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Hannah Scott

After the collapse of Aksum's centralized authority and strong trade, their political importance endured in later Ethiopia with ideas of centralized government. During the seventh century, Aksum’s government could no longer support an army and its complex administration. Aksum’s trade was crumbling to end because of interruption in Red Sea trade routes, changing climates, and a weakened economy from the military. (Britannica academic.) After their fall in the eighth to ninth century, few important political leaders moved south for the fertile soil where rulers could rely on for long trade routes, and the center of power moved. Centralized government regained power in the city of Lalibela, and the Aksumites legacy of political organization continued in the Zagwe Dynasty (National Geographic.) Aksum was believed to have influenced political organization in Ethiopia. The political display of the country was made up of different areas that functioned almost like their own separate states, operating with a degree of independence from the central government. Even after Aksum's downfall in the ninth century, the Aksumites legacy was carried on through the political establishment of Ethiopia.

Works Cited

Low, Anthony, and Harold G. Marcus, editors. "Eastern Africa." Britannica Academic, academic-eb-com.uprep.idm.oclc.org/levels/collegiate/article/eastern-Africa/108362#37505.toc. Accessed 26 Sept. 2025.

Parks, Clint, editor. "The Kingdom of Aksum." National Geographic, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/kingdom-aksum/. Accessed 29 Sept. 2025.

"The Zagwe Period and the Zenith of Urban Culture in Ethiopia , CA. 930-1270 AD." JSTOR, www-jstor-org.uprep.idm.oclc.org/stable/40761842?searchText=Aksum+downfall&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DAksum%2Bdownfall%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A7359b1c1e7c18a167e67327bf42b07c7&seq=4. Accessed 30 Sept. 2025.

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The Artistic Element in the Mali Empire

Art from the Mali empire showcases how high they held a sense of beauty in their civilization from their creation with architecture and other physical forms of art. Mansa Musa closely relates to art in Mali as when he arrived in Timbuktu and built it from the ground up, he built a building that acted more as a piece of art rather than being built with functionality in mind (“Mali”). The building has wooden poles pointed out on every exterior wall, with the shape of the building being pyramid-esque. This building was a mosque of great importance to Timbuktu, and still stands today. The fact that this building’s architecture resembles to have been made with beauty and aesthetics in mind shows a clear connection to the Artistic element, with their understanding of beauty being displayed. When Timbuktu started to trade along the silk road, the city gained access to foreign art, including high grade textiles and metal instruments (“Mansa Musa, Emperor”). Textiles act as an obvious example of the visual arts, while the instruments are musical. The Mali empire has always had high regard for art and aesthetics from the moment it began.

Works Cited

"Mali." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2023. academic-eb-com.uprep.idm.oclc.org/levels/collegiate/article/Mali/50326. Accessed 26 Sep. 2025.

"Mansa Musa, Emperor." African Biography, Gale, 1999. Gale In Context: World History, link.gale.com/apps/doc/K2421000049/WHIC?u=seat71728&sid=bookmark-WHIC&xid=8348e067. Accessed 26 Sept. 2025.

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Political Element of the Kingdom of Ghana

