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Written by Mark Bennett

A PhD is a doctoral research degree and the highest level of academic qualification you can achieve. The degree normally takes between three and four years of full-time work towards a thesis offering an original contribution to your subject.
This page explains what a PhD is, what it involves and what you need to know if you're considering applying for a PhD research project, or enrolling on a doctoral programme.

The PhD can take on something of a mythic status. Are they only for geniuses? Do you have to discover something incredible? Does the qualification make you an academic? And are higher research degrees just for people who want to be academics?

Even the full title, 'Doctor of Philosophy', has a somewhat mysterious ring to it. Do you become a doctor? Yes, but not that kind of doctor. Do you have to study Philosophy? No (not unless you want to).

So, before going any further, let's explain what the term 'PhD' actually means and what defines a doctorate.

What does PhD stand for?

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. This is one of the highest level academic degrees that can be awarded. PhD is an abbreviation of the Latin term (Ph)ilosophiae (D)octor. Traditionally the term 'philosophy' does not refer to the subject but its original Greek meaning which roughly translates to 'lover of wisdom'.

What is a doctorate?

A doctorate is any qualification that awards a doctoral degree. In order to qualify for one you need to produce advanced work that makes a significant new contribution to knowledge in your field. Doing so earns you the title 'Doctor' - hence the name.

So, is a PhD different to a doctorate? No. A PhD is a type of doctorate.

The PhD is the most common type of doctorate and is awarded in almost all subjects at universities around the world. Other doctorates tend to be more specialised or for more practical and professional projects.

Essentially, all PhDs are doctorates, but not all doctorates are PhDs.

Do you need a Masters to get a PhD?

Not necessarily. It's common for students in Arts and the Humanities to complete an MA (Master of Arts) before starting a PhD in order to acquire research experience and techniques. Students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) don't always need an MS/MSc (Master of Science) to do a PhD as you'll gain training in lab techniques and other skills during your undergraduate degree.

Whether a Masters is a requirement for a PhD also varies by country. Australian PhDs may require a Masters as the equivalent of their own 'honours year' (where students work on research). US PhD programmes often include a Masters.

We have a whole guide dedicated to helping you decide whether a PhD without a Masters is the right route for you.

The origin of the PhD

Despite its name, the PhD isn't actually an Ancient Greek degree. Instead it's a much more recent development. The PhD as we know it was developed in nineteenth-century Germany, alongside the modern research university.

Higher education had traditionally focussed on mastery of an existing body of scholarship and the highest academic rank available was, appropriately enough, a Masters degree.

As the focus shifted more onto the production of new knowledge and ideas, the PhD degree was brought in to recognise those who demonstrated the ncessary skills and expertise.

The PhD process - what's required to get a PhD?

The typical length of a PhD is three to four years full-time, or five to six years part-time.

Unlike most Masters courses (or all undergraduate programmes), a PhD is a pure research degree. But that doesn't mean you'll just spend years locked away in a library or laboratory. In fact, the modern PhD is a diverse and varied qualification with many different components.

Whereas the second or third year of a taught degree look quite a lot like the first (with more modules and coursework at a higher level) a PhD moves through a series of stages.

A typical PhD normally involves:

Carrying out a literature review (a survey of current scholarship in your field).

Conducting original research and collecting your results.

Producing a thesis that presents your conclusions.

Writing up your thesis and submitting it as a dissertation.

Defending your thesis in an oral viva voce exam.

These stages vary a little between subjects and universities, but they tend to fall into the same sequence over the three years of a typical full-time PhD.

The first year of a PhD

The beginning of a PhD is all about finding your feet as a researcher and getting a solid grounding in the current scholarship that relates to your topic.

You'll have initial meetings with your supervisor and discuss a plan of action based on your research proposal.

The first step in this will almost certainly be carrying out your literature review. With the guidance of your supervisor you'll begin surveying and evaluating existing scholarship. This will help situate your research and ensure your work is original.

Your literature review will provide a logical jumping off point for the beginning of your own research and the gathering of results. This could involve designing and implementing experiments, or getting stuck into a pile of primary sources.

The year may end with an MPhil upgrade. This occurs when PhD students are initially registered for an MPhil degree and then 'upgraded' to PhD candidates upon making sufficient progress. You'll submit material from your literature review, or a draft of your research findings and discuss these with members of your department in an upgrade exam. All being well, you'll then continue with your research as a PhD student.

PhDs in other countries
The information on the page is based on the UK. Most countries follow a similar format, but there are some differences. In the USA, for example, PhD students complete reading assignments and examinations before beginning their research. You can find out more in our guides to PhD study around the world.

