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An echocardiogram (also called an echo) is a type of ultrasound test that uses high-pitched sound waves that are sent through a device called a transducer. The device picks up echoes of the sound waves as they bounce off the different parts of your heart. These echoes are turned into moving pictures of your heart that can be seen on a video screen.

The different types of echocardiograms are:

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE). This is the most common type. Views of the heart are obtained by moving the transducer to different locations on your chest or abdominal wall.

Stress echocardiogram. During this test, an echocardiogram is done both before and after your heart is stressed either by having you exercise or by injecting a medicine that makes your heart beat harder and faster. A stress echocardiogram is usually done to find out if you might have decreased blood flow to your heart (coronary artery disease).

Doppler echocardiogram. This test is used to look at how blood flows through the heart chambers, heart valves, and blood vessels. The movement of the blood reflects sound waves to a transducer. The ultrasound computer then measures the direction and speed of the blood flowing through your heart and blood vessels. Doppler measurements may be displayed in black and white or in color.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE). For this test, the probe is passed down the esophagus instead of being moved over the outside of the chest wall. TEE shows clearer pictures of your heart, because the probe is located closer to the heart and because the lungs and bones of the chest wall do not block the sound waves produced by the probe. A sedative and an anesthetic applied to the throat are used to make you comfortable during this test.

Echo can be used as part of a stress test and with an electrocardiogram ( EKG or ECG) to help your doctor learn more about your heart.

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE)

This test is done to:

Look for the cause of abnormal heart sounds (murmurs or clicks), an enlarged heart, unexplained chest pain or pressure, shortness of breath, or irregular heartbeats.

Check the thickness and movement of the heart wall.

Look at the heart valves and check how well they work.

See how well an artificial heart valve is working.

Measure the size and shape of the heart's chambers.

Check the ability of your heart chambers to pump blood (cardiac performance). During an echocardiogram, your doctor can calculate how much blood your heart is pumping during each heartbeat (ejection fraction). You might have a low ejection fraction if you have heart failure.

Detect a disease that affects the heart muscle and the way it pumps, such as cardiomyopathy.

Look for blood clots and tumors inside the heart.

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A transthoracic echocardiogram may also be used to:

Stress echocardiogram

A stress echo may be done to:

Identify and monitor reduced blood flow to heart muscle (ischemia). This is usually more apparent after some form of stress, such as exercise or medicine.

Doppler echocardiogram

A Doppler echocardiogram can be done during a transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), a transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE), or a stress echocardiogram to:

Measure the speed at which blood travels through the heart.

Measure the blood pressure and speed of blood flow through the heart valves.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) may be done to:

Monitor heart function during surgery.

Check how well an artificial heart valve works.

Look for masses or blood clots in the upper left chamber (left atrium) of the heart.

Identify abnormal blood flow between the chambers of the heart (cardiac shunt).

Help find out if you have endocarditis, which is an infection of the heart's valves or its inner lining (endocardium).

Guide procedures done during cardiac catheterization.

Help find out if you have a tear in the aorta (aortic dissection).

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) and Doppler echocardiogram

You do not need any special preparation for a transthoracic or Doppler echocardiogram.

Stress echocardiogram

Do not eat heavily for a few hours before a stress echo to help prevent nausea. You may feel nauseated if you exercise with a full stomach or from the injection of dobutamine.

Wear flat, comfortable shoes (no bedroom slippers or sandals) and loose, lightweight shorts or sweatpants for an exercise stress echo.

Ask your doctor whether you should take your regular medicines as usual. Tell your doctor if you take insulin.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

Do not eat or drink for at least 6 hours before the TEE.

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If you have dentures or dental prostheses, you may need to remove them before the test.

If you have medical problems involving the throat, esophagus, or stomach, tell your doctor before getting this test.

Before a TEE, you will be given a sedative. You will not be able to drive for at least 12 hours after the procedure. Be sure to make arrangements in advance for someone to pick you up after the test.

Before an echocardiogram, you may be asked to sign a consent form that says you understand the risks of the test and agree to have it done.

Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form.

An echocardiogram may be done in a hospital, clinic, or doctor's office. It can also be done at your bedside in the hospital.