In the Kingdom of Ghana, which reigned from the 6th to the 13th century, the political element of society was represented by projecting semi-divine command of the monarch, organizing a vast and controlled network of local leaders, and sustaining a powerful army that could protect trade and demand tribute. Together, these elements show that politics in Ghana was inseparable from religion, economics, and warfare, creating a system that effectively ran a respected kingdom. The king of Ghana held absolute authority, controlling justice, governance, and religion. He was regarded as divine or semi-divine, his religious jurisdiction reinforced by elaborate ceremonies, such as the royal enthronement that emphasized his revered rule (World History Edu). Sacrifices were made in his honor. When he died, he was buried in a sacred grove that no one else could enter, creating an aura of mystery that surrounded his rule. At the same time, the empire was also divided into groups of villages ruled by local chiefs who owed allegiance to the king, while a system of officials managed trade, the military, and other affairs (Encyclopædia Britannica).  Military strength further solidified the empire’s power and allowed the kingdom to grow. The king commanded Ghana’s army, which according to the esteemed Arab traveler Al-Bakri, could reach 200,000 men. An elite cavalry that served as its backbone, giving Ghana speed and supremacy over its rivals and ensuring loyalty in distant territories. The army was supplied with iron weapons made from the empire’s raw materials, while gold provided the wealth to pay soldiers. The abundance of camels gave the army and traders ease when transporting goods and maintaining control of trade routes. With these resources, the empire defended itself and expanded its territories, demanding tribute from conquered tribal chiefs (Gale In Context: World History). These political aspects of the empire worked together to make Ghana a thriving kingdom, one that could dominate trade, inspire awe, and sustain itself for centuries.

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Henry Cooke

Priscilla Lindberg

Early World History

1 October 2025

Political Control in the Mali Empire

The Mali Empire shows the political element of society through the complex feudal system that ensured it would have a lasting monopoly on power. The Mali Empire and its government were formed after 1235 when Sundiata Kiata, the founder of the Mali Empire, conquered the previous kingdom before it (“Mali Empire”). In it, the king was the supreme authority on the law. He was assisted by advisors and wise elders from local lands. These court officials could overpower the king in certain scenarios, preventing overreach that could lead to periods of decline (“The Empire of Mali”).  Below the king, Mali governors, called ferbas, handled affairs for specific regions (McKissack 56). Tax collectors and inspectors, called mochrifs, were stationed in many towns to ensure compliance. The lowest class of officials, chiefs, were supervised by these officials but could still rule to some extent (“Mali Empire”). Because the Mali Empire was divided into sections that were independently ruled, it could effectively maintain its monopoly on power even though it controlled a large area of land. The regional governors and chiefs could respond to small-scale scenarios without distracting the king from larger tasks. Responsibility around the three branches of government was shared among its layers, balancing the workload for each individual official and ensuring the bureaucracy ran smoothly. The checks and balances provided upon the monarchy helped stabilize the empire when it was needed and prevented power being lost through ineffective ruling. In conclusion, the Mali Empire demonstrates the political element of society through maintaining its monopoly on power with a division of labor among government officials.

Works Cited

"The Empire of Mali (1230-1600)." South African History Online, 28 Sep. 2025, https://sahistory.org.za/article/empire-mali-1230-1600.

"Mali Empire." Gale World History Online Collection, Gale, 2022. Gale In Context: World History, link.gale.com/apps/doc/FFVECY355332885/WHIC?u=seat71728&sid=bookmark-WHIC&xid=854c7301. Accessed 26 Sept. 2025.

McKissack, Pat, and Fredrick McKissack. The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay : Life in Medieval Africa. H. Holt, 1994.

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The Swahili coast was a vibrant and prosperous region due to its ports, where the economic element was highlighted by traders exchanging goods with merchants via the Indian Ocean. Kilwa, in particular, was a collection of coastal cities with highly profitable ports located in modern-day Tanzania. Kilwa was situated on the east coast of Sub-Saharan Africa, which led them to have strong trading routes with many other African communities. For example, gold from the mines in West Africa passed through Kilwa on its route to reach the rest of Asia, part of an exchange of goods that merchants from Asia brought. Because coastal cities in Kilwa served as the gateway for goods coming to and from Asia, Kilwa could tax the goods brought over to whatever amount it deemed appropriate, meaning it received more capital for the amount of labor required (Low). Because Kilwa was a hub for trade and culture, due to the influence and capital it gained from other cultures, traders could profit from different cultures and goods by spreading them throughout Africa and vice versa. The trade of unique goods from other cultures meant that they were more rare, thus making them more valuable and able to be sold for a higher capital value (“Kilwa, City of Coral and Gold”). Kilwa utilized its position on the eastern seaboard of Sub-Saharan Africa to open up African communities to goods from Asia, while also profiting from the spread of goods from Africa across the Indian Ocean.