The second year of a PhD

Your second year will probably be when you do most of your core research. The process for this will vary depending on your field, but your main focus will be on gathering results from experiments, archival research, surveys or other means.

As your research develops, so will the thesis (or argument) you base upon it. You may even begin writing up chapters or other pieces that will eventually form part of your dissertation.

You'll still be having regular meetings with your supervisor. They'll check your progress, provide feedback on your ideas and probably read any drafts your produce.

The second year is also an important stage for your development as a scholar. You'll be well versed in current research and have begun to collect some important data or develop insights of your own. But you won't yet be faced with the demanding and time-intensive task of finalising your dissertation.

So, this part of your PhD is a perfect time to think about presenting your work at academic conferences, gaining teaching experience or perhaps even selecting some material for publication in an academic journal. You can read more about these kinds of activities below.

The third year of a PhD

The third year of a PhD is sometimes referred to as the writing up phase.

Traditionally, this is the final part of your doctorate, during which your main task will be pulling together your results and honing your thesis into a dissertation.

In reality, it's not always as simple as that.

It's not uncommon for final year PhD students to still be fine-tuning experiments, collecting results or chasing up a few extra sources. This is particularly likely if you spend part of your second year focussing on professional development.

In fact, some students actually take all or part of a fourth year to finalise their dissertation. Whether you are able to do this will depend on the terms of your enrolment - and perhaps your PhD funding.

Eventually though, you are going to be faced with writing up your thesis and submitting your dissertation.

Your supervisor will be very involved in this process. They'll read through your final draft and let you know when they think your PhD is ready for submission.

All that's left then is your final viva voce oral exam. This is a formal discussion and defence of your thesis involving at least one internal and external examiner. It's normally the only assessment procedure for a PhD. Once you've passed, you've done it!

Looking for more information about the stages of a PhD?
How do you go about completing a literature review? What's it like to do PhD research? And what actually happens at an MPhil upgrade? You can find out more in our detailed guide to the PhD journey.

Doing a PhD - what's it actually like?

You can think of the 'stages' outlined above as the basic 'roadmap' for a PhD, but the actual 'journey' you'll take as a research student involves a lot of other sights, a few optional destinations and at least one very important fellow passenger.

Carrying out research

Unsurprisingly, you'll spend most of your time as a PhD researcher... researching your PhD. But this can involve a surprisingly wide range of activities.

The classic image of a student working away in the lab, or sitting with a pile of books in the library is true some of the time - particularly when you're monitoring experiments or conducting your literature review.

Your PhD can take you much further afield though. You may find yourself visiting archives or facilities to examine their data or look at rare source materials. You could even have the opportunity to spend an extended period 'in residence' at a research centre or other institution beyond your university.

Research is also far from being a solitary activity. You'll have regular discussions with your supervisor (see below) but you may also work with other students from time to time.

This is particularly likely if you're part of a larger laboratory or workshop group studying the same broad area. But it's also common to collaborate with students whose projects are more individual. You might work on shorter projects of joint interest, or be part of teams organising events and presentations.

Many universities also run regular internal presentation and discussion groups - a perfect way to get to know other PhD students in your department and offer feedback on each other's work in progress.

Working with your supervisor

All PhD projects are completed with the guidance of at least one academic supervisor. They will be your main point of contact and support throughout the PhD.

Your supervisor will be an expert in your general area of research, but they won't have researched on your exact topic before (if they had, your project wouldn't be original enough for a PhD).

As such, it's better to think of your supervisor as a mentor, rather than a teacher.

As a PhD student you're now an independent and original scholar, pushing the boundaries of your field beyond what is currently known (and taught) about it. You're doing all of this for the first time, of course. But your supervisor isn't.

They'll know what's involved in managing an advanced research project over three years (or more). They'll know how best to succeed, but they'll also know what can go wrong and how to spot the warning signs before it does.

Perhaps most importantly, they'll be someone with the time and expertise to listen to your ideas and help provide feedback and encouragement as you develop your thesis.

Exact supervision arrangements vary between universities and between projects:

In Science and Technology projects it's common for a supervisor to be the lead investigator on a wider research project, with responsibility for a laboratory or workshop that includes several PhD students and other researchers.

In Arts and Humanities subjects, a supervisor's research is more separate from their students'. They may supervise more than one PhD at a time, but each project is essentially separate.

It's also becoming increasingly common for PhD students to have two (or more) supervisors. The first is usually responsible for guiding your academic research whilst the second is more concerned with the administration of your PhD - ensuring you complete any necessary training and stay on track with your project's timetable.