You will need to remove any jewelry and clothes above your waist (you may be allowed to keep on your underwear if it does not interfere with the test). You may be given a cloth or paper covering to use during the test.

A transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), Doppler echocardiogram, and stress echocardiogram are performed by a specially trained ultrasound technician. A transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) is performed by a cardiologist with the help of assistants.

You may receive an IV so you can get medicine during the test. The IV can be used to give you a contrast material, which helps your doctor check your heart function. A contrast material may be used if it is difficult to get good views of your heart. A good view might be hard to get because of certain conditions such as obesity or chronic lung disease.

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) and Doppler echocardiogram

You will lie on your back or on your left side on a bed or table. Small pads or patches (electrodes) will be taped to your arms and legs to record your heart rate during the test. To learn more, see Electrocardiogram.

Continued

A small amount of gel will be rubbed on the left side of your chest to help pick up the sound waves. A small instrument (transducer) that looks like a microphone is pressed firmly against your chest and moved slowly back and forth. This instrument sends sound waves into the chest and picks up the echoes as they reflect off different parts of the heart. The echoes are sent to a video monitor that records pictures of your heart for later viewing and evaluation. The room is usually darkened to help the technician see the pictures on the monitor.

At times you will be asked to hold very still, breathe in and out very slowly, hold your breath, or lie on your left side. The transducer is usually moved to different areas on your chest that provide specific views of your heart.

The test usually takes from 30 to 60 minutes. When the test is over, the gel is wiped off and the electrodes are removed.

Exercise stress echocardiogram

An echo without activity or stress will be done before you start exercising. This is called the baseline, and after it is established you will exercise for a specific amount of time. You will either walk on a treadmill or pedal a stationary bicycle while being monitored by an EKG machine. To learn more, see Exercise Electrocardiogram.

You will then lie on a bed or table, and another echocardiogram will be done. At times you will be asked to hold very still, breathe in and out very slowly, hold your breath, or lie on your left side. The transducer is usually moved to different areas on your chest that provide specific views of your heart.

An exercise stress echo takes about 30 to 60 minutes.

Dobutamine stress echocardiogram

Sometimes medicine called dobutamine is used instead of exercise to stress your heart. For this test, you will lie on your back or left side on a bed or exam table, and a baseline echocardiogram will be done. EKG electrodes will be taped to your arms and legs to record your heart rate during the test.

Continued

Next, the technician cleans the site on your arm where the medicine will be injected, and an intravenous (IV) line will be placed in a vein in your arm.

After the IV is started, you will be given dobutamine, which increases your heart rate and causes your heart to work harder. Echocardiogram images will be taken while you receive the dobutamine. Your peak heart rate is reached in about 15 minutes. At times you will be asked to hold very still, breathe in and out very slowly, hold your breath, or lie on your left side. After your peak heart rate is reached, the medicine will be stopped and your heart rate will return to normal (in about 1 to 3 minutes). More echocardiogram images will be taken when your heart rate returns to normal.

A dobutamine stress echo takes about an hour.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

Before a TEE, your throat may be numbed with an anesthetic spray, gargle, or lozenge to relax your gag reflex and to ease insertion of the probe. Shortly before the procedure begins, an IV line will be placed in a vein in your arm. Medicine to decrease saliva and stomach secretions may be given through the IV. A pain medicine and sedative will be given to you through the IV in your arm during the procedure. You should feel relaxed and drowsy but still alert enough to cooperate.

Your heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure will be monitored throughout the procedure. Also, a small device used to measure the amount of oxygen in your blood ( pulse oximeter) may be attached to your finger or earlobe.

You will be asked to lie on your left side with your head tilted slightly forward. A mouth guard may be inserted to protect your teeth from the probe. Then the lubricated tip of the probe will be guided into your mouth while your doctor gently presses your tongue out of the way. You may be asked to swallow to help move the tube along. It may be helpful to remember that the instrument is no thicker than many foods you swallow. When the probe is in your esophagus, it will be moved down gently to the level of your upper right heart chamber (atrium), and ultrasound images will be taken. You will not feel or hear the sound waves during the test.

