop rotation and sustainable farming practices.

1915: Henry Moseley developed the concept of the atomic number.

1915–1916: Alice Ball developed the first successful treatment for leprosy using chaulmoogra oil.

1934: Frédéric Joliot and Irène Joliot conducted significant research in radioactivity.

1935: Percy Julian synthesized medicinal compounds and pioneered large-scale production of cortisone.

1945: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin published her groundbreaking X-ray crystallography work on penicillin structure.

1950s–1980s: Ruth Benerito invented wrinkle-resistant cotton and contributed to polymer chemistry.

1958: Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy to understand protein structures.

1965: Stephanie Kwolek invented Kevlar, a strong polymer used in various applications, including bulletproof vests.

1968: Har Gobind Khorana won the Nobel Prize for work on nucleic acids and proteins.

1992: Mae Jemison conducted chemical research in space, including fluid dynamics in microgravity.

1987: Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao was one of the first to synthesise 123 cuprates, the first liquid nitrogen-temperature superconductor

21st Century (2000s)

2020: Paul Anastas received the Nobel Prize for Green Chemistry.