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A brief history in Ancient History

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On February 19, 2019, a man named Hassan al-Hassan Abdullah caused an explosion, killed 2 officers and injuring 3 others, one of which died.

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Egypt: Suicide blast in Cairo tourist area kills three policemen | News | Al Jazeera

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The person whom is in charge of the raw materials believes that if they instead used the re-manufactored versions, it becomes more valued. It is believed to be considered a way to increase "profit" for the country.

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Egypt to ban exports of raw materials - Egypt Independent

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Egypt's Ministry of Trade and Industry announced a plan to stop exporting Egypt's natural materials raw, instead requiring the re-manufacturing of materials to increase the value chain. Currently, Egypt's most exported products are in their raw state with no added value. These materials include sand, granite, crude oil, light fuel oil, raw gold, gold ...

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Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was first elected president in 2014. He was again reelected in 2018. Egyptian lawmakers are planning on changing the presidential amount of terms and how long those terms are.

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Egypt's parliament has overwhelmingly voted to approve draft constitutional changes that could extend President Abdul Fattah al-Sisi's time in office by another 12 years.

Mr Sisi is due to stand down in 2022 when his second four-year term ends.

But 485 of the country's 596 lawmakers voted on Thursday to lengthen presidential terms to six years and let Mr al-Sisi serve another two.

Several Egyptian human rights groups have spoken out against the decision.

The changes, first proposed earlier this month, will now be drafted into legislation and put to another parliamentary vote. If approved again, Egypt will then hold a referendum.

What are the changes?

Article 140 of Egypt's constitution, approved in a referendum in 2014, currently states that the president serves four-year terms and may only be re-elected once.

But under proposed changes, the 64-year-old leader would be allowed to stay in power until 2034.

He would also get new powers to appoint judges and the public prosecutor.

The changes would also give Egypt's military broad powers to "[safeguard] the constitution."

Other amendments included the introduction of a second parliamentary chamber, a 25% quota for women in parliament and "appropriate representation" for minority Coptic Christians, young people and those with disabilities.

How are people reacting?

President Sisi's supporters in parliament argue the longer term limits are needed to allow him more time to complete economic reforms and development projects.

But his critics fear it is an attempt to further entrench his rule in the country.

Eleven Egyptian human rights groups, in a joint statement, said the provisions were "disingenuous attempts to sugarcoat [the government's] authoritarian power-grab".

Signatories include the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies and the Egyptian Commission for Rights and Freedoms.

Lawmakers have also spoken out against the vote.

"We are placing absolute powers in the hands of one person... at a time when the people were expecting us to give them 'bread, freedom, social justice and human dignity'," Ahmed Tantawi, an opposition MP, said on Wednesday, using the slogan of the 2011 uprising that overthrew then-President Hosni Mubarak.

Mr Sisi, a former army chief, led the military overthrow of Egypt's first democratically elected president, Mohammed Morsi, in 2013 following protests against his rule.

Since then, he has overseen what human rights groups say is an unprecedented crackdown on dissent, leading to the detention of tens of thousands of people. Mr Sisi recently denied detaining any political prisoners.

The president has also led a military campaign against Islamic State militants in the country's Sinai Peninsula.

He was re-elected last April after winning 97% of the vote, facing no serious competition because several rivals dropped out or were arrested.

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Egypt's President Sisi may rule until 2034

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Egypt's parliament has overwhelmingly voted to approve draft constitutional changes that could extend President Abdul Fattah al-Sisi's time in office by another 12 years. Mr Sisi is due to stand down in 2022 when his second four-year term ends.

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President Sisi appointed two new government officials without permission from the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.

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August 15, 2018
On June 14, Egypt's president, Abdel Fatah al-Sissi, appointed a new minister of defense without seeking the approval of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces - the institution that brought him to power. At the same time, he appointed a prime minister without the necessary parliamentary approval.

These might seem like minor political maneuvers, but they are highly revealing about the direction of Egypt's politics. Since taking power in 2013 in a military coup against President Mohammed el-Morsi, Sissi has systematically removed obstacles to his power. Extending this pattern to the ministry of defense and ignoring constitutional mandates marks a significant escalation - one that resonates with patterns in Egyptian history.
What is SCAF?
Any account of contemporary Egyptian politics must reckon with the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF). Created in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser, SCAF provided the armed forces with an intermittent mechanism to influence government. SCAF reappeared during the demonstrations against Hosni Mubarak in early 2011 and took control of the government until Morsi's election in 2012.

In February 2014, former Supreme Court justice and interim president Adly Mansour issued Law 20/2014. It defined SCAF's membership and authorized it to approve the choice of defense ministers. The law implemented Article 234 of the 2014 constitution that, until 2020, appointing the minister of defense requires SCAF's approval. SCAF had insisted on this provision even though it caused divisive political conflicts and sometimes street battles between 2011 and 2014.

Egypt's armed forces feared for their autonomy since late 2011. In 2012, Morsi ousted top army officers, including the minister of defense, replacing them with others he believed to be more trustworthy. Sissi has now gone much further. Within a small coterie of high-ranking generals, Sissi has replaced old supporters with much closer confidants.

This appeared to be an elaborate game of musical chairs in which a small group of closely connected officers rotated control of the state. When the music came to a halt on June 14, the two primary institutions constitutionally able to check the president meekly accepted their elimination. By forfeiting their rights, parliament and the armed forces also transformed the newly written Egyptian constitution into a dead letter. If neither the army nor the elected legislature can exercise its rights, what chance do other Egyptians - whether individuals or institutions - have?
What about the constitution?
Article 146 of the constitution gives the president the right to appoint a prime minister, but parliament must give the new government a vote of confidence. On June 14, a new government was sworn in. This government presented by new Prime Minister Mustafa Madbouli replaced Sobhi as minister of defense with Muhammad Ahmed Zaki. SCAF has not approved Zaki's appointment publicly, and parliament has yet to accept Madbouli's government. Why have these two presumably pro-Sissi institutions not rubber-stamped his appointments?