Continued

During the procedure, try not to swallow unless requested. An assistant may remove the saliva from your mouth with a suction device, or you can just let the saliva drain from the side of your mouth. A transesophageal echo is generally painless, though you may feel nauseated and uncomfortable while the probe is in your throat.

The test takes about 2 hours. The probe will be in place in your esophagus for about 10 to 20 minutes.

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) and Doppler echocardiogram

You will not have pain from the echocardiogram. Gel is put on your chest for the ultrasound. It may feel cool. The handheld ultrasound device is pressed firmly against your chest, but it does not cause pain. You will not hear or feel the sound waves.

You may feel uncomfortable from lying still or from the transducer pressing on your chest. If you need to take a break, tell the technician.

Most people do not experience any discomfort from ultrasound tests. But if you have severe difficulty breathing or cannot lie flat for a long exam, you may not be able to have an entire echo study. Talk to your doctor or the technician performing your echo about any concerns you have.

Dobutamine stress echocardiogram

You may have a brief, sharp pain when the intravenous (IV) needle is placed in a vein in your arm.

If medicine to stress your heart is used, you may have symptoms of mild nausea, headache, dizziness, flushing, or angina (such as chest pain or pressure). These symptoms only last a few minutes.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

During the test

You may notice a brief, sharp pain when the intravenous (IV) needle is placed in a vein in your arm.

The anesthetic sprayed into your throat may taste bitter and will make your tongue and throat feel numb and swollen. Some people report that they feel as if they cannot breathe at times because of the probe in their throat, but this is a false sensation caused by the anesthetic. There is always plenty of breathing space around the probe in your mouth and throat. Remember to relax and take slow, deep breaths.

You may gag and feel nauseous, bloated, or have mild belly cramps when the probe is moved. If the discomfort is severe, alert your doctor with an agreed-upon signal or a tap on the arm. Even though you won't be able to talk during the procedure, you can still communicate.

The IV medicines will make you feel sleepy. Other side effects-such as heavy eyelids, trouble speaking, a dry mouth, or blurred vision-may last for several hours after the test. You probably will not be able to remember much of the test.

After the test

You may have a tickling, dry throat; slight hoarseness; or a mild sore throat. These symptoms may last for 2 to 3 days. Throat lozenges and warm saltwater gargles can help relieve these symptoms. Throat lozenges can be used by people age 4 or older. And most people can gargle at age 8 and older.

Do not drink alcohol for 24 hours.

Contact your doctor immediately if you have:

Difficulty swallowing or talking.

Shortness of breath or a fast heartbeat.

Chest pain.

Continued

An echocardiogram is safe, because the test uses only sound waves to evaluate your heart. These high-frequency sound waves have not been shown to have any harmful effects.

If contrast material is used, there is a slight risk of having an allergic reaction. Most reactions can be controlled using medicine.

Transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) and Doppler echocardiogram

There are no known risks from a transthoracic or Doppler echocardiogram. During a transthoracic echo, the technician may have to press hard on your chest with the transducer. Tell the technician if you feel any pain or discomfort.

Stress echocardiogram

A stress echocardiogram can cause dizziness, low blood pressure, shortness of breath, nausea, irregular heartbeats, and heart attack.

Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE)

A transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) can sometimes cause:

Nausea.

Mouth and throat discomfort.

Minor bleeding.

Trouble breathing.

Slow or abnormal heartbeats.

Insertion of the probe may tear or puncture your esophagus. This is rare.

This test is not recommended if you have:

Recently had radiation treatment to your neck or chest.

Serious problems with your esophagus, such as a very narrow esophagus, dilated (engorged) veins in the esophagus that could rupture and bleed (esophageal varices), or severe arthritis of your neck.

Trouble swallowing.

A bleeding disorder, such as hemophilia.

An echocardiogram is a type of ultrasound test that uses high-pitched sound waves that are sent through a device called a transducer. The device picks up echoes of the sound waves as they bounce off the different parts of your heart. These echoes are turned into moving pictures of your heart that can be seen on a video screen.

Results are usually available within one day. If the test is done by a cardiologist, the results may be available immediately after the test.

