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How Do Honeybees Get Their Jobs? | National Geographic

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¿Cómo saben las abejas cuál es su trabajo? 

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How Chinese EV Giant BYD Is Taking On Tesla

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How Chinese EV Giant BYD Is Taking On Tesla

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"Godfather of AI" Geoffrey Hinton: The 60 Minutes Interview

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"Godfather of AI" Geoffrey Hinton: The 60 Minutes Interview

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Inside OpenAI, the Architect of ChatGPT, featuring Mira Murati

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Inside OpenAI, the Architect of ChatGPT, featuring Mira Murati

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Inside OpenAI, the Architect of ChatGPT, featuring Mira Murati | The Circuit with Emily Chang

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OpenAI CEO Sam Altman: "If this technology goes wrong, it can go quite wrong."

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OpenAI CEO Sam Altman: "If this technology goes wrong, it can go quite wrong."

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OpenAI CEO Sam Altman: "If this technology goes wrong, it can go quite wrong."

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Unconfuse Me with Bill Gates: “I didn’t expect ChatGPT to get so good”

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Unconfuse Me with Bill Gates: “I didn’t expect ChatGPT to get so good”

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“I didn’t expect ChatGPT to get so good” | Unconfuse Me with Bill Gates

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Apple CEO Tim Cook on what it takes to run the world's largest company 

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Apple CEO Tim Cook on what it takes to run the world's largest company 

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Apple CEO Tim Cook on what it takes to run the world's largest company | Dua Lipa: At Your Service

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Miles de jóvenes de EE.UU. se mudan a vivir en Europa por el "geoarbitraje"

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Miles de jóvenes de EE.UU. se mudan a vivir en Europa por el "geoarbitraje"

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Miles de jóvenes de EE.UU. se mudan a vivir en Europa por el "geoarbitraje"

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Qué pasa en el cerebro si hablas varios idiomas

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Qué pasa en el cerebro si hablas varios idiomas

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She Was 300 Yards From the Atomic Bomb Center

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She Was 300 Yards From the Atomic Bomb Center — and Survived | Op-Docs

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New technology aims to put a whole new spin on space travel

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New technology aims to put a whole new spin on space travel

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An animated introduction to Gene Editing

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An animated introduction to Gene Editing

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Exclusive discounts from CBS Mornings Deals

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Kenya’s $3.8 Billion Chinese-Built Railway Shows Why Belt and Road Is Being Reworked

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Poverty in Britain - Why are millions of Brits so broke?

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Poverty in Britain - Why are millions of Brits so broke?

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What if we stopped making so much stuff?

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AI, Explained: Why It’s Different This Time

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AI, Explained: Why It’s Different This Time | WSJ Tech News Briefing

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The Salt Lake and Water Scarcity Across the World | Colgate®

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As Utah's Great Salt Lake Dries Up, Economic Crisis Looms | WSJ

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As Utah's Great Salt Lake Dries Up, Economic Crisis Looms | WSJ

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How Generative AI Could Replace Artists in Creative Industries

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How Generative AI Could Replace Artists in Creative Industries | Tech News Briefing | WSJ

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Why Texas judges have so much power right now

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OpenAI CEO, CTO on risks and how AI will reshape society

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The risky way to speed up a coronavirus vaccine

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The risky way to speed up a coronavirus vaccine

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Vaccines typically require years of research and testing before reaching the clinic, but scientists are racing to produce a safe and effective coronavirus vaccine by next year. Researchers are testing 44 vaccines in clinical trials on humans, and at least 92 preclinical vaccines are under active investigation in animals.

Work began in January with the deciphering of the SARS-CoV-2 genome. The first vaccine safety trials in humans started in March, but the road ahead remains uncertain. Some trials will fail, and others may end without a clear result. But a few may succeed in stimulating the immune system to produce effective antibodies against the virus.

Here is the status of all the vaccines that have reached trials in humans, along with a selection of promising vaccines still being tested in cells or animals.