However you're supervised, you'll have regular meetings to discuss work and check your progress. Your supervisor will also provide feedback on work during your PhD and will play an important role as you near completion: reading your final dissertation draft, helping you select an external examiner and (hopefully) taking you out for a celebratory drink afterwards!

Professional development, networking and communication

Traditionally, the PhD has been viewed as a training process, preparing students for careers in academic research.

As such, it often includes opportunities to pick up additional skills and experiences that are an important part of a scholarly CV. Academics don't just do research after all. They also teach students, administrate departments - and supervise PhDs.

The modern PhD is also viewed as a more flexible qualification. Not all doctoral graduates end up working in higher education. Many follow alternative careers that are either related to their subject of specialism or draw upon the advanced research skills their PhD has developed.

PhD programmes have begun to reflect this. Many now emphasise transferrable skills or include specific training units designed to help students communicate and apply their research beyond the university.

What all of this means is that very few PhD experiences are just about researching and writing up a thesis.

The likelihood is that you'll also do some (or all) of the following during your PhD:

Teaching
PhD researchers are often given the opportunity to teach undergraduates at their university. This generally involves leading small group teaching exercises, demonstrating methods and experiments and providing mentoring.

The work is usually paid and is increasingly accompanied by formal training and evaluation.

Conference presentation
As a PhD student you'll be at the cutting edge of your field, doing original research and producing new results. This means that your work will be interest to other scholars and that your results could be worth presenting at academic conferences.

Doing this is very worthwhile, whatever your career plans. You'll develop transferrable skills in public speaking and presenting, gain feedback on your results and begin to be recognised as an expert in your area. Conferences are also great places to network with other students and academics.

Publication
As well as presenting your research, you may also have the opportunity to publish work in academic journals, books, or other media.

This can be a challenging process. Your work will be judged according to the same high standards as any other scholar's and will normally go through extensive peer review processes.

But it's also highly rewarding. Seeing your work 'in print' is an incredible validation of your PhD research and a definite boost to your academic CV.

Public engagement and communication
Academic work may be associated with the myth of the 'ivory tower' - an insular community of experts focussing on obscure topics of little interest outside the university. But this is far from the case.

More and more emphasis is being placed on the 'impact' of research and its wider benefits to the public - with funding decisions being made accordingly.

Thankfully, there are plenty of opportunities to try your hand at public engagement as a PhD student. Universities are often involved in local events and initiatives to communicate the benefits of their research, ranging from workshops in local schools to public lectures and presentations.

Some PhD programmes include structured training in order to help students with activities such as the above.

Your supervisor may also be able to help by identifying suitable conferences and public engagement opportunities, or by involving you in appropriate university events and public engagement initiatives.

These experiences will be an important part of your development as a researchers - and will enhance the value of your PhD regardless of your career plans.

What is a PhD for - and who should study one?

So, you know what a PhD actually is, what's involved in completing one and what you might get up to whilst you do. That just leaves one final question: should you do a PhD?

Unfortunately, it's not a question we can answer for you.

A PhD is difficult and uniquely challenging. It requires at least three years of hard work and dedication after you've already completed an undergraduate degree (and probably a Masters degree too).

You'll need to support yourself during those years and, whilst you will be building up an impressive set of skills, you won't be directly progressing in a career.

But a PhD is also immensely rewarding. It's your chance to make a genuine contribution to the sum of human knowledge and produce work that other researchers can (and will) build on in future. However obscure your topic feels, there's really no such thing as a useless PhD.

A PhD is also something to be incredibly proud of. A proportionately tiny number of people go on to do academic work at this level. Whatever you end up doing after your doctorate you'll have an impressive qualification - and a title to match. What's more, non-academic careers and professions are increasingly recognising the unique skills and experience a PhD brings.

Other PhDs - do degree titles matter?
The PhD is the oldest and most common form of higher research degree, but a few alternatives are available. Some, such as the DPhil are essentially identical to a PhD. Others, such as the Professional Doctorate or DBA are slightly different. You can find out more in our guide to types of PhD.

Is a PhD for me?

There's more advice on the value of a PhD - and good reasons for studying one - elsewhere in this section. But the following are some quick tips if you're just beginning to consider a PhD.

Speak to your lecturers / tutors
The best people to ask about PhD study are people who've earned one. Ask staff at your current or previous university about their experience of doctoral research - what they enjoyed, what they didn't and what their tips might be.

If you're considering a PhD for an academic career, ask about that too. Are job prospects good in your field? And what's it really like to work at a university?

Speak to current PhD students
Want to know what it's like studying a PhD right now? Or what it's like doing research at a particular university? Ask someone who knows.

Current PhD students were just like you a year or two ago and most will be happy to answer questions.