Normal:

The heart chambers and walls of the heart are of normal size and thickness, and they move normally.

Heart valves are working normally, with no leaks or narrowing. There is no sign of infection.

The amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle with each heartbeat (ejection fraction) is normal.

There is no excess fluid in the sac surrounding the heart, and the lining around the heart is not thickened.

There are no tumors and blood clots in the heart chambers.

Abnormal:

Heart chambers are too big. The walls of the heart are thicker or thinner than normal. A thin heart wall may mean poor blood flow to the heart muscle or an old heart attack. A thin, bulging area of the heart wall may indicate a bulge in the ventricle (ventricular aneurysm). The heart muscle walls do not move normally because of a decreased blood supply from narrowed coronary arteries.

One or more heart valves do not open or close properly (are leaking) or do not look normal. Signs of infection are present.

The amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle with each heartbeat (ejection fraction) is lower than normal.

There is fluid around the heart (pericardial effusion). The lining around the heart is too thick.

A tumor or blood clot may be found in the heart.

Continued

You may not be able to have the test or the results may not be helpful if you are:

Overweight, have a thick chest or large breasts, or have lung disease, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In these situations, other heart tests may be done.

Not able to lie still during the test.

Not able to stand having a probe in your throat during a transesophageal echo (TEE).

You can help decide if this test is right for you. Talk with your doctor to make that decision. For more information, see Heart Tests: When Do You Need Them?

Organizations

American Heart Association

Other Works Consulted

Cheitlin MD, et al. (2003). ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 guideline update for the clinical application of echocardiography: Summary article: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE Committee to Update the 1997 Guidelines for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography). Circulation, 108(9): 1146-1162. Available online: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/108/9/1146.

Douglas PS, et al. (2008). ACCF/ASE/ACEP/AHA/ASNC/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR 2008 Appropriateness Criteria for Stress Echocardiography: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriateness Criteria Task Force, American Society of Echocardiography, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Heart Association, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, and Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance: endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society and the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Circulation, 117(11): 1478-1497. Available online: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.189097.

Douglas PS, et al. (2010). ACCF/ASE/AHA/ASNC/HFSA/HRS/SCAI/SCCM/SCCT/SCMR 2011 appropriate use criteria for echocardiography. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 57(9): 1126-1166.

Fischbach F, Dunning MB III (2015). A Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 9th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.

Lai WW, et al. (2006). Guidelines and standards for performance of a pediatric echocardiogram: A report from the Task Force of the Pediatric Council of the American Society of Echocardiography. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, 19(12): 1413-1430.

Mulvagh SL, et al. (2008). American Society of Echocardiography consensus statement on the clinical applications of ultrasonic contrast agents in echocardiography. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, 21(11): 1179-1201.

Continued

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An echocardiogram (also called an echo) is a type of ultrasound test that uses high-pitched sound waves that are sent through a device called a transducer. The device picks up echoes of the sound waves as they bounce off the different parts of your heart.

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Healthcare includes medical services that are provided to you by doctors, nurses, dentists, and therapists. Healthcare can positively affect your health, if you can afford it. For example, people are able to receive medicine and treatment for when they are ill. For those who are unable to afford healthcare, they are forced to deal with whatever illness they have which will deteriorate their health.

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frank porter graham child development institute

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The Influence of Health Care Policies on Children's Health and Development | FPG Child Development Institute

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Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute - The FPG Child Development Institute is one of the nation`s oldest multidisciplinary institutes for the study of young children and their families. Research and education activities focus on child development and health, especially factors that may put children at risk for developmental problems.

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Technology can help doctors cure health problems much sooner and improve patient health. For example, the echocardiogram can prevent a patient from dying of a blood clot.

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* Decisions and actions you make in life can have a huge impact on your health
* Behavior can result in habits, something you do regularly
-An example flossing every meal, which is a healthy habit because it gets rid of the food stuck between your teeth

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Media can affect our overall health because it can have a negative impact. For example, wasting time on TV instead of doing something productive like exercising.