For an overview of different Covid-19 treatments, see our Coronavirus Drug and Treatment Tracker.

The Vaccine Testing Process

The development cycle of a vaccine, from lab to clinic.

PRECLINICAL TESTING: Scientists test a new vaccine on cells and then give it to animals such as mice or monkeys to see if it produces an immune response. We have confirmed 91 preclinical vaccines in active development.

PHASE 1 SAFETY TRIALS: Scientists give the vaccine to a small number of people to test safety and dosage as well as to confirm that it stimulates the immune system.

PHASE 2 EXPANDED TRIALS: Scientists give the vaccine to hundreds of people split into groups, such as children and the elderly, to see if the vaccine acts differently in them. These trials further test the vaccine's safety and ability to stimulate the immune system.

PHASE 3 EFFICACY TRIALS: Scientists give the vaccine to thousands of people and wait to see how many become infected, compared with volunteers who received a placebo. These trials can determine if the vaccine protects against the coronavirus. In June, the F.D.A. said that a coronavirus vaccine would have to protect at least 50% of vaccinated people to be considered effective. In addition, Phase 3 trials are large enough to reveal evidence of relatively rare side effects that might be missed in earlier studies.

EARLY OR LIMITED APPROVAL: China and Russia have approved vaccines without waiting for the results of Phase 3 trials. Experts say the rushed process has serious risks.

APPROVAL: Regulators in each country review the trial results and decide whether to approve the vaccine or not. During a pandemic, a vaccine may receive emergency use authorization before getting formal approval. Once a vaccine is licensed, researchers continue to monitor people who receive it to make sure it's safe and effective.

COMBINED PHASES: One way to accelerate vaccine development is to combine phases. Some coronavirus vaccines are now in Phase 1/2 trials, for example, in which they are tested for the first time on hundreds of people. (Note that our tracker would count a combined Phase 1/2 trial as both Phase 1 and Phase 2.)

Vaccines that deliver one or more of the coronavirus's own genes into our cells to provoke an immune response.

PHASE 3

Moderna develops vaccines based on messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce viral proteins in the body. They have yet to bring one to the market. In January, they began developing a vaccine for the coronavirus and since then the government has bankrolled Moderna's efforts, providing nearly $1 billion. In partnership with National Institutes of Health, they found that the vaccine protects monkeys from the coronavirus. In March, the company put the first Covid-19 vaccine into human trials, which yielded promising results. The vaccine has progressed into Phase 3 testing, which began on July 27. The final trial is enrolling 30,000 healthy people at about 89 sites around the United States. On Aug. 11, the government awarded the company an additional $1.5 billion in exchange for 100 million doses if the vaccine proves safe and effective. Canada agreed in September to acquire 20 million doses.

In July, Moderna lost a patent dispute over some of their vaccine technology. The following month, the company stated that it could not be certain it was the first to make the inventions claimed in their patents, including its coronavirus vaccine.

On Sept. 17, Moderna shared their protocol for determining if their vaccine was safe and effective. They planned to wait until a significant number of volunteers became sick with Covid-19 and then see how many had been vaccinated. It may take till the end of 2020 or early 2021 to reach the necessary numbers.

PHASE 2 PHASE 3 COMBINED PHASES

The German company BioNTech entered into collaborations with Pfizer, based in New York, and the Chinese drug maker Fosun Pharma to develop an mRNA vaccine to be given in two doses. In May they launched a Phase 1/2 trial on two versions of the vaccine. They found that both versions caused volunteers to produce antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, as well as immune cells called T cells that respond to the virus. They found that one version, called BNT162b2, produced significantly fewer side effects, such as fevers and fatigue, and so they chose it to move into Phase 2/3 trials. On July 27, the companies announced the launch of a Phase 2/3 trial with 30,000 volunteers in the United States and other countries including Argentina, Brazil, and Germany. In an interim study, the companies reported that after getting the first dose, volunteers experience mostly mild to moderate side effects. On Sept. 12, Pfizer and BioNTech announced that they would seek to expand their U.S. trial to 43,000 participants.