If you can't get in touch with any students 'face to face', pop over to the Postgraduate Forum - you'll find plenty of students there who are happy to chat about postgraduate research.

Take a look at advertised projects and programmes
This may seem like a strange suggestion. After all, you're only going to study one PhD, so what's the point of reading about lots of others?

Well, looking at the details of different PhD projects is a great way to get a general sense of what PhD research is like. You'll see what different PhDs tend to have in common and what kinds of unique opportunity might be available to you.

And, with thousands of PhDs in our database, you're already in a great place to start.

Read our other advice articles
Finally, you can also check out some of the other advice on the FindAPhD website. We've looked at some good (and bad) reasons for studying a PhD as well as the value of a doctorate to different career paths.

More generally, you can read our in-depth look at a typical PhD journey, or find out more about specific aspects of doctoral study such as working with a supervisor or writing your dissertation.

We add new articles all the time - the best way to stay up to date is by signing up for our free PhD opportunity newsletter.

PhD Study in Canada - A Guide for 2022
Internationally renowned universities, attractive PhD fees, cosmopolitan culture and a welcoming visa system make Canada a popular choice for international study. Our guide covers everything you'll need to know to study abroad there this year.
Read more

Last Updated: 03 December 2021

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What is a PhD? – Introducing the Doctorate | FindAPhD.com

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What does PhD study involve? What does PhD stand for? And is a doctorate right for you? Our introductory guide to PhD study has the answers.

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PhD Owls - Older, Wise Learners has 3,210 members. For people who start or re-enter studying in their 40s, 50s, 60s or older - we started through the MOOC How to survive the PhD...

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How to search for words within and article...

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You can search for words or sets of words within a specific article. For example, maybe you want to find every instance of the word “twin” in an article you are reading. To search for words or phrases within the article you are viewing, do the following:

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Try a word search game

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As noted in the invitation you can join the retreat at any stage to suit your circumstances.

The breaks will  provide opportunities to meet and chat with your writing colleagues.

9.00 am              Introductions – Setting Goals

If you can’t make the 9.30am start that is fine – we will be able to accommodate this and give you the feeling that you are part of the group during the breaks and lunchtime.

9. 30 am          First Writing Block

10.45 am          Tea break

11.am                Second writing Block

12.30pm          Lunch break.   Exercise / Yoga  session  offered

Opportunity to share writing resources/ recipes

1.15pm              Third Writing block

2.45 pm            Reflection

3.30pm       End of retreat

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10 easy stretches you can do at your desk

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You can search for key words on the left side of the page

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Publishers often send me academic writing books to review. I happily look through every book, but if I think I can't wholeheartedly recommend it, I just don't write a review. I don't want to crush a fellow author's soul. The rejected titles sit sadly, in small piles of guilt, on the bottom of one of ...continue reading.

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Just like the horse whisperer - but with more pages

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Example Descriptions and Quotations

Let's look at the possible consequences of the transformation process that happens as we turn raw data into print-ready material.

Let's look at the possible consequences of the transformation process that happens as we turn raw data into print-ready material. To demonstrate these consequences, I'll provide three examples that were inspired by actual events.

Example 1: The Clubber

This example is from an on-site study. The participant was a 23-year-old male. We asked him to view a series of videos on a mobile device, then respond verbally to an online questionnaire asking about his impressions. A moderator, who was present during the latter part of the study, asked him to comment generally about his experience and impressions. She recorded the interview on videotape and typed some notes on her notebook computer during the interview.

Here is an example of a representative participant quotation from the interview, which the moderator transcribed into her typewritten notes:

"I felt like the video gave you the feeling you were in a club. You had all your senses stimulated. The feature enhances the enjoyability of watching video on the phone. Because the screen is small, the feature helps evoke the feeling that you're there. This phone had better resolution. It helped give a better feeling of being there. Like the music was louder."

The following quotation derived from the transcribed data, and the researcher added it to a PowerPoint presentation that served as a report to stakeholders:

"I felt like the video gave you the feeling you were in a club. You had all your senses stimulated. The feature enhances the enjoyability of watching video on the phone."

And finally, here is the quotation that appeared in a published whitepaper on the research results:

"The video gave you the feeling that you were in a club. All of your senses were stimulated." (An image of a cheering crowd in a nightclub accompanied the quotation.)

In the transformation that occurred between the transcript and the presentation, we see a trimming down of the quotation; between the presentation and the whitepaper, further trimming and refinement of the verbiage. Furthermore, we see the addition of an image that provides a visual context for the quotation. Should we be ethically concerned about the changes that transpired between the first and third iterations of this quotation?