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Culture is beliefs and ideas that are shared and upheld by a group of people. Culture can positively and negatively affect your health, depending on what culture you surround yourself with. For example, due to the belief in Chinese culture that an individual's behavior reflects on their family, any mental illness that lacks self-control are resulted in shame and guilt. Therefore, many Chinese patients are hesitant to discuss problems involving mental issues.

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All cultures have systems of health beliefs to explain what causes illness, how it can be cured or treated, and who should be involved in the process. The extent to which patients perceive patient education as having cultural relevance for them can have a profound effect on their reception to information provided and their willingness to use it. Western industrialized societies such as the United States, which see disease as a result of natural scientific phenomena, advocate medical treatments that combat microorganisms or use sophisticated technology to diagnose and treat disease. Other societies believe that illness is the result of supernatural phenomena and promote prayer or other spiritual interventions that counter the presumed disfavor of powerful forces.Cultural issues play a major role in patient compliance. One study showed that a group of Cambodian adults with minimal formal education made considerable efforts to comply with therapy but did so in a manner consistent with their underlying understanding of how medicines and the body work.

Asians/Pacific Islanders are a large ethnic group in the United States. There are several important cultural beliefs among Asians and Pacific Islanders that nurses should be aware of. The extended family has significant influence, and the oldest male in the family is often the decision maker and spokesperson. The interests and honor of the family are more important than those of individual family members. Older family members are respected, and their authority is often unquestioned. Among Asian cultures, maintaining harmony is an important value; therefore, there is a strong emphasis on avoiding conflict and direct confrontation. Due to respect for authority, disagreement with the recommendations of health care professionals is avoided. However, lack of disagreement does not indicate that the patient and family agree with or will follow treatment recommendations. Among Chinese patients, because the behavior of the individual reflects on the family, mental illness or any behavior that indicates lack of self-control may produce shame and guilt. As a result, Chinese patients may be reluctant to discuss symptoms of mental illness or depression.

Some sub-populations of cultures, such as those from India and Pakistan, are reluctant to accept a diagnosis of severe emotional illness or mental retardation because it severely reduces the chances of other members of the family getting married. In Vietnamese culture, mystical beliefs explain physical and mental illness. Health is viewed as the result of a harmonious balance between the poles of hot and cold that govern bodily functions. Vietnamese don't readily accept Western mental health counseling and interventions, particularly when self-disclosure is expected. However, it is possible to accept assistance if trust has been gained.

Russian immigrants frequently view U.S. medical care with a degree of mistrust. The Russian experience with medical practitioners has been an authoritarian relationship in which free exchange of information and open discussion was not usual. As a result, many Russian patients find it difficult to question a physician and to talk openly about medical concerns. Patients expect a paternalistic approach-the competent health care professional does not ask patients what they want to do, but tells them what to do. This reliance on physician expertise undermines a patient's motivation to learn more about self-care and preventive health behaviors.

Although Hispanics share a strong heritage that includes family and religion, each subgroup of the Hispanic population has distinct cultural beliefs and customs. Older family members and other relatives are respected and are often consulted on important matters involving health and illness. Fatalistic views are shared by many Hispanic patients who view illness as God's will or divine punishment brought about by previous or current sinful behavior. Hispanic patients may prefer to use home remedies and may consult a folk healer, known as a curandero.

Many African-Americans participate in a culture that centers on the importance of family and church. There are extended kinship bonds with grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, or individuals who are not biologically related but who play an important role in the family system. Usually, a key family member is consulted for important health-related decisions. The church is an important support system for many African-Americans.

Cultural aspects common to Native Americans usually include being oriented in the present and valuing cooperation. Native Americans also place great value on family and spiritual beliefs. They believe that a state of health exists when a person lives in total harmony with nature. Illness is viewed not as an alteration in a person's physiological state, but as an imbalance between the ill person and natural or supernatural forces. Native Americans may use a medicine man or woman, known as a shaman.

As can be seen, each ethnic group brings its own perspectives and values to the health care system, and many health care beliefs and health practices differ from those of the traditional American health care culture. Unfortunately, the expectation of many health care professionals has been that patients will conform to mainstream values. Such expectations have frequently created barriers to care that have been compounded by differences in language and education between patients and providers from different backgrounds.