A key reason for this institutional defiance was Sissi's 2016 decision to transfer control over two small islands in the Red Sea, Tiran and Sanafir, to Saudi sovereignty. Article 151 of the constitution forbids the cession of state territory. Egyptian nationalism fueled opposition to the move in the armed forces, the courts and parliament.
Can Sissi be challenged?
Sissi has focused on blocking any political challenge to his presidency. In late 2017, he declared his candidacy for a second term. Mubarak's last prime minister - and ex-general who lost the presidential election in 2012 - Ahmad Shafiq declared he would oppose Sissi. Shafiq vanished from the United Arab Emirates, where had been living in exile since losing the 2012 presidential race to Morsi - leading to claims that Shafiq had been kidnapped or deported. In early January, Shafiq announced via Twitter that he was no longer running.

Days later, former Armed Forces chief of staff Sami Anan announced that he would contest the presidential election. He was arrested on Jan. 23 and has been detained since. Anan's ties to the military establishment are more recent and more powerful than Shafiq's, as he had also been deputy chairman of SCAF. The government wasted little time or effort on squashing Anan's proposed candidacy. Anan was arrested for violating military regulations because the armed forces claimed that he had not received official permission to run for office as required by a November 2011 decree. Anan has been in custody ever since and was recently reportedly transferred to the intensive-care unit of the armed forces hospital.

The arrests of two former generals, the summary ouster of the defense minister without public SCAF approval and the installation of a new ministry without parliamentary approval conclude the consolidation of Sissi's personal control.

Parliament has not yet ratified the new government but did pass a law on July 3 in closed session. The law allows the president to award special (and unspecified) benefits to SCAF members now and in the future. No SCAF members can be held judicially accountable for acts committed between July 3, 2013, (the date of the coup) and Jan. 10, 2016 (the restoration of parliament). When SCAF members travel abroad, they may receive diplomatic immunity.
The new Egyptian political system of one
The rotation of key security officials, and the legal proceedings against Anan and Shafiq, show the limits of military resistance to Sissi's authority. The government has shown it has many ways to threaten generals and former generals. On this view, the ouster of a defense minister, the installation of a new cabinet and the legislation safeguarding some but not necessarily all officers is an indication how Sissi has turned a government of generals into a government of one. In August 2013, less than two months after the coup that ousted Morsi, Egyptian security forces forcibly dispersed demonstrators occupying the Rabaa Square in Cairo, killing hundreds. It is common for authoritarian regimes to repress their opponents, but it is also common, albeit more easily forgotten, that they also repress their friends.
Ellis Goldberg is professor emeritus of political science at the University of Washington.

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Analysis | Egypt's new political system of one: Its president

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August 15, 2018 On June 14, Egypt's president, Abdel Fatah al-Sissi, appointed a new minister of defense without seeking the approval of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces - the institution that brought him to power. At the same time, he appointed a prime minister without the necessary parliamentary approval.

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The country has been both a monarchy and a republic. It also has had many constitutions, debating on the rights of citizens. (about 7)

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Egypt - Politics, Society, Economy | Britannica

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Egypt - Politics, Society, Economy: Egypt has operated under several constitutions, both as a monarchy and, after 1952, as a republic. The first and most liberal of these was the 1923 constitution, which was promulgated just after Britain declared Egypt’s independence. That document laid the political and cultural groundwork for modern Egypt, declaring it an independent sovereign Islamic state with Arabic as its language. The vote was extended to all adult males. This constitution provided for a bicameral parliament, an independent judiciary, and a strong executive in the form of the king. In 1930 this constitution was replaced by another one, which gave even more

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One of the bigger festivals or religious ceremonies is Ramadan, the month of fasting. It is also the time where Muslims find out what being needy and hungry feels like, closing the gap between the "rich" and the poor.

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Holly month of Ramadan

Ramadan is a special month for Muslims. It's a month of prayer and observance , more people will be performing gama'a (together) prayers at work and almost everyone will be reading from a small Qu'ran on the bus or underground and as soon as they get in to work. The concept of fasting itself is to promote solidarity between different social classes by forcing Muslims to experience what it is like to be needy and hungry.

When it happens

Every year Ramadan shifts 11 days afterwards as it is calculated by Lunar calendar and in different countries can be announced in different days. Usually 1 day different with Egypt. At the day Ramadan is announced, people are not allowed to eat or drink until sunset - they have to fast, read Koran and pray for the following 30 days. Even the working day is shorter during this month, all organizations finish to work at 2 afternoon. Everyone leaves work around the same time and everyone needs to get home at the same time.

Meals during the month

After sunset there will be the 1st meal - Iftar (breakfast). Usually all families gather together, especially in the first days of Ramadan, to eat together - it's a good old tradition of Ramadan. This month is a family and friends special where no one is left to eat alone. When you get to the feast, expect it to be just that and know that it is considered rude not to eat everything put on your plate.

Ramadan in Egypt

As in Egypt Ramadan celebrates in its own unique way that is why it is almost impossible to live in Egypt without taking part in the traditions that have become synonymous with the month of fasting. Perhaps that's because many of these traditions originated right here. The children's fawanees, the mosalsalat of modern television and after-iftar sweets blend together each year annually to create an atmosphere unique only to this time of year and this place on earth .

Preparation for Ramadan

Long before announcement of Ramadan children start to decorate streets and houses with coloured lamps and fawanees. As most of the streets in Egypt especially in Cairo are so narrow it's very easy to decorate them with a band of coloured lamps fixing them on the balconies of different houses starting from the 1st house and finishing at the end of the street. Also people are used to buy special lamps (fanoos) and put them in front of the entrances of their houses. For children and adults alike, these lanterns are part of the joy and magic of Ramadan, much like how the Christmas tree symbolizes Christmas in other parts of the world.