Works Cited

"Did You Know? Kilwa Kisiwani an East African Trading Port on the Maritime Silk Roads." UNESCO Building peace in the minds of men and women, UNESCO, en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/did-you-know-kilwa-kisiwani-east-african-trading-port-maritime-silk-roads. Accessed 28 Sept. 2025.

"Kilwa, City of Coral and Gold." National Geographic: People, Animals, and the World, Aug. 2020, go-gale-com.uprep.idm.oclc.org/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=NatGeo-Depts-Misc&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&retrievalId=709c207b-68e7-48bc-bcb4-667542abf043&hitCount=1&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CMTFFAD551393081&docType=Article&sort=Pub+Date+Reverse+Chron&contentSegment=ZNGL&prodId=NGMA&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CMTFFAD551393081&searchId=R1&userGroupName=seat71728&inPS=true. Accessed 28 Sept. 2025.

Low, Anthony, D., and Harold G. Marcus. "Eastern Africa." Britannica Academic, academic-eb-com.uprep.idm.oclc.org/levels/collegiate/article/eastern-Africa/108362#37487.toc. Accessed 28 Sept. 2025.

Wynne-Jones, and Laviolette. "The Swahili Coast and Indian Ocean Trade." African Studies Center, Pardee School of Global Studies, 2018, www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/teachingresources/history/ancient-to-medieval-history/indian/. Accessed 29 Sept. 2025.

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Economic Element in the Mali Empire - Dhara Parikh

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Economic Element in the Mali Empire - Dhara Parikh

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Dhara Parikh

Priscilla

Early World History P1

1 October 2025

Economic Element in the Mali Empire

The Mali Empire demonstrated the economic element through its wealth and trade. The Mali empire, which hit its peak between the 13th and 16th centuries, was located in West Africa, ruling areas ranging from Bondu in the south to the Niger River in the north (“Mali” Britannica). The land of the Mali Empire, which was rich in gold and other natural resources, provided the region with power in the trading system. (“Mali” Gale). In addition to possessing a significant amount of gold, Mali served as a key intermediary for trade. The location of the empire was ideal due to the fact that it was on the Niger River, which allowed access to the Atlantic Ocean, a gateway to many different regions. The Mali Empire taxed the masses of trade and enslaved some of the people passing through. A combination of gold, trade, and enslavement ultimately led to the immense wealth of the Mali empire (“Mali Empire”).

The fortune of the Mali Empire relates to the economic element, as it sustained and provided for the people within it. Significant to any economy are the factors of production, land, labor, and capital, which can be applied to the Mali trade. Examples of land include the gold mines in Mali and the resources of the people whose trade passed through them. An example of labor is found in the time and effort spent by the many people who had a part in the Mali trade. Finally, examples of capital could be resources such as tools, needed to participate in agriculture, and camels, which helped carry goods across great distances. These actions, items and people may not have all lived or spent their time in Mali, but they impacted the economics of the area. In summary, the trade and riches of the Mali Empire contributed significantly to its economy and exhibited the concept of the economic element.

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The Kingdom of Ghana and The Economic Element

The Kingdom of Ghana is deeply connected to the economic element of society due to its control over trade across Africa and their own vast production of gold. The kingdom of Ghana gained control over the trade market due to its central location in Africa. This allowed them to begin taxing anybody who either entered or left the kingdom with goods. People didn’t want to get taxed multiple times so they simply stayed in Ghana to trade, leading to a majority of trade happening in Ghana (Britannica). Since a lot of trade happened in Ghana they subsequently gained control over a lot of capital and resources which gave them an important role in African economics. Not only did Ghana have control over trade but they also gained control over Gold. Ghana was located next to the majority of gold in Africa which they made sure to use. They maintained a production tax on gold and didn’t let traders have more than gold dust which kept gold scarce and valuable. Ghana would trade that gold for most other necessary resources like salt or cloth, which allowed them to prosper. Ghana had control over many parts of economics, but mostly the resources and capital that they could gain through trade.  (World History Encyclopedia).