Cultural differences affect patients' attitudes about medical care and their ability to understand, manage, and cope with the course of an illness, the meaning of a diagnosis, and the consequences of medical treatment. Patients and their families bring culture specific ideas and values related to concepts of health and illness, reporting of symptoms, expectations for how health care will be delivered, and beliefs concerning medication and treatments. In addition, culture specific values influence patient roles and expectations, how much information about illness and treatment is desired, how death and dying will be managed, bereavement patterns, gender and family roles, and processes for decision making.

Cross-cultural variations also exist within cultures. Strategies that you can use in working with patients from different cultures as displayed in Table 14.

Table 14

Strategies for Working With Patients In Cross-Cultural Settings

Learn about the cultural traditions of the patients you care for.

Pay close attention to body language, lack of response, or expressions of anxiety that may signal that the patient or family is in conflict but perhaps hesitant to tell you.

Ask the patient and family open-ended questions to gain more information about their assumptions and expectations.

Remain nonjudgmental when given information that reflects values that differ from yours.

Follow the advice given by patients about appropriate ways to facilitate communication within families and between families and other health care providers.

SOURCE: Mc Laughlin, L., & Braun, K. (1998). „Asian and Pacific Islander cultural values: Considerations for health care decision-making." Health and Social Work, 23 (2), 116-126.

Doing a cultural assessment

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All cultures have systems of health beliefs to explain what causes illness, how it can be cured or treated, and who should be involved in the process. The extent to which patients perceive patient education as having cultural relevance for them can have a profound effect on their reception to information provided and their willingness to use it.

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Social Environment as an influence on health

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Social Environment as an influence on health

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- It could be our workplace, our school, the neighborhood we live in... are the social environment which affects us
directly. For example,  all the infection deceases have come from social environment (tuberculosis,  hemorrhagic fever...). The social environment is where we interact most of the time a day besides our home, so if we participate in an healthy environment, we would live a healthy life and vice versa...

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Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

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A collaboration among the Bloomberg School of Public Health, the School of Medicine, the School of Nursing and Johns Hopkins Community Physicians

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Physical Environment as an influence on health

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Physical Environment as an influence on health

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* Physical Environment -  part of the human environment that includes purely physical factors (as soil, climate, water supply)
- An example would be what type of air you're breathing and what quality of water you're drinking
* physical environment include both indoor and outdoor activities can play a significant role in your health

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When you are born, your level of health is determined through the traits passed biologically from parent to child. For example, heart diseases and down syndrome are types of diseases that can be inherited.

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You might already have a general understanding about heredity that - it is carried from parents to their children and will affect the health and physical characteristics of children. But do you want to know more about what is heredity and how it affects the health and other physical and mental characteristics? Then we answer in detail to your questions.

We know that genes play an important role in determining our physical characteristics. But to know how genes work, let's get into some biology facts. Cells in human body contain a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is wrapped together to form structures called chromosomes.

What is Heredity?

Most cells in human body have 23 pairs of chromosomes, thus making a total of 46. But, individual sperm and egg cells have only 23 unpaired chromosomes. A child receives half of chromosomes from mother's egg and the other half from father's sperm cell. A male child receives an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. Females get an X chromosome from each parent.

Genes are sections or segments of DNA that are carried on chromosomes and determine specific human characteristics, such as health conditions, hair color, etc. Some characteristics come from a single gene, whereas others come from gene combinations.

Heredity is the passing of genes from one generation to the next. It is what that determines what you are today. Heredity plays an important role, but your environment also influences your abilities and interests.

DNA contains four chemicals - Adeninine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine - that are strung in patterns on extremely thin, coiled strands in the cell. The DNA patterns are the codes for manufacturing proteins - chemicals that enable the body to work and grow. Genes hold the instructions for making protein products. As your cells duplicate, they pass this genetic information to the new cells. Genes can be dominant or recessive. Dominant genes show their effect even if there is only one copy of that gene in the pair. For a person to have a recessive disease or characteristic, the person must have the gene on both chromosomes of the pair.