Egyptian Fanoos

There is a legend how fanoos appeared in Egypt. On the fifth of Ramadan in the year 358 AH (969 AD), the Fatimid Caliph Moezz El-Din EI-Allah was entering Cairo - the city his army had founded - for the first time. As he was coming after dusk, the residents turned out en masse with lanterns aglow to welcome him and celebrate his arrival. Since that day, the fanoos has become one of Ramadan's great symbols for Egyptians. While fanoos makers have been in business since Fatimid times, it wasn't until the end of the nineteenth century that the fawanees (plural of fanoos) took their final, popular shapes. One of the classic designs is the moqamas (the name of an Islamic architectural style), which takes the shape of a large star. Another well known style of lantern is the moatadel (upright), named so because the width of the top is equal to that of the base. There is also the mahroud (bent or slanted, pictured at left) because the width of its base is smaller than that of its top. The smallest lantern is sometimes called aadi (ordinary), because it is simple in decoration, and sometimes called sahari literally 'night light.' Sahari are typically not taller than 10 centimeters. The biggest fawanees are called kebir bi-aoulad (big with sons), because they are large, with smaller lanterns attached to the main structure. The craftsperson will inscribe their name on the larger ones. Some of these styles have fallen out of fashion - such as tar al-aela (the family frame) and abu negm (star-shaped). These fawanees are among the most expensive and are usually only made to order. The structure of the lantern is made from thin panels of tin, a material chosen because it is easy to cut and light in weight - important because the fawanees are often hung by chains from balconies and over streets. The top and base are decorated with intricate painted or engraved designs, complemented by glass sides in varying shapes and colors. The dome of the lantern is formed from many thin tin plates that are carefully placed beside each other. Outdoor fawanees are often wired to hold light bulbs. Some lanterns, usually made with heavier metal frames like copper or brass, are designed to hold candles. In these cases, there is a door that opens from the side or a removable bottom so that you can place the lit candle inside. The lantern industry is centered in the Darb EI-Ahmar and Berket El-Fil districts and El-Saad Street in Sayeda Zeinab. The craftsmen start making the lanterns directly after the end of Ramadan, with production reaching full swing during the period just preceding the following holy month. Throughout the year you can find the best work of Cairo's fanoos makers in the Taht El-Rabe district near Attaba. The price of a fanoos in the 1960s ranged from three piastres for the smallest one up to 60 piastres for the largest. Nowadays, the price will range from LE 1-2 up to LE 30.

Musalsalat

One more tradition common just for Egypt is TV serials. The best of them are shown just in Ramadan, some continue for a couple of years. Children can enjoy with a cartoon that became also traditional in Egypt and is shown only in Ramadan - Bakkar.

Cannon Ramadan

Another tradition which lets people know when exactly they can start Iftar (usually it is announced from a mosque by muadzin) also appeared in Cairo. A special cannon which is situated in Citadel of Salah el-Din announces the beginning of Iftar by its shoot. It is usually shown on the 1 st TV channel. Exactly at the time of sunset the cannon gives one shoot which means that people can break their fast. And of course there are several legends how this cannon became a traditional Iftar Ramadan announcer. "One relates that the Ramadan cannon dates back to 859 AH (Hijri), when the ruler of Egypt was busy toying with his new cannon in the open courtyard atop the Citadel overlooking Cairo. The cannon went off accidentally and a loud boom reverberated everywhere. It was Ramadan at sunset. The people were thrilled with the wali 's innovative idea to announce the break of the daily fast. And his daughter, Haja Fatma, urged him to make a tradition of the signal; and since then the cannon has been synonymously nicknamed "Haja Fatma". Another tale goes back to the time of Mohamed Ali's rule. It is told that he was testing a cannon he bought from Germany in Ramadan at the same time as Iftar. Since then, it has become tradition to fire the madfaa everyday during Ramadan to mark Iftar and Sohour. The original Ramadan cannon remains at the Citadel as a symbol of the good old days. Since the early 1990's, the cannon has been usually transported to Al-Darassa Park on the eve of Ramadan with the sighting of the crescent. The cannon was considered an encroachment on the Citadel grounds and when fired, was found to be a threat to the infrastructure of the homes surrounding it." Al Ahram

Charity activities during the month

During Ramadan people are used to cook a lot, and it's known that during this month people waste more money than during any other month of the year. One feature of Ramadan is charity (mercy) tables which are prepared by all big and small restaurants during the whole month. A lot of different meals are cooked during the day, by the sunset tables are laid on and food is waiting for all who found himself in the street at the time of the call. Many people do not even cook and eat at home they go to such places to enjoy their evening. The best place to experience this tradition is Khan el-Khalily Bazaar. Many people go there before Iftar just to spend nice evening in a friendly oriental atmosphere and to enjoy with food.

Traditional drinks & Sweets of Ramadan

Some traditional kinds of sweets and drinks people can enjoy with just during the holy month of Ramadan and never after. For example "Kunafa", Egyptians are used to eat kunafa for sahur (meal before sunrise around 4-5 o'clock in the morning). It can be made in different ways and it's easily found almost everywhere in the streets during this holy month. Another favourite sweet is "ataif" - pancake with different nuts inside and in syrup. As for Favorite Ramadan Drinks they are very good and useful for anyone who is fasting. Not only are traditional drinks great thirst quenchers, they also contain a slew of active ingredients to make up for any disruption caused by your new Ramadan diet .

Kamar el-din (apricot juice)

The most famous one is 'amar el-din (apricot juice) - The most traditional of Ramadan beverages, it is made from dried apricot paste. Physician and philosopher Avicenna (known in the Arab world as Ibn Sina) rightly praised dried apricots as thirst quenchers and antidotes to diarrhea. Qamar el-din aids indigestion, regulates metabolism and is packed with vitamins A, B and C, as well as calcium, iron, potassium and phosphorous. A perfect way to start iftar, it produces enough of a sugar rush to get the digestive system working without over stimulating it. Qamar el-din can, surprisingly, soothe jumpy nerves and stress, so it's great after a hard day at work. The strangest of its components is Folic acid, which helps fetuses grow; super for pregnant women .

Tamr Hindi (Tamarind)

This tropical fruit tree has one of the highest levels of carbohydrates and proteins found in any fruit. It is the perfect beverage for diabetics, as it regulates blood sugar and cholesterol levels. It is also extremely rich in vitamin C, which boosts the immune system and is high in beta carotene. Other essential minerals found in tamr hindi include potassium, phosphorous and calcium .

Karkade (Hibiscus)

Do you know that a cup of hibiscus tea contains 17 percent citric acid and half as much vitamin C as an orange? Not surprisingly, it helps to boost and strengthen the immune system, which can be put under considerable stress while fasting. Speaking of stress, hibiscus is also widely used to regulate blood pressure, which can fluctuate between low during fasting and high after iftar. Known in hot regions of the globe as an effective thirst quencher, hibiscus reduces the buildup of fatty deposits in arteries and reduces blood cholesterol levels. Like cranberry juice, it is used in treating urinary tract infections and aids in regulating blood flow. Other properties in the herb help maintain the blood sugar balance in the body . You can drink it either hot or cold.