In my view, these changes are in line with the original intent of the quotation, and a reasonable smoothing of the remarks into something more readable has occurred. Moreover, although the image accompanying the quotation was not from the video that the moderator recorded during the session, the context is similar to what the participant experienced during the study.

Example 2: The Dancer

This example is from on-site user research. The participant was a 43-year-old, stay-at-home mom. We asked her to view a series of videos on a mobile device, then answer questions about her impressions in a print survey. No moderator was present when the participant recorded her responses to the questions in the survey. Following the study, the researchers transcribed the survey responses into a spreadsheet.

Here is an example of a written response from the survey sheet:

"I remember this video from last time. I liked it more before-which really made me feel more involved and like I wanted to dance. Not so much this time though. It was a big difference in the music. It's like the difference of making you want to dance and not dance."

The following quotation appeared as a bullet point on a PowerPoint slide in a research report:

"It was a big difference in the music. It's like the difference of making you want to dance and not dance."

Finally, here is how the quotation appeared on a printed sheet of collateral for a customer event:

"It's like the difference between making you want to dance and not dance."-Kimberly, 19 (An image of two young girls looking at a tablet device appeared beside the quotation.)

In the transformation that occurred between the survey responses and the report, we see a paring down of the quotation; between the report and the print collateral, further trimming of the text.

More important, we see an image in which the subjects belong to quite a different age demographic from the participant, and the text identifies the participant as a teenager. Both misrepresent the potential appeal of the technology to a younger audience. Also, as a researcher, I found it quite striking that this technology compelled a more mature, stay-at-home mom to dance -a sentiment that gets lost in the final version of the quotation.

Example 3: The Skydiver

This example came from an on-site study. The participant was a male, 37-year-old operations director. We asked him to view a series of videos on a mobile device, then tell us his impressions by verbally responding to an online questionnaire. A moderator, who was present during the latter part of the study, asked him to comment generally about his experience and impressions. The moderator recorded the interview on videotape and typed some notes on her notebook computer during the interview.

This is a participant quotation that the moderator captured in her typewritten notes during the interview:

"It was like supplementing or helped me recall a true experience. It kind of brought me back to the memory of something-like driving a cool car or like skydiving. Yeah, in that last video, the-the vibration of the wind, I remember that. So it brings you back to that true life experience."

Here is how that quotation appeared in a bullet point on a PowerPoint slide in a research report:

"It was like supplementing or helping me recall a true experience. It brought me back to the memory of something-like driving a cool car or skydiving." (A still image from a video of a skydiver appears on the slide.)

Finally, here is how that quotation was represented in printed collateral for a customer event:

"It feels like I'm there again!"-Arthur, 22 (An image of a snowboarder jumping appears on the sheet.)

In the transformation that took place between the moderator's notes and the report, we see a smoothing process that removed a stutter and some redundant information and made the quotation more concise. Stuttering is common in human speech, but in print, text is easier to read when we remove it. However, in the final transformation to print collateral, the text has lost its authenticity. A statement the participant expressed in past tense is now in present tense-as though the participant were describing what is currently happening. The collateral material identifies the participant as belonging to quite a different age demographic, and the imagery accompanying the quotation presents a different visual context from that the participant experienced during the study.

Best Practices

A useful approach to handling quotations from user research comes from another discipline that often faces the same dilemma: journalism.

A useful approach to handling quotations from user research comes from another discipline that often faces the same dilemma: journalism. Every day, journalists must accurately represent the statements of their interview subjects while rapidly producing perfectly written representations of broader human opinion.

An article by Killenbery and Anderson [1] suggests a practical test for alleviating the multitude of ethical dilemmas facing journalists in the handling of quotations. They suggest adapting Sissela Bok's test of publicity, [2] which asks journalists to willingly imagine themselves under scrutiny by asking: Is my behavior such that I'd be comfortable having all of my audiences-interview subject, editor, public, and self-simultaneously monitor my choices, knowing that someone might later ask me to justify my actions?

Asking ourselves how research participants might feel upon seeing their quotation in print is quite useful. However, while a journalist is actually quite likely to have this happen, UX research participants rarely see the outcomes of studies in print. As a consequence, some might not feel compelled to observe the same level of professional rigor. But we should. What if a participant did see that presentation? How would that person feel? Would he respond with indignity-or tacit acquiescence? Would she feel empowered and glad to have her voice heard? As a researcher, when speaking for the user, I hope my work holds to the highest standard.

References

[1] Killenberg, G. Michael, and Rob Anderson. "What Is a Quote? Practical, Rhetorical, and Ethical Concerns for Journalists." Journal of Mass Media Ethics: Exploring Questions of Media Morality, Volume 8, Issue 1, 1993.

[2] Bok, Sissela. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.