Works Cited

Cartwright, Mark. "Ghana Empire." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 05 Mar 2019, https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/. Web. 25 Sep 2025.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Ghana." Encyclopedia Britannica, 4 Feb. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana-historical-West-African-empire. Accessed 26 September 2025.

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The kingdom of Askums transitioned into Christianity and transofrmed its religious identity, and established itself as one of the earliest Christian kingdoms.. When the kingdom of Askum first came forth in history, it was mostly a trading state. It had mostly worshipped the Middle Eastern gods such as Mahrem, the god of war, and Behēr god of the sea. Still, they eventually moved on from these gods during the 4th Century with Emperor Ezana and the Aksumite court converting to the Monophysitic Christianity, the belief that Christ was both divine and human. The king had been restored by a man named Frumentis, who was a former Syrian captive and later became the bishop of Askum. Frumentius baptized King Ezana somewhere between 340-356 C.E.(“The kingdom of Aksum”) After being baptized, King Ezana officially declared Askum a Christian state, and after Ezana’s death, Christianity would grow among and spread among the people of what is now Ethiopia causing it to be the only Christian kingdom to stay Christian after the spread of Islam across the middle and northern parts of Africa in the 7th century. Showing the resolve and dedication the Askumites had to Christianity, when they stood strong with their beliefs while everyone around them changed and bent to the pressure of the Islamic traditions.

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The economic element of Aksum was important because Aksum sold a lot of things. Aksum had a population of 20,000 people, which was quite big at the time. The city was strategically positioned where trade routes were running through it, gaining it a lot of profit. The city also gained  Gold and ivory were their most valuable export, but they also sold tortoise shells, rhino horns, frankincense, emeralds, salt, live animals, and slaves. They also imported iron, steel, textiles, weapons, glass, jewelry, spices, olive oil, and wine. Because of the Trans-Saharan trade, they were also able to capitalize on imports, using taxes to gain massive revenue. Today, you can see the ruins of Aksum, which are located in Ethiopia's northern border. Aksum used to be the heart of Ancient Ethiopia, in which it used to be the most powerful state between Rome and Persia. The ruins are huge, going back as far as the 1st century to 13th century A.D. In the ruins themselves, you can see monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs, and ruins of castles. The largest obelisk, which is approximately 33 meters long, lies here. It is said to be the largest stele that ancient humans ever attempted to make.

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Political Element of Kilwa

Kilwa demonstrates the political aspect of Swahili city-states through its rulers’ ability to create and enforce laws that shaped the flow of trade. Being an amalgamation of several coastal cities located in present-day Tanzania, it was well-known for its maritime trading as an Indian Ocean port. Various early sixteenth-century accounts noted Kilwa's trading connections with not only nearby regions but also as far as the “Monemugi” group in central Tanzania and Malacca, a port to the Indian Ocean in Southeast Asia (Gale in Context.) These instances of inland and long-distance trading demonstrate that the leaders of Kilwa throughout the city-state’s development had exercised strong legislative authority to regulate such exchanges, as was required for the capability to maintain order across networks on this scale and range. Meanwhile, Kilwa’s kings also supervised commerce throughout the city-state itself, becoming wealthy and strengthening the influence of their communities as well as authority through controlling and taxing trade (Bentley.) It can be shown through the kings’ control of taxation that there was an effective establishment of legal systems to determine the way in which trade was conducted.

Works Cited

Bentley, Jerry H., et al. Traditions and Encounters : a Brief Global History. 2nd ed.

"Eastern Africa and Indian Ocean, History of (1500 to 1800)." New Encyclopedia of Africa, edited by John Middleton and Joseph C. Miller, 2nd ed., vol. 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008, pp. 145-148. Gale In Context: World History, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3049000197/WHIC?u=seat71728&sid=bookmark-WHIC&xid=3357e10f. Accessed 30 Sept. 2025.