Laban Rayed (yogurt drink)

Today, laban rayeb is one of the most popular drinks in the Middle East. Recently, it has found its way to Egypt, where its intake is generally restricted to this time of the year. It's a well-known fact that friendly bacteria found in live yogurt can aid in digestion, as well as help to clean the intestines and digestive tract, all of which can be necessary to treat an upset stomach after a few days of heavy iftars and sohours. Because it requires no added sugar, those watching their waistlines tend to prefer this creamy drink .

Kharoub

Another acquired taste, kharoub potentially reduces cholesterol, aids digestion and acts as an antioxidant. Pinitol, an active component of kharoub, has been shown to regulate blood glucose and is especially recommended for diabetics.

Before you start the meal

Milk with dates is usually taken before the iftar after the call to break the fast. Dried dates are put in milk for a night or so to drink and eat the next iftar.

Mahalal juice

Mahalal juice is one of the favorite drink during Ramadan. It is salty water from pickles. You can buy it everywhere in the streets of Cairo during Ramadan and never after.

Sahur, the last meal of the day

Before sunrise people are used to have one more meal called "sahur". Usually it is a light meal consists of some yoghurt and favourite Egyptian sweets - kunafa. In the past it was announced by special people (especially in the old times, now it's so rare to see them in the streets of Cairo but still possible in folklore areas) who wondered along narrow streets of the city before sunset with a drum and woke people up not to miss sahur with the following words "misaharaty" or a song. By the end of Ramadan these guys were paid by people of the aria they were wondering around.

Celebrating the end of Ramadan

At the end of Ramadan according to the customs and traditions people prepare presents (edeia) for their relatives, traditionally it is clothes and dresses. Some days before the feast female members of a family go shopping to buy new dresses, new home clothes and so on, as everything on the day of feast must be new.

Muslim taxes

Also all Muslims are required to pay special Muslim tax (alms) - zaka'a. You can pay to any poor creature in the street who may need money or give money to any mosque or any organization you think may need it. In fact it is up to anyone to whom pay the money.

Bairam feast

Ramadan finishes with a feast called Bairam - a big celebration continued for 3 days. During the 1 st day of Bairam all families gather together to celebrate the Ead and according to Muslim tradition all adult members of the family give certain amount of money to children and to those members of the family who does not work.

Traditional egyptian sweets for Ramadan

And again, there is a traditional kind of sweets which you can taste only during Bairam and never after. It is "kakh". Usually all female members of a family gather together some days before the Ead is announced to cook this kind of cookies. After it's done and baked in the nearest oven (people are used to make a big quantity of kakh, so that they are not able to bake it at home and that is why they go to the nearest oven to bake it and to chat with the neighbors on the way) female members go to their neighbors and offer them kakh. It is also offered to any guest who enters your house during Bairam along with a traditional drink. As neighbors are used to visit each other during Bairam each family keeps at hand some sweets and drinks to offer to anyone entering their house.

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Ramadan in Egypt: traditions, facts, description, photos | How Ramadan celebrates in Egypt

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Ramadan is a special month for Muslims. It's a month of prayer and observance , more people will be performing gama'a (together) prayers at work and almost everyone will be reading from a small Qu'ran on the bus or underground and as soon as they get in to work.

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The Egyptians have/had many fairy tales, some coming from their mythology, some coming from the world around them. The more ancient ones were preserved in art or found in tombs.

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The Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods, all of them can be seen as having a head of an animal. The Egyptian mythology have even shaped other religions in some way.

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Egyptian mythology was the belief structure and underlying form of ancient Egyptian culture from at least c. 4000 BCE (as evidenced by burial practices and tomb paintings) to 30 BCE with the death of...

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It is a day where the Egyptians celebrate the end of a monarchy and the beginning of a republic.

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Revolution Day: Revolution Day, public holiday celebrated in Egypt to commemorate the military coup of July 23, 1952, that led to the end of the monarchy and the establishment of an independent republic. The coup was carried out by a clandestine group called the Free Officers, led by Gen. Muḥammad Naguib.

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The Valley of the Kings is where most if not all the New Kingdom pharaohs are buried.

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Alexandria is the place where you can find the Mouseion of Arts and Sciences, near where the Library of Alexandria used to be.

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Alexandria, Arabic Al-Iskandariyyah, major city and urban muḥāfaẓah (governorate) in Egypt. Once among the greatest cities of the Mediterranean world and a centre of Hellenic scholarship and science, Alexandria was the capital of Egypt from its founding by Alexander the Great in 332 bce until its surrender to the Arab forces led by ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ in 642 ce. One of Egypt's largest cities, Alexandria is also its principal seaport and a major industrial centre. The city lies on the Mediterranean Sea at the western edge of the Nile River delta, about 114 miles (183 km) northwest of Cairo in Lower Egypt. Area city, 116 square miles (300 square km). Pop. (2006) city, 4,110,015.

ancient Egypt: The Ptolemies (305-145 bce)

...Alexander's death, from Memphis to Alexandria. The Ptolemaic court cultivated extravagant luxury in the Greek style in its magnificent and steadily expanding palace complex, which occupied as much as a third of the city by the early Roman period. Its grandeur was emphasized in the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus...

Character of the city

Alexandria has long occupied a special place in the popular imagination by virtue of its association with Alexander and Cleopatra. Alexandria played an important role in preserving and transmitting Hellenic culture to the wider Mediterranean world and was a crucible of scholarship, piety, and ecclesiastical politics in early Christian history. Although it has been asserted that Alexandria declined as a result of its conquest by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century ce, such a statement is misleading. While the city's political primacy was lost when the capital was moved to the interior, Alexandria remained an important centre of naval operations, maritime commerce, and craft production. As late as the 15th century, the city prospered as a transit point in the trade conducted between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean basin.

Alexandria, Egypt Dennis Jarvis (CC-BY-2.0)

Beginning in the 16th century, however, the city suffered a period of protracted decline owing to epidemic disease and administrative neglect; by the end of the 18th century, traces of Alexandria's former splendour had largely vanished. By the time French troops invaded Egypt in 1798, Alexandria had been reduced to a town of some 10,000 inhabitants, significant mainly for its role in Ottoman maritime networks. Flourishing in the 19th century as a major centre of the booming cotton industry, the modern city had come to bear little in common with the ancient metropolis.