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In Participants' Own Voices: Using Quotations from User Research Ethically

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Let's look at the possible consequences of the transformation process that happens as we turn raw data into print-ready material. Let's look at the possible consequences of the transformation process that happens as we turn raw data into print-ready material. To demonstrate these consequences, I'll provide three examples that were inspired by actual events.

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A transition is a change from one idea to another idea in writing or speaking and can be achieved using transition terms or phrases. These transitions are usually placed at the beginning of sentences, independent clauses, and paragraphs and thus establish a specific relationship between ideas or groups of ideas. Transitions are used to enhance cohesion in your paper and make its logical development clearer to readers.

Types of Transition Words

Transitions accomplish many different objectives. We can divide all transitions into four basic categories:

Additive transitions signal to the reader that you are adding or referencing information

Adversative transitions indicate conflict or disagreement between pieces of information

Causal transitions point to consequences and show cause-and-effect relationships

Sequential transitions clarify the order and sequence of information and the overall structure of the paper

Additive Transitions

These terms signal that new information is being added (between both sentences and paragraphs), introduce or highlight information, refer to something that was just mentioned, add a similar situation, or identify certain information as important.

Adversative Transitions

These terms and phrases distinguish facts, arguments, and other information, whether by contrasting and showing differences; by conceding points or making counterarguments; by dismissing the importance of a fact or argument; or replacing and suggesting alternatives.

Causal Transitions

These terms and phrases signal the reasons, conditions, purposes, circumstances, and cause-and-effect relationships. These transitions often come after an important point in the research paper has been established or to explore hypothetical relationships or circumstances.

Sequential Transitions

These transition terms and phrases organize your paper by numerical sequence; by showing continuation in thought or action; by referring to previously-mentioned information; by indicating digressions; and, finally, by concluding and summing up your paper. Sequential transitions are essential to creating structure and helping the reader understand the logical development through your paper's methods, results, and analysis.

How to Choose Transitions in Academic Writing

Transitions are commonplace elements in writing, but they are also powerful tools that can be abused or misapplied if one isn't careful. Here are some ways to ensure you are using transitions effectively.

Check for overused, awkward, or absent transitions during the paper editing process. Don't spend too much time trying to find the "perfect" transition while writing the paper.

When you find a suitable place where a transition could connect ideas, establish relationships, and make it easier for the reader to understand your point, use the list to find a suitable transition term or phrase.

Similarly, if you have repeated some terms again and again, find a substitute transition from the list and use that instead. This will help vary your writing and enhance the communication of ideas.

Read the beginning of each paragraph. Did you include a transition? If not, look at the information in that paragraph and the preceding paragraph and ask yourself: "How does this information connect?" Then locate the best transition from the list.

Check the structure of your paper-are your ideas clearly laid out in order? You should be able to locate sequence terms such as "first," "second," "following this," "another," "in addition," "finally," "in conclusion," etc. These terms will help outline your paper for the reader.

For more helpful information on academic writing and the journal publication process, visit Wordvice's Academic Resources Page. And be sure to check out Wordvice's professional English editing services if you are looking for paper editing and proofreading after composing your academic document.

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Effective Transition Words for Research Papers - Wordvice

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Transitions make the logical development of your work clearer. Here are some of the most useful transition words for research papers.

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Using Articles (a, an, the) in Academic Writing

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The University of New England respects and acknowledges that its people, programs and facilities are built on land, and surrounded by a sense of belonging, both ancient and contemporary, of the world's oldest living culture. In doing so, UNE values and respects Indigenous knowledge systems as a vital part of the knowledge capital of Australia.

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A journal article:

We are in the midst of the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. This crisis is the latest phase of the evolution of financial markets under the radical financial deregulation process that began in the late 1970s. This evolution has taken the form of cycles in which deregulation accompanied by rapid financial innovation stimulates powerful financial booms that end in crises. Governments respond to crises with bailouts that allow new expansions to begin. As a result, financial markets have become ever larger and financial crises have become more threatening to society, which forces governments to enact ever larger bailouts. This process culminated in the current global financial crisis, which is so deeply rooted that even unprecedented interventions by affected governments have, thus far, failed to contain it. In this paper we analyse the structural flaws in the financial system that helped bring on the current crisis and discuss prospects for financial reform.

Adapted from: Cotty, J. (2009) Structural causes of the global Financial Crisis. Cambridge Journal of Economics, Volume 33, Issue 4, 1, Pages 563-580

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Academic Voice - How to add writer's voice in Academic writing

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A journal article: We are in the midst of the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. This crisis is the latest phase of the evolution of financial markets under the radical financial deregulation process that began in the late 1970s.