In that same month, the Trump administration awarded a $1.9 billion contract for 100 million doses to be delivered by December and the option to acquire 500 million more doses. Meanwhile, Japan made a deal for 120 million doses, and the European Union arranged to purchase 200 million doses.

In September, the chief executive of Pfizer said they would know if the vaccine works as soon as October 2020. If approved, Pfizer has said they expect to manufacture over 1.3 billion doses of their vaccine worldwide by the end of 2021.

PHASE 2

In March, the Trump administration unsuccessfully tried to entice CureVac to move its research from Germany to the United States. Three months later, the company launched its clinical trials of an mRNA vaccine, gave injections in September to volunteers and Panama and Peru for a Phase 2 study, and planned for a Phase 3 trial by the end of 2020. In an interview, the chief executive of CureVac said that the company would make 100 million doses by the end of 2020 and hoped to gain approval some time in 2021. CureVac has collaborated with Elon Musk's company Tesla on creating mRNA "micro-factories," which could potentially be deployed around the world to make billions of doses of the vaccine.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

Imperial College London researchers have developed a "self-amplifying" RNA vaccine, which boosts production of a viral protein to stimulate the immune system. They began Phase 1/2 trials on June 15 and have partnered with Morningside Ventures to manufacture and distribute the vaccine through a new company called VacEquity Global Health. The researchers expect to know if the vaccine is effective by the end of the year.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

On June 30, the Japanese biotechnology company AnGes announced they had started Phase 1 trials on a DNA-based vaccine, developed in partnership with Osaka University and Takara Bio. The company will announce initial results of the trials in November and are planning for a Phase 3 trial by the end of the year.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

The California-based company Arcturus Therapeutics and Duke-NUS Medical School in Singapore have developed an mRNA vaccine. It has a "self-replicating" design that leads to a greater production of viral proteins. Tests on animals showed that it protected them against infection. In August, Arcturus launched a Phase 1/2 trial at Singapore General Hospital.

PHASE 1

The American company Inovio has developed DNA-based vaccines which are delivered into the skin with electric pulses from a hand-held device. They have vaccines in clinical trials for a number of diseases, and in June they announced interim data from a Phase 1 trial on Covid-19. They found no serious adverse effects, and measured an immune response in 34 out of 36 volunteers. Inovio has yet to publish detailed results of these studies, however, and it is embroiled in several lawsuits with stockholders and a company partner. On Sept. 28, they announced the F.D.A. had put the vaccine on a partial clinical hold due to questions about the delivery device.

PHASE 1

In June, Chinese researchers at the Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Suzhou Abogen Biosciences and Walvax Biotechnology announced they would start their country's first safety trials on a mRNA-based vaccine, called ARCoV. Earlier studies on monkeys reportedly showed protective effects.

PHASE 1

Researchers at Thailand's Chulalongkorn University have been developing several potential vaccines for the coronavirus. The furthest along is an mRNA-based vaccine known as ChulaCov19. On Sept. 29, the Chula Vaccine Research Center registered a Phase 1 trial to test it in humans. In an interview with the Bangkok Post, the leader of the project said that up to 30 million doses might be produced for Thailand and six other Asian countries if the vaccine proved to be safe and effective.

PRECLINICAL

The French pharmaceutical company Sanofi is developing an mRNA vaccine in partnership with Translate Bio. They have found that it produces a strong antibody response in monkeys and are planning on starting Phase 1 trials by December. It would become Sanofi's second Covid-19 vaccine candidate in clinical trials, along with their protein-based vaccine.

Vaccines that contain viruses engineered to carry coronavirus genes. Some viral vector vaccines enter cells and cause them to make viral proteins. Other viral vectors slowly replicate, carrying coronavirus proteins on their surface.