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The artistic/intellectual element of the Kingdom of Ghana - Miles

The intellectual/artistic element of the Ghanaian Society is important because the sculptures reflect spiritual connection, artistic skill, and intellectual expression. First, I will go over spiritual connection. The sculptures of the Ghanaian Society often come in ceremonial objects, masks, and figurative sculptures. The Berj Art Gallery states, “The sculptures often depict human figures, animals, or mythological beings, each carrying symbolic meaning and representing aspects of Ghanaian culture and spirituality.” (Berj Art Gallery). The sculptures and carvings allow for the Ghanaian society to connect with the spiritual world. Next, I will discuss the artistic skill that these provide. The land of Ghana was rich in gold, therefore making goldsmithing prominent. The legendary crafting skills have been passed down from the kingdoms thriving in the same area before the Kingdom of Ghana. Besides gold, they also used metal, clay, stone, and especially wood. The Ghanaian society is known for their craftsmanship in woodcarving. Finally, I will mention the intellectual expression of these sculptures. The Journal of Arts & Humanities states, “The human form that has been given to supernatural beings is sometimes used by the traditional Ghanaian to express or symbolize the mysteries of the universe.” (79). Examples of this showing up are some sculptures having enlarged heads, representing wisdom, life, and spiritual power. In conclusion, the artistic and intellectual element of the Ghanaian Society is important because their artwork represents artistic skill, mysteries and questions of the universe, and helps the people connect to the spiritual world.

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The Swahili coast was a vibrant and prosperous region due to its ports, where the economic element was highlighted by traders exchanging goods with merchants via the Indian Ocean. Kilwa, in particular, was a collection of coastal cities with highly profitable ports located in modern-day Tanzania, with its heyday spanning from the 7th to the 13th centuries. Kilwa was situated on the east coast of Sub-Saharan Africa, which led them to have strong trading routes with many other African communities. For example, gold from the mines in West Africa passed through Kilwa on its route to reach the rest of Asia, part of an exchange of goods that merchants from Asia brought. Because coastal cities in Kilwa served as the gateway for goods coming to and from Asia, Kilwa could tax the goods brought over to whatever amount it deemed appropriate, meaning it received more capital for the amount of labor required (Low). Because Kilwa was a hub for trade and culture, due to the influence and capital it gained from other cultures, traders could profit from different cultures and goods by spreading them throughout Africa and vice versa. The trade of unique goods from other cultures meant that they were more rare, thus making them more valuable and able to be sold for a higher capital value (“Kilwa, City of Coral and Gold”). Kilwa utilized its position on the eastern seaboard of Sub-Saharan Africa to open up African communities to goods from Asia, while also profiting from the spread of goods from Africa across the Indian Ocean.

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Political Element of Kilwa

Kilwa demonstrates the political aspect of Swahili city-states through its rulers’ ability to create and enforce laws that shaped the flow of trade. Being an amalgamation of several coastal cities located in present-day Tanzania, it was well-known for its maritime trading as an Indian Ocean port. Various early sixteenth-century accounts noted Kilwa's trading connections with not only nearby regions but also as far as the “Monemugi” group in central Tanzania and Malacca, a port to the Indian Ocean in Southeast Asia (Gale in Context: World History). These instances demonstrate that the leaders of Kilwa throughout the city-state’s development had exercised strong legislative authority to regulate such exchanges, as was required for the capability to maintain order across networks on this scale and range – inland and long-distance. Meanwhile, Kilwa’s kings also supervised commerce throughout the city-state itself, becoming wealthy and strengthening the influence of their communities as well as authority through controlling and taxing trade (Bentley). It can be shown through the kings’ control of taxation that there was an effective establishment of legal systems between legislation, adjudication, and execution of trading and taxing laws to determine the way in which trade was conducted.