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"Flow" is a word often used by lecturers to describe the way that the essay holds together and moves from point to point. In an essay it is very easy to pile facts upon facts, and thus lose sight of the overall cohesion of the essay. Flow can apply within individual paragraphs and between different paragraphs.

This video lecture discusses the process of refining a draft assignment to improve the flow and clarity of the writing.

Within paragraphs

Having researched your topic in preparation for writing an essay, you will probably have accumulated a wide range of facts, published research, and other information relevant to the topic. Many people simply throw these facts together in body paragraphs, without properly applying them to the topic or signalling to the reader the connections between them.

Firstly, you must ensure that all outside sources are integrated with your own writing. They should not appear randomly through the paragraph but should be given context, and interpreted for the reader. For more on this, see quoting and paraphrasing.

It is also important to link information together to create a kind of "narrative" in your essay. Consider this example paragraph:

Incorporation offers several advantages to businesses and their owners. Ownership is easy to transfer. The business is able to maintain a continuous existence even when the original owners are no longer involved. The stockholders of a corporation are not held responsible for the business's debts. If the XYZ Corporation defaults on a $1 million loan, its investors will not be held responsible for paying that liability. Incorporation enables a business to obtain professional managers with centralised authority and responsibility; the business can be run more efficiently. Incorporation gives a business certain legal rights. It can enter into contracts, own property, and borrow money.

There are a lot of facts, but the paragraph feels jumpy and disjointed. Simply adding a few connecting words - known as "signposts" - make it much more readable:

Incorporation offers several advantages to businesses and their owners. For one thing, ownership is easy to transfer. The business is able to maintain a continuous existence even when the original owners are no longer involved. In addition, the stockholders of a corporation are not held responsible for the business's debts. If the XYZ Corporation defaults on a $1 million loan, for instance, its investors will not be held responsible for paying that liability. Incorporation also enables a business to obtain professional managers with centralised authority and responsibility; therefore, the business can be run more efficiently. Finally, incorporation gives a business certain legal rights. For example, it can enter into contracts, own property, and borrow money.

Signposts make your writing flow more smoothly and make it easier to follow.

They tell the reader

what is going to be said

what is being said

what has already been said

how the main ideas support the thesis statement

how each group of ideas follow from the ones before

Some of the most common signposts are listed here, according to what they do in a paragraph.

Signpost words and phrases

Highlighting or emphasising a point

Importantly, ...
Indeed, ...
In fact, ...
More importantly, ...
Furthermore, ...
Moreover, ...
It is also important to highlight ...

Changing direction or creating a comparison

However, ...
Rather, ...
In contrast, ...
Conversely, ...
On one hand, ...
On the other hand, ...
In comparison, ...
Compared to ...
Another point to consider is ...

Similarly, ...
Likewise, ...
Again, ...
Also, ...

Finally, ...
Lastly, ...
In conclusion, ...
To summarise, ...
In summary, ...
Overall, ...
The three main points are ...

In particular, ...
In relation to ...
More specifically, ...
With respect to ...
In terms of ...

For instance, ...
For example, ...
this can be illustrated by ...
..., namely, ...
..., such as ...

Acknowledging something and moving to a different point

Although ...
Even though ...
Despite ...
Notwithstanding ...

Following a line of reasoning

Therefore, ...
Subsequently, ...
Hence ...
Consequently, ...
Accordingly, ...
As a result, ...
As a consequence, ...
To this end, ...

Between paragraphs

"Flow" can also be applied to the connections between paragraphs.

As discussed in the page on body paragraphs, each paragraph should discuss only one major point. However, each body paragraph must also be different from the other paragraphs. Its major point should be unique.

The unique point of each paragraph should be identified before you begin writing: this is the most important part of the planning stage. You might be discussing several aspects of the answer, or analysing it from different perspectives. You might be following it chronologically, or presenting one side and then the other.

If a paragraph flows well from point to point, it should be obvious to the reader when you move from one point to another. The signpost words described above can also be used between paragraphs, to indicate the transitions from one sub-topic to another.

For example, if you are analysing one study and then comparing it to another in a later paragraph, a transition would use a word or phrase from the "changing direction or creating a comparison" list:

In contrast to the conclusion drawn by Smith (2004), Nguyen (2006) showed that the connection between the factors was not causal in most circumstances.

A paragraph that illustrates a point with a case study or example would use the "giving an example" list to create a transition:

The interpretation in Nguyen (2006) was supported in practice, as illustrated by the fieldwork of Corelli (2008).

Transitions show the reader the "movement" between paragraphs: they show that they follow a logical order and build on each other. They can also show the reader how the paragraphs reconnect with the overall topic of the essay as described in the thesis statement.