Alexandria has generally been characterized by a cultural ambivalence inherent in the city's location-extending along a spit of land with its back to Egypt and its face to the Mediterranean. Throughout most of its history, Alexandria has thus remained a cosmopolitan town, belonging as much-or perhaps more-to the wider Mediterranean world as to its hinterland. The revival of the town in the 19th century, however, brought about a profound change in the city's identity. With the significant increase in agricultural exports, the influx of native Egyptians to the city, and the formation and integration of the Egyptian state, Alexandria became tied to the Nile valley more closely than ever before. As a result, it also became the locus of an emergent Egyptian national consciousness.

Beginning in the mid-18th century, these underlying changes would be overshadowed for roughly a century by the rise to power of a Levantine business community. Foreign dominance was reinforced by the overlay of British colonialism beginning in 1882 and by the formation of a foreign-dominated municipality in 1890. The arts flourished during this century-long interlude, and the city still boasts fine Neoclassical and Art Nouveau architecture dating from this period. The literary side of the city's flowering is reflected in the works of the Alexandria-born Greek writer Constantine Cavafy, who drew on Alexandria's fabled past in his poetry. Likewise, the decadent cosmopolitanism of the foreign community in Alexandria was depicted by the English writer Lawrence Durrell in his famous series of novels, The Alexandria Quartet (1957-60). A contrasting portrayal of the modern city is given in Naguib Mahfouz's Miramar (1967); set in postcolonial Alexandria, Mahfouz's novella offers a view of the city as an integral part of Egyptian history and society. This process of integration was accelerated after the 1952 revolution, when most of the remaining foreign residents departed.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Alexandria remained Egypt's "second capital." It continued to contribute substantially to the national economy and was popular as a summer holiday destination.

Landscape

City site

The modern city extends 25 miles (40 km) east to west along a limestone ridge, 1-2 miles (1.6-3.2 km) wide, that separates the salt lake of Maryūṭ, or Mareotis-now partly drained and cultivated-from the Egyptian mainland. An hourglass-shaped promontory formed by the silting up of a mole (the Heptastadion), which was built soon after Alexandria's founding, links the island of Pharos with the city centre on the mainland. Its two steeply curving bays form the basins for the Eastern Harbour and the Western Harbour.

Climate

The prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives Alexandria a markedly different climate from that of the desert hinterland. The summers are relatively temperate, although humidity can build up in July and in August, the hottest month, when the average temperature reaches 87 °F (31 °C). Winters are cool and invariably marked by a series of violent storms that can bring torrential rain and even hail. The mean daily temperature in January, which is the coldest month, is 64 °F (18 °C).

City layout

Designed by Alexander's personal architect, Dinocrates, the city incorporated the best in Hellenic planning and architecture. Within a century of its founding, its splendours rivaled anything known in the ancient world. The pride of ancient Alexandria was the great lighthouse, the Pharos of Alexandria, which stood on the eastern tip of the island of Pharos. One of the Seven Wonders of the World, the lighthouse is reputed to have been more than 350 feet (110 metres) high and was still standing in the 12th century. In 1477, however, Sultan Qāʾit Bey used stones from the dilapidated structure to build a fort (named for him), which stands near or on the original site of the Pharos. In 1994 archaeologist Jean-Yves Empereur of the Centre for Alexandrian Studies (Centre d'Études Alexandrines) found many of the stones and some statuary that had belonged to the lighthouse in the waters off Pharos Island. The Egyptian government discussed turning the area into an "underwater museum" to allow tourists to see the archaeological remains of the lighthouse, and various studies examining the project's feasibility continued into the early 21st century.

The Canopic Way (now Ṭarīq al-Ḥurriyyah) was the principal thoroughfare of the Greek city, running east and west through its centre. Most Ptolemaic and Roman monuments stood nearby. The Canopic Way was intersected at its western end by the Street of the Soma (now Shāriʿ al-Nabī Dānyāl), along which is the legendary site of Alexander's tomb, thought by some to lie under the mosque of al-Nabī Dānyāl. Close to this intersection was the Mouseion ( museum), an academy of arts and sciences, which included the great Library of Alexandria. At the seaward end of the Street of the Soma were the two obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles. These obelisks were given in the 19th century to the cities of London and New York. One obelisk can be viewed on the banks of the River Thames in London, and the other stands in Central Park in New York City.

Between Ṭarīq al-Ḥurriyyah and the railway station is the Roman Theatre, which was uncovered in 1959 at the Kawm al-Dikkah archaeological site. At the southwestern extremity of the ancient city are the Kawm al-Shuqāfah burial grounds, with their remarkable Hadrianic catacombs dating from the 2nd century ce. Nearby, on the site of the ancient fort of Rhakotis, is one of the few Classical monuments still standing: the 88-foot- (27-metre-) high marble column known as Pompey's Pillar (actually dedicated to Diocletian soon after 297). Parts of the Arab wall, encompassing a much smaller area than the Greco-Roman city, survive on Ṭarīq al-Ḥurriyyah, but in Ottoman times the city contracted to the stem of the promontory, now the Turkish Quarter. It is the oldest surviving section of the city and houses its finest mosques and worst slums.

In the 19th century the renascent city's commercial hub was a long rectangular piazza, once called Al-Manshiyyah Square and now called Al-Taḥrīr Square ("Liberation Square"). An equestrian statue of Egypt's most famous viceroy, Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha, still adorns the square. The commercial centre later moved eastward to Saʿd Zaghlūl Square, where the Cecil and Metropole hotels are located, and inland toward the railway station. Blocked to the west by the port and the industrial area, urban development moved eastward, both inland and along the Corniche, a seaside promenade. Today the Corniche is a ribbon of beach huts, bathing clubs, and restaurants faced across the road by a continuous wall of hotels and apartment blocks.

People

From the late 19th century to the 1980s the population grew 10-fold, the result of high birth rates and migration from the countryside. In the decade following the 1952 revolution, the city's population reached roughly 1.5 million; by 1976 the population stood at more than 2 million, with half the people under 20 years of age. The city's population continued to grow, reaching more than 4 million in the early 21st century.

Though Arabic-speaking Egyptians represent the vast majority of the city's population, Alexandria was once home to a polyglot foreign community made up principally of immigrants from other Mediterranean countries, including Greece, Italy, Syria, and France; for this community-and for most educated Egyptians-French was the lingua franca. This community, which represented about one-tenth of the population in 1947, virtually disappeared following the widespread nationalization of industries and services of the Nasser era and the concentration of state investment and administration in Cairo, the capital city. Most Alexandrians, like most Egyptians, are Sunni Muslims; the city's Christian minority consists mainly of members of the indigenous church of Egypt, the Coptic Orthodox Church.