Cells can sometimes contain variants in the information in their genes. This is called gene mutation. It often occurs when cells are aging or have been exposed to certain chemicals or radiation. Fortunately, cells usually recognize these mutations and repair them by themselves. Sometimes, however, they can cause ill health such as some types of cancer. If the gene mutation exists in egg or sperm cells, children can inherit the mutated gene from their parents.

Heredity and Health

There are more than 4,000 diseases that are caused by genetic variants. But, having a genetic mutation that may cause disease doesn't mean that a person will definitely get that disease. Because you inherit a gene from each parent, having one disease gene may not cause any problems. Normal gene can allow your body to make the normal protein.

People probably carry from 5 to 10 variant or disease genes in their cells. Problems actually arise when the disease gene is dominant or when the same recessive disease gene is present on both chromosomes of a pair. Problems also occur when several variant genes interact with each other - or with environment - that increase susceptibility to diseases.

If a person carries the dominant gene for a disease, he or she will usually have the disease, and each of the person's children will have a 50% chance of inheriting the gene and getting the disease. Diseases caused by a dominant gene include achondroplasia. Marfan syndrome and Huntington disease.

People who have one recessive gene for a disease are called carriers. They don't usually have the disease because they have a normal gene of that pair that can do the job. When two carriers have a child together, however, the child has a 25% chance of getting the disease gene from both parents and in turn getting the disease. Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease are caused by such recessive disease genes.

Some recessive genetic variants are carried only on the X chromosome, which means that usually only guys can develop the disease because they have only one X chromosome. Girls have two X chromosomes, so they would need to inherit two copies of the recessive genes to get the disease. X-linked disorders include the bleeding disorder, hemophilia and color blindness.

Sometimes when an egg and sperm unite, the new cell may get too many or too few chromosomes. Most children born with Down syndrome, which is associated with mental retardation, have an extra chromosome number 21. In some cases, people who are concerned that they might carry certain variant genes can undergo genetic testing, so they can learn their children's risk of having a disease. Pregnant women can also have tests done to see if the fetus they are carrying have certain genetic illnesses or not. Genetic testing usually involves taking a sample of someone's blood, skin or amniotic fluid, and checking it for signs of genetic diseases or disorders.

Gene Therapy offers Solutions

Gene therapy is a promising new field of medical research. In gene therapy, researchers try to supply copies of healthy genes to cells with variant or missing genes so that the healthy genes will take over. Viruses are often used to carry the healthy genes into the targeted cells because many viruses can insert their own DNA into targeted cells.

But there are many problems with gene therapy. Scientists haven't yet identified every gene in the human body and what each one can do. Huge scientific efforts like 'The Human Genome Project' and related projects have recently completed a map of the entire human genome. But it will take many more years to find out what each gene does and possible interactions between them. For most diseases, scientists don't know if and how genes play a role. And, there are major difficulties inserting the normal genes into the proper cells without causing problems for the rest of the body.

There are also concerns that people might try changing genes for ethically troubling purposes. No one knows what the long-term effects of that kind of change would be. Still, for many people who have genetic diseases, gene therapy holds the hope. Let us wish that with the advances in gene therapy, present and future generations would be able to live better and healthier lives.

Therefore, heredity does affect our physical as well as mental health. Some of the hereditary diseases are:

Diabetes

Hypertension

Cancer

Stroke

Heart diseases

Down syndrome

Depression

Schizophrenia

Cystic fibrosis

Sickle-cell anemia

Polydactyly

Autism

Inflammatory Bowel Syndrome

Obesity

Huntington's disease

Besides the heredity factor, the environmental factor also plays an important role in these diseases. With proper precautions, one might avoid some of the diseases which are passed on because of genes. Basic preventions and lifestyle changes can help one avoid certain hereditary diseases and help us live quality life. Look at the positive aspect, you don't have to spend a huge amount of money on health care.

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You might already have a general understanding about heredity that - it is carried from parents to their children and will affect the health and physical characteristics of children. But do you want to know more about what is heredity and how it affects the health and other physical and mental characteristics?

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Steven Le, Diamond Ly, Joseph Luong, Van Duong, Ismael Frias