PHASE 3 APPROVED FOR LIMITED USE

The Chinese company CanSino Biologics developed a vaccine based on an adenovirus called Ad5, in partnership with the Institute of Biology at the country's Academy of Military Medical Sciences. In May, they published promising results from a Phase 1 safety trial, and in July they reported that their Phase 2 trials demonstrated the vaccine produced a strong immune response. In an unprecedented move, the Chinese military approved the vaccine on June 25 for a year as a "specially needed drug." CanSino would not say whether vaccination would be mandatory or optional for soldiers. Starting in August, CanSino began running Phase 3 trials in a number of countries, including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Russia.

PHASE 3 APPROVED FOR EARLY USE

The Gamaleya Research Institute, part of Russia's Ministry of Health, launched clinical trials in June of a vaccine they called Gam-Covid-Vac. It is a combination of two adenoviruses, Ad5 and Ad26, both engineered with a coronavirus gene.

On Aug. 11, President Vladimir V. Putin announced that a Russian health care regulator had approved the vaccine, renamed Sputnik V, before Phase 3 trials had even begun. Vaccine experts decried the move as risky, and Russia later walked back the announcement, saying that the approval was a "conditional registration certificate," which would depend on positive results from Phase 3 trials. Those trials, initially planned for just 2,000 volunteers, were expanded to 40,000. On Sept. 4, three weeks after Putin's announcement, Gamaleya researchers published the results of their Phase 1/2 trial. In a small study, they found that Sputnik yielded antibodies to the coronavirus and mild side effects. Meanwhile, Russia negotiated agreements to supply the vaccine to countries including Brazil, Mexico and India.

PHASE 3

A decade ago, researchers at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston developed a method for making vaccines out of a virus called Adenovirus 26, or Ad26 for short. Johnson & Johnson developed vaccines for Ebola and other diseases with Ad26 and have now made one for the coronavirus. In March they received $456 million from the United States government to support their move towards production. The vaccine has provided protection in experiments on monkeys. Johnson & Johnson began Phase 1/2 trials in July and launched a Phase 3 trial with up to 60,000 participants in September.

In August, the federal government agreed to pay $1 billion for 100 million doses if the vaccine is approved. The company is aiming for production of at least a billion doses in 2021.

PHASE 2 PHASE 3 COMBINED PHASES

A vaccine in development by the British-Swedish company AstraZeneca and the University of Oxford is based on a chimpanzee adenovirus called ChAdOx1. A study on monkeys found that the vaccine provided them protection. In May, the United States awarded the project $1.2 billion in support. In their Phase 1/2 trial, the vaccine developers did not detect any severe side effects. They found that the vaccine raised antibodies against the coronavirus as well as other immune defenses. The vaccine began Phase 2/3 trials in England and India, as well as Phase 3 trials in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States.

In August the European Union reached an agreement for AstraZeneca to deliver 400 million doses if the trials yield positive results. The company has said their total manufacturing capacity for the vaccine, if approved, stands at two billion doses. India's Serum Institute has already produced millions of doses to be used in trials.

On Sept. 6, AstraZeneca halted global trials of the vaccine to investigate one volunteer, who developed a form of inflammation called transverse myelitis. Within a week, the trials began resuming. As of now, however, the United States is still keeping its trial on pause as the F.D.A. investigates.

PHASE 1

The Italian biotechnology company ReiThera has developed a Covid-19 vaccine, called GRAd-COV2, that is based on an adenovirus that infects gorillas. Working in collaboration with the Lazzaro Spallanzani National Institute for Infectious Diseases in Rome, they launched a Phase 1 trial at the end of July.

PHASE 1

While many vaccines are given as injections, some vaccines can be taken as a pill. Oral vaccines have been approved for diseases including polio, cholera, and typhoid fever. Earlier this year, the small San Francisco-based company Vaxart began work on an oral vaccine for Covid-19. It contains an adenovirus called Ad5 (the same viral vector in CanSinoBio's vaccine and in Russia's Sputnik V). In September, Vaxart reported that mice given the pill produced antibodies against the coronavirus. On Sept. 24, they registered a Phase 1 clinical trial.