If you cannot identify the movement from one paragraph to another, you may need to return to the plan to see if they are actually unique. If your paragraphs jump over important points, repeat themselves, or leave gaps in the explanation, this will also undermine the flow of the essay.

Page authorised by Director, CTL
Last updated on 25 October, 2012

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Flow is a word often used by lecturers to describe the way that the essay holds together and moves from point to point. In an essay it is very easy to pile facts upon facts, and thus lose sight of the overall cohesion of the essay.

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Take a break - "Sometimes, the most productive thing that you can do is to step outside and do nothing... relax and enjoy nature."

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Take a break - "Sometimes, the most productive thing that you can do is to step outside and do nothing... relax and enjoy nature."

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"Sometimes we just need to put down our phones, close our eyes and take a few deep breaths. Ideas are often in flight patterns around our brains, just waiting for clearance to land." Sam Harrison

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Useful Resources - see the links below

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A Really Useful Writing Blog  - some great ideas here! 

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A Really Useful Writing Blog  - some great ideas here! 

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https://explorationsofstyle.com/

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How are you feeling?
Where are you going to be working today?
What are your goals for today ?
Why choose these goals?

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This retreat is designed to help you feel less isolated and also to help you to keep on track to achieve the goals you set  for these 2 days.

We'd like you to feel a part of a well- supported community of writers.

We realise that not all of you will be online now - due to family commitments but we hope that the breaks will give the opportunities for you all to meet up and share some fun activities ( both physical and cognitive) which we are putting up here.

We would appreciate any additions to our Padlet notice board -
writing strategies
your brain- food suggestions
a cartoon
a picture of yourself working

This padlet will also showcase some helpful resources for your writing needs

Additions to these would be excellent - sharing is our mantra for the day!

If you would like some feedback on your writing it will be possible for you to book one-to-one Zoom/Hangout appointments during the day.

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At Caesar's Palace in Vegas, were three poker players ? Alan, Bernie and Craig. At the beginning of the night the amount of money each had was in the ratios 7 : 6 : 5. At the end of the night the ratio was 6 : 5 : 4.

One of the players won $1200.

What were the assets of the players at the beginning of the evening?

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Uncategorized

Study International Staff

Do you need to improve your eating habits? Source: Shutterstock

College is a great time to cultivate good eating habits. This is your first time away from home and you need to start taking care of what you eat.

Unfortunately, it can be hard to maintain a healthy diet in college with erratic schedules and late nights of studying and meeting assignment deadlines. It's often tempting to grab a quick snack from the vending machine or pop in a microwave meal when you're pressed for time.

However, it really is important to eat healthy in college so you don't put on too much weight and jeopardize your health.

International students often fall prey to tempting delights that they can't get much of back home. This is fine once in a while, but don't make it your everyday diet.

Not sure if you're eating healthy enough in college? You might think you are but additives, sugar and fat can be hidden in foods that seem healthy.

When you maintain a good diet, your body feels better, as well as your mind. You will have more energy, sleep better and have less health issues.

Take this quiz to find out whether you need to change your eating habits so you can be more healthy.

Quiz: Are you eating healthy in college?

You are relatively healthy.

You have a decent diet as you make conscious efforts to eat healthy whenever you can. However, your habits could still improve. Try cutting down on junk food and eat more fruits and vegetables so you can be even healthier. Also, read more labels and ingredients as there are many foods (like granola bars, juice and cereal) which seem to be healthy but are actually packed with sugar and additives.

You have great eating habits!

You eat healthy at almost every meal, you cook often and you read labels - these are all great things! It's not easy to eat healthy in college but you seem to have mastered it. Keep it up and hopefully you can inspire others with your healthy eating habits. You can afford the odd cookie or slice of cake, so treat yourself once in a while.

Your diet is in need of a health kick!

Based on your answers, it's clear that you don't have a healthy diet. It's difficult to eat well in college which is why several people put on weight during the first couple of years of college. However, you can change your habits with a little more consciousness of what you are eating. Try to incorporate more fresh fruit and vegetables in your diet, cook more and eat less junk food. Soon, you'll feel much better and have a tonne more energy!

Liked this? Then you'll love...
Quiz: How sustainable is your campus? Quiz: International students - how well do you know your US geography?

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Quiz: Students - do you have healthy eating habits?

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Uncategorized Study International Staff College is a great time to cultivate good eating habits. This is your first time away from home and you need to start taking care of what you eat. Unfortunately, it can be hard to maintain a healthy diet in college with erratic schedules and late nights of studying and meeting assignment deadlines.

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Library - University of Waikato

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About Library Search

Library