Economy

Manufacturing, finance, and other services

Alexandria's industrial and commercial activities-manufacturing, shipping, warehousing, banking, food processing, and the production of petrochemicals and cement-indicate the importance of the city's output for the national economy. Alexandria and its environs account for roughly two-fifths of Egypt's industrial production. Most industrial development has taken place in the western approaches to the city, around the more modern Western Harbour and along its southern flank; industry is the city's chief employment sector.

The area around the port known as Mīnāʾ al-Baṣal contains warehouses and was once home to the Cotton Exchange. West across the Al-Maḥmūdiyyah Canal is the Al-Qabbārī neighbourhood, site of the asphalt works and rice and paper mills. Farther to the west is Al-Maks, with its salt and tanning industries, an oil refinery, a cement works, and, farther on, the limestone quarries. Other industrial development has taken place still farther west in Al-Dukhaylah. To the south lies the area of Al-ʿAmiriyyah, the site of two more refineries, including the Middle East Oil Refinery (Midor), which was designed to meet stringent environmental standards. Lighter industry is concentrated on the banks of the Al-Maḥmūdiyyah Canal.

Agriculture is an important economic activity in the hinterland, and land reclamation has been attempted with some success. In one such project implemented near Alexandria, the Egyptian government has aimed to encourage food production and divert job seekers from overcrowded urban areas by offering graduates of universities and other institutes of higher education parcels of reclaimed land, which they are able to purchase using long-term loans.

Europe's increasing demand for cotton-introduced into Egypt in the 1820s-was by the 1840s contributing substantially to the city's wealth. As a result, Alexandria became an increasingly important centre for banking and commerce. The Alexandria Stock Exchange, founded in 1883, was followed by the Cairo Stock Exchange in 1903; they eventually linked their operations and continued as the Cairo and Alexandria Stock Exchanges (CASE). Though some banks, such as the Alexandria Commercial and Maritime Bank, are based in Alexandria, a majority of banks-including the Bank of Alexandria-are headquartered in Cairo.

Transportation

Alexandria is linked to other Egyptian cities by railway, road, and air service. It also is connected by canal with the Nile. Transport within the city is provided by tram service, as well as a system of taxis and buses. The main rail link to Cairo has been upgraded several times, and Alexandria is also the terminus for the rail line that runs to Al-Sallūm on the Libyan border. The Alexandria-Cairo desert highway is one of Egypt's best roads; it has relieved pressure on the agricultural route through the delta region as well as encouraging desert development. Air transport services generally operate to Cairo, though a number of international carriers have begun service out of Alexandria as well. Severe limitations constricted the capacity for expansion of the old airport at Nuzhah, which was built on land reclaimed from Lake Maryūṭ; as a result, an airport located some 30 miles (50 km) southwest of the city at Burj al-ʿArab (Burg el-ʿArab) was opened to receive international flights in 2000. Another international airport, funded by private investment and designed to attract European tourists to Egypt's Mediterranean beaches, opened at Al-ʿAlamayn in 2005.

More than half of Egypt's foreign trade passes through the city's two main commercial harbours, Alexandria and nearby Al-Dukhaylah. Much of the country's oil, gas, and cotton are exported through these ports, as are traditional items such as fruits, vegetables, perfumes, and a variety of finished goods. By far the largest import is grain. Improvements have been implemented to relieve congestion, which can be severe. Egypt's dependence on Alexandria's ports has diminished somewhat with the opening of new container-handling facilities at Damietta (Dumyāṭ) and the development of ports along the coast of the Red Sea.

Administration and society

Government

In 1890, Alexandria became the first fully constituted municipality in Egypt. Based upon an earlier organization formed by the foreign export merchants, the municipality enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in directing urban development until its suspension in 1926 and its reorganization by the Egyptian government in 1935. The liquidation of municipal autonomy was the prelude to an increasingly centralized control of urban administration through the governorate. Since the revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1952, the president of the republic has appointed the governor, who is assisted by an elected local council; the governorate is responsible to the Ministry of Local Affairs.

Health and municipal services

In terms of city services, Alexandria is generally on a par with other urban governorates of Egypt, providing electricity and pure drinking water to all but a small percentage of homes. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, a number of high-profile programs to improve municipal services and refurbish the city's image were implemented. Significant improvements have been made to the city's waste-management infrastructure, and some services have been privatized. However, pollution of the beaches is a continuing health hazard. The city has been blamed for pumping vast quantities of sewage into the Mediterranean, although efforts have been made to control the release of untreated effluent.

Alexandrians receive medical services at a number of private and public clinics and hospitals; among these are the Alexandria Fever Hospital and a medical complex in Al-Shāṭibī (El-Shatbi) providing pediatric and gynecological care. Located to the east of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, the complex was the focus of debate in the early 21st century, when it was rumoured there were plans to demolish the unattractive yet important structure.

Education

The state supervises education, as is the rule throughout Egypt. The state system is divided into primary, preparatory, and secondary schools, and advanced education is available in university faculties and technical institutes. Alexandria University (1942), the principal public university, lies just east of the city centre. Instruction is generally given in Arabic, although English is an important second language and is widely used in a number of professional programs. A private, francophone, international university named in honour of the famous Senegalese statesman Léopold Senghor was inaugurated in 1990.

Prior to 1952, Alexandria had a large number of private schools supported by various national and religious communities. Perhaps the most notable among these was Victoria College, an elite British institution founded in 1902. Its many famous students have included the Arab nationalist historian and advocate George Antonius (1891-1942) and King Ḥussein of Jordan.

Cultural life

Alexandria's most important museum, the Greco-Roman Museum, situated behind the Municipality Building on Ṭarīq al-Ḥurriyyah, is noted for its fine collection of antiquities, most of which come from finds in or near the city. Renewed interest in the Classical period has revived archaeological exploration, which is focusing on Kawm al-Dikkah and the underwater site of the Pharos lighthouse. The Museum of Fine Art, located across the railway line from the city's stadium, presents exhibitions of modern and local art. In addition, the royal palace at Al-Muntazah has spacious public gardens and access to the Mediterranean.