Vaxart has conducted similar studies on oral vaccines for influenza and other diseases. But none of their vaccines has yet been licensed. Nevertheless, its stock price increased 3,600 percent in the first half of 2020. In June, The New York Times reported, a hedge fund that partly controlled the company sold off most of its shares, netting over $200 million in profits.

PHASE 1

The American company Merck acquired the Austrian firm Themis Bioscience in June and is working on a vaccine originally developed at Institut Pasteur. The vaccine uses a weakened measles virus that carries a gene for the coronavirus spike protein. Researchers launched a Phase I trial in August.

PHASE 1

In 2019, researchers at the University of Hong Kong and Xiamen University created a nasal-spray vaccine for the flu based on a genetically weakened form of the influenza virus. Earlier this year, they engineered the vaccine to produce part of the coronavirus spike protein as well. On Sept. 9, they received approval to start clinical trials in partnership with Beijing Wantai Biological Pharmacy.

PHASE 1

In addition to its project with Themis, Merck is partnering with IAVI on a second viral vector vaccine. It is based on vesicular stomatitis viruses, the same approach Merck successfully used to produce the first approved vaccine for Ebola. They have designed their coronavirus vaccine as a pill, which could potentially make it easier to distribute than syringes for injections. Merck and IAVI received $38 million from the United States government to support their research, and on September 30 they registered a Phase 1 trial.

Protein-Based Vaccines

Vaccines that contain coronavirus proteins but no genetic material. Some vaccines contain whole proteins, and some contain fragments of them. Some pack many of these molecules on nanoparticles.

PHASE 3

Maryland-based Novavax makes vaccines by sticking proteins onto microscopic particles. They've taken on a number of different diseases this way; their flu vaccine finished Phase 3 trials in March. The company launched trials for a Covid-19 vaccine in May, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations has invested $384 million in the vaccine. In July the U.S. government awarded $1.6 billion to support the vaccine's clinical trials and manufacturing.

After getting promising results from preliminary studies in monkeys and humans, Novavax launched a Phase 2 trial in South Africa in August. The blinded, placebo-controlled trial on 2,900 people will measure not just the safety of the vaccine but its efficacy. The following month, Novavax launched a Phase 3 trial enrolling up to 10,000 volunteers in the United Kingdom. It could potentially deliver results by the start of 2021. A larger Phase 3 trial is in development to launch in the United States in October.

If the trials succeed, Novavax expects to deliver 100 million doses for use in the United States by the first quarter of 2021. In September Novavax reached an agreement with the Serum Institute of India, a major vaccine manufacturer, that they said would enable them to produce as many as 2 billion doses a year.

PHASE 2

In July, the Chinese company Anhui Zhifei Longcom began Phase 2 trials for a vaccine that is a combination of viral proteins and an adjuvant that stimulates the immune system. The company is part of Chongqing Zhifei Biological Products and has partnered with the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

On Aug. 18, the head of epidemiology at Cuba's public health ministry announced that the Finlay Vaccine Institute in Havana would start a clinical trial on a vaccine for Covid-19. The vaccine, called Soberana 1, contains a part of the spike protein, called RBD, along with an adjuvant to boost the immune response.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

On Aug. 26, a Russian biological research center known as the Vector Institute registered a Phase 1/2 trial for a coronavirus vaccine they call EpiVacCorona. The vaccine contains small portions of viral proteins, known as peptides. According to newspaper reports, the EpiVacCorona trials had already begun by then, with plans for distribution of the vaccine by the end of the year.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

In addition to their mRNA vaccine, Sanofi developed a Covid-19 vaccine based on viral proteins. They produced the proteins with engineered viruses that grow inside insect cells. GSK supplemented these proteins with adjuvants that stimulate the immune system. The vaccine is based on the same design Sanofi used to create Flublok, an approved vaccine for influenza. The companies launched a Phase 1/2 clinical trial in September. They plan to start a Phase 3 trial in December and hope to know if the vaccine is safe and effective by the middle of 2021.

Starting before their clinical trials began, Sanofi negotiated several major deals to supply the vaccine, including a $2.1 billion agreement with the United States to provide 100 million doses. On Sept. 18 they closed another deal with the European Union for 300 million doses for an unspecified amount, and later reached an agreement with Canada for up to 72 million doses. In addition, Sanofi agreed to provide much of its global supply to COVAX, an international collaboration to deliver the vaccine equitably across the world. They have plans to make up to one billion doses in 2021.

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

SpyBiotech, a company spun off from the University of Oxford, announced in September that the first volunteers in an Australian Phase 1/2 trial were receiving their Covid-19 vaccine. The researchers created the vaccine from a mixture of proteins. Some of the proteins, from hepatitis B viruses, assemble themselves into hollow shells. The researchers decorated these shells with part of the coronavirus spike protein. The Serum Institute of India, which licensed the technology from SpyBiotech, is running the trials.

PHASE 1

Clover Biopharmaceuticals has developed a vaccine containing the spike protein from coronaviruses. To further stimulate the immune system, the vaccine is being given in conjunction with so-called adjuvants made by British drugmaker GSK and the American company Dynavax. Investments from CEPI will support the development of manufacturing that could lead to the production of hundreds of millions of doses a year.

Clover launched a Phase 1 trial in June. In September the company announced that it was expanding the trial and anticipated starting a Phase 2 trial by the end of 2020.

PHASE 1

A vaccine from Australia's University of Queensland delivers viral proteins altered to draw a stronger immune response. Experiments on hamsters showed that the vaccine protected them from the coronavirus. The university launched Phase 1 trials in July, combining the proteins with an adjuvant made by CSL. If the results are positive, CSL will advance late stage clinical trials by the end of 2020. In September the vaccine makers reached an agreement with the Australian government to deliver 51 million doses if the trials deliver positive results. They expected their first supply of the vaccines to be ready in mid-2021.

PHASE 1

Canada-based Medicago, partly funded by the cigarette maker Philip Morris, uses a species of tobacco to make vaccines. They deliver virus genes into leaves, and the plant cells then create protein shells that mimic viruses. In July, Medicago launched Phase 1 trials on a plant-based Covid-19 vaccine in combination with adjuvants from drug makers and . If the trial goes well, they plan to start Phase 2/3 trials in October.

PHASE 1

Taiwan-based vaccine maker Medigen is making a vaccine made of a combination of spike proteins and an adjuvant from Dynavax. They registered a Phase 1 trial in September.

PHASE 1

In July, researchers at West China Hospital of Sichuan University published a study in Nature describing a vaccine made from the RBD region of the spike protein that could protect mice and monkeys from the coronavirus. On Aug. 24, they got approval to run a Phase 1 trial. To make the vaccine, researchers encode the RBD region in a gene, which they insert into a virus. They then infect insect cells with the virus, causing them to make the molecule in huge amounts.

PHASE 1

New York-based COVAXX, a subsidiary of United Biomedical, has created a vaccine containing parts of several viral proteins. On Sept. 11 they registered a Phase 1 trial in Taiwan. They have reached an agreement with authorities in Brazil to run their Phase 2/3 trial there.

PHASE 1

In the spring, researchers at the University of Tübingen in Germany created a vaccine made of eight parts of two viral proteins, along with an immune-stimulating adjuvant. In September they launched a Phase 1 trial.

PRECLINICAL

After the SARS epidemic in 2002, Baylor College of Medicine researchers began developing a vaccine that could prevent a new outbreak. Despite promising early results, support for the research disappeared. Because the coronaviruses that cause SARS and Covid-19 are very similar, the researchers revived the project in partnership with the Texas Children's Hospital. The researchers have found that the Covid-19 vaccine produces antibodies in mice. In August, the Indian company Biological E licensed it, saying they could potentially make a billion doses a year. Clinical trials are planned to start in October.