The Bibliotheca Alexandrina has also been an important addition to the city's cultural menu. The idea of reviving the ancient library was first proposed in 1972 by Mostafa El-Abbadi, a professor at Alexandria University. The Egyptian government decided to sponsor the project, and it received international publicity and support through UNESCO. Opened in 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina-located adjacent to Alexandria University and near the site of the ancient structure-contains a working library, a repository for manuscripts, a planetarium, museums, art galleries, and conference facilities.

Alexandria, Library of Dennis Jarvis (CC-BY-2.0)

History

Foundation and medieval growth

Greek period

Alexander the Great founded the city in 332 bce after the start of his Persian campaign; it was to be the capital of his new Egyptian dominion and a naval base that would control the Mediterranean. The choice of the site that included the ancient settlement of Rhakotis (which dates to 1500 bce) was determined by the abundance of water from Lake Maryūṭ, then fed by a spur of the Canopic Nile, and by the good anchorage provided offshore by the island of Pharos.

After Alexander left Egypt his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation of Alexandria. With the breakup of the empire upon Alexander's death in 323 bce, control of the city passed to his viceroy, Ptolemy I Soter, who founded the dynasty that took his name. The early Ptolemies successfully blended the religions of ancient Greece and Egypt in the cult of Serapis (Sarapis) and presided over Alexandria's golden age. Alexandria profited from the demise of Phoenician power after Alexander sacked Tyre (332 bce) and from Rome's growing trade with the East via the Nile and the canal that then linked it with the Red Sea. Indeed, Alexandria became, within a century of its founding, one of the Mediterranean's largest cities and a centre of Greek scholarship and science. Such scholars as Euclid, Archimedes, Plotinus the philosopher, and Ptolemy and Eratosthenes the geographers studied at the Mouseion, the great research institute founded in the beginning of the 3rd century bce by the Ptolemies that included the city's famed library. The ancient library housed numerous texts, the majority of them in Greek; a "daughter library" was established at the temple of Serapis about 235 bce. The library itself was later destroyed in the civil war that occurred under the Roman emperor Aurelian in the late 3rd century ce, while the subsidiary branch was destroyed in 391 ce ( see Alexandria, Library of).

Alexandria was also home to a populous Jewish colony and was a major centre of Jewish learning; the translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew to Greek, the Septuagint, was produced there. Many other ethnic and religious groups were represented in the city, and Alexandria was the scene of much interethnic strife during this period.

Roman and Byzantine periods

The decline of the Ptolemies in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce was matched by the rise of Rome. Alexandria played a major part in the intrigues that led to the establishment of imperial Rome.

It was at Alexandria that Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, courted Julius Caesar and claimed to have borne him a son. Her attempts at restoring the fortunes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, however, were thwarted by Caesar's assassination and her unsuccessful support of Mark Antony against Caesar's great-nephew Octavian. In 30 bce Octavian (later the emperor Augustus) formally brought Alexandria and Egypt under Roman rule. The city held the key to the Egyptian granary on which Rome increasingly came to rely.

St. Mark, author of the second gospel in the New Testament, is said to have preached in Alexandria in the mid-1st century ce. Several outstanding Bible scholars and theologians of the early Christian era were educated in Alexandria, including Origen ( c. 185- c. 254), who contributed to an evolving synthesis of Christianity and Greco-Roman philosophy and who headed the city's famous catechetical school. Alexandria's Christian community continued to grow in numbers and influence and resisted Rome's attempts to impose emperor worship. State-directed persecutions and spontaneous attacks by pagans upon Christians occurred intermittently; Diocletian initiated a particularly vicious campaign in 303 in which many Egyptian Christians were martyred, a number of them in Alexandria. Nevertheless, persecution failed to stem the growing spiritual movement, and the empire finally legalized Christianity under Constantine I, though the new alliance with the state set the stage for schisms within the church.

Among the first doctrinal questions to rend the church was a dispute between two Alexandrian prelates, Athanasius and Arius, over the nature of Jesus Christ's relationship to God the Father. The issue was addressed in 325 at the Council of Nicaea, which affirmed Christ's full deity and branded Arianism-the belief that Christ, though preexistent, was inferior to God-as heresy. Arianism, however, had many imperial champions, and this sharpened the conflict between the Alexandrian church and the state. The doctrinal issue was not finally settled until the Council of Constantinople in 381. By the close of the 4th century, elements of the Christian establishment in Alexandria had also mobilized against the remnants of paganism, destroying the temple of Serapis; other violent clashes broke out between rival gangs and factions based in the city around this time.

During the course of the 4th century, the patriarchs of Alexandria consolidated their position over Egypt's clergy. The pope of Alexandria, as the post of patriarch was also known, exercised great influence in the church and vied with the patriarch of Constantinople for ecclesiastical preeminence in the eastern Roman Empire. A decisive break occurred at the Council of Chalcedon in 451; the council deposed Dioscorus, the Alexandrian pope, and adopted a Christological statement that was regarded by Egyptian Christians as compromising belief in the divine Son. For dogmatic and political reasons, the Egyptian Monophysite church rejected the Chalcedonian formula and resisted Constantinople's attempts to bring it into line. A dissident church developed to oppose state-supported orthodoxy and became a focus of indigenous Egyptian loyalties. Disaffection with Byzantine rule created the conditions in which Alexandria fell first to the Persians, in 616, and then to the Arabs, in 642.

Though Alexandria surrendered to Muslim Arab expansion without resistance, the conquest was followed by a substantial exodus of the leading elements of the Greek population. Thenceforth, apart from an interlude in 645 when the city was briefly retaken by the Byzantine fleet, Alexandria's fortunes were tied to political and cultural developments in Islam. Alexandria was eclipsed politically by the new Arab capital at Al-Fusṭāṭ (which later was absorbed into the modern capital, Cairo); the Coptic patriarchate was transferred there from Alexandria in the 11th century. Nevertheless, Alexandria continued to flourish as a trading centre, principally for textiles and luxury goods, as Arab influence expanded westward through North Africa and then into Europe. The city also was important as a naval base, especially under the Fāṭimids and the Mamlūks, but already it was contracting in size in line with its new, more modest status. The Arab walls (rebuilt in the 13th and 14th centuries and torn down in the 19th century) encompassed less than half the area of the Greco-Roman city.