Inactivated or Attenuated Coronavirus Vaccines

Vaccines created from weakened coronaviruses or coronaviruses that have been killed with chemicals.

PHASE 3 APPROVED FOR LIMITED USE

The Wuhan Institute of Biological Products developed an inactivated virus vaccine, which the state-owned Chinese company Sinopharm put into clinical tests. The Phase 1/2 trial showed that the vaccine produced antibodies in volunteers, some of whom experienced fevers and other side effects. They launched Phase 3 trials in the United Arab Emirates in July, and in Peru and Morocco the following month. Over the summer, the company later said, the government gave it approval to inject hundreds of thousands of people with its two experimental vaccines. On Sept. 14, the U.A.E. gave emergency approval for Sinopharm's vaccine to use on health care workers.

PHASE 3 APPROVED FOR LIMITED USE

Sinopharm also began testing a second inactivated virus vaccine, this one developed by the Beijing Institute of Biological Products. After running early clinical trials in China, they launched Phase 3 trials in the United Arab Emirates and Argentina. Over the summer, the company later said, the government gave it approval to inject hundreds of thousands of people with its two experimental vaccines. On Sept. 14, the U.A.E. gave emergency approval for Sinopharm's vaccine to use on health care workers before Sinopharm shared data indicating it was safe and effective.

PHASE 3 APPROVED FOR LIMITED USE

The private Chinese company Sinovac Biotech is testing an inactivated vaccine called CoronaVac. In June the company announced that Phase 1/2 trials on 743 volunteers found no severe adverse effects and produced an immune response. Sinovac then launched a Phase 3 trial in Brazil in July, followed by others in Indonesia and Turkey. On Sept. 16, they registered a Phase 1/2 trial of the vaccine for children.

Reuters reported that the Chinese government gave the Sinovac vaccine an emergency approval for limited use in July. Meanwhile, Sinovac has been preparing to manufacture the vaccine, reaching an agreement to supply Indonesia with at least 40 million doses by March 2021. In September, Yin Weidong, the CEO of Sinovac, said the company planned on worldwide distribution of the vaccine in early 2021 - including the United States.

PHASE 2

In collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research and the National Institute of Virology, the Indian company Bharat Biotech designed a vaccine called Covaxin based on an inactivated form of the coronavirus. Studies on monkeys and hamsters found that it provided protection against infection. When the company launched clinical trials in July, reports circulated that the vaccine would be ready by Aug. 15. But the C.E.O. of Bharat told reporters it would be available no sooner than early 2021.

PHASE 1

The central Asian nation of Kazakhstan began research on a vaccine made from inactivated coronaviruses over the summer. On August 28, their Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems registered a Phase 1 trial on the vaccine, known as QazCovid.

Vaccines already in use for other diseases that may also protect against Covid-19.

PHASE 3

The Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine was developed in the early 1900s as a protection against tuberculosis. The Murdoch Children's Research Institute in Australia is conducting a Phase 3 trial called the BRACE to see if the vaccine partly protects against the coronavirus.

Note: Vaccines will be added to the tracker when they reach Phase 1, and tracked until they succeed or fail.

Did we miss something? To notify The Times of new developments, send updates to vaccinetracker@nytimes.com.

Tracking the Coronavirus

Additional reporting by Denise Grady, Andrew E. Kramer, Hari Kumar, Cao Li and Carlos Tejada.

Note: Early versions of the tracker combined two vaccines by Sinopharm into one entry. Subsequent reporting confirmed they are two different vaccines. A previous version of the tracker stated that Pfizer had reached a deal with the EU, when in fact the deal was made by AstraZeneca.

Sources: World Health Organization, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Center for Biotechnology Information, New England Journal of Medicine.

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