Alexandria, Egypt: Qāʾit Bāy, citadel of Dennis Jarvis (CC-BY-2.0)

Following its recovery from the devastation of the bubonic plague in the mid-14th century, Alexandria was able to profit from the growth of the East-West spice trade, which flowed through Egypt. The eventual loss of this trade following the Portuguese discovery of a sea route to India in 1498 was a severe blow to the city's fortunes and to the Mamlūk state. With the Ottoman defeat of the Mamlūks in 1517, Egypt's status shifted to that of a province within a wider empire, charge of which fell to the Ottomans. Under Ottoman rule, the canal linking Alexandria to the Rosetta branch of the Nile was allowed to silt up, strangling the city's commercial lifeline. By the time Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, Alexandria had been reduced to a small Ottoman port.

Evolution of the modern city

Alexandria's rebirth began when Muḥammad ʿAlī was appointed Ottoman viceroy and pasha of Egypt in 1805. Seeking to use Egypt as a base from which to expand his own power, he reopened Alexandria's access to the Nile by building the 45-mile- (72-km-) long Al-Maḥmūdiyyah Canal (completed between 1818 and 1820), as well as an arsenal in which to locally produce the warships intended to rebuild his fleet. Some Egyptians were conscripted into the urban labour force, but most were drawn by the expanding economic opportunities. Foreign traders were encouraged by the Capitulations, which gave them certain legal rights and privileges (for instance, to be tried in their own courts), and they too began to settle in the city. Cotton was introduced into Egypt in the 1820s, and by the 1840s Europe's growing appetite for the commodity was making Alexandria rich. The city became an increasingly important banking and commercial centre. The opening of the Cairo railway in 1856, the cotton boom created by the American Civil War in the early 1860s, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, which reestablished Egypt as the principal staging post to India, led to another cycle of growth and to a rapid increase in both the indigenous and foreign populations.

The British bombardment of the city in 1882 to put down a local nationalist revolt led directly to the British occupation that lasted until 1922. The city nevertheless continued to prosper and expand, retaining its position as the second city and summer capital of Egypt. Under British patronage the foreign community-some 100,000 strong-continued to flourish. A self-governing municipality, founded in 1890, undertook several notable projects; among these were the creation of the Greco-Roman Museum, the construction of a public library, improvements in the street and sewage systems, and the reclamation of land from the sea, upon which the waterfront Corniche was later laid out. The municipal franchise was, however, extremely restricted; the city council was controlled by a coterie of European and Levantine merchants and property owners, despite the fact that the great majority of Alexandria's inhabitants were Egyptian.

During World War I, Alexandria was the chief Allied naval base of the eastern Mediterranean. The city was much more actively involved in World War II, as it came perilously close to being captured by Axis armies and was repeatedly bombarded. British forces left the city in 1946.

Alexandria meanwhile played its part in the nationalist struggle between and after the world wars. In 1952 it was the point of departure from Egyptian soil for King Farouk after he was deposed in the revolution led by the Alexandria-born Gamal Abdel Nasser. In 1956 the failure of the tripartite British, French, and Israeli attack on Egypt, following President Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal, led to the seizure of French and British assets. Subsequent laws mandating the Egyptianization of foreign-owned banks, firms, and insurance companies resulted in the departure of thousands of foreign residents.

During the 1960s, Alexandria benefited from Nasser's industrialization program; this boon was felt especially in the food-processing and textile-manufacturing industries, which had expanded considerably between the wars. The city was adversely affected by Egypt's devastating defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War (June 1967; see Arab-Israeli wars), by the dislocation created when the Suez Canal was closed as a result of the war, and by the evacuation of Egyptian residents from the canal zone. Alexandria's port became swamped by trade diverted from Port Said, and it had not fully recovered when in 1974 the Egyptian government introduced an open-door trade policy that led to a flood of consumer imports.

Liberalization, coupled with tentative moves at decentralization under Anwar Sadat, Nasser's successor, revived calls by the merchant community for greater financial autonomy. These in turn created a new sense of civic identity and pride. The discovery in 1976 of natural gas reserves offshore and in the Nile delta spurred industrial development; the principal beneficiary was Al-Dukhaylah, which became a major iron and steel centre. In addition, refinery facilities underwent a number of upgrades, especially after the completion of a crude-oil pipeline from the city of Suez to the Mediterranean near Alexandria in the late 1970s and of another pipeline linking Musṭurud (north of Cairo) with Alexandria.

Alexandria's access to the outside world has also been promoted to encourage the development of light industry. A free-trade zone was established in Al-ʿĀmiriyyah. Although Alexandria's stock and cotton exchanges were closed in the 1960s, the stock exchange was later allowed to reopen. The city launched a master plan designed to bring major civic improvements. Work on these projects was partly responsible for a renewed interest in Alexandria's cultural heritage in the 1990s, as wide-scale demolition to make way for new construction revealed layers of the ancient city long thought to be lost. In particular, archaeological surveys along the waterfront near Alexandria revealed a trove of ancient ruins, some of which have been retrieved. Efforts have also been made to document and protect the city's historic architecture, most notably by architect Mohamed Awad, head of the Alexandria Preservation Trust. The revival of the city's ancient library, a project first proposed in the 1970s, materialized with the opening of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in 2002.

Mary Rowlatt J. Alan Mackie Michael J. Reimer

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Alexandria | History, Population, Map, & Facts

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Alexandria: Alexandria, major city and urban governorate in Egypt. Once among the greatest cities of the Mediterranean world and a center of Hellenic scholarship and science, Alexandria was the capital of Egypt from its founding by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE until its surrender to Arab forces in 642 CE.

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Heliopolis used the be one of the holiest cities in Egyptian society. Very little is known about the city, but archaeologists are trying to change that.

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Heliopolis: Heliopolis, one of the most ancient Egyptian cities and the seat of worship of the sun god, Re. It was the capital of the 15th nome of Lower Egypt, but Heliopolis was important as a religious rather than a political centre. During the New Kingdom (c.

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Luxor Temple is located where Thebes used to be. The temple was built during the time of 4 pharaohs, starting with Amenhotep III and ended with Rameses II.

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Luxor Temple The modern town of Luxor is the site of the famous city of Thebes (Waset, in ancient Egyptian) the City of a Hundred Gates.

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Until 1889, The Great Pyramid was considered the highest structure made my human hands. It's also one of the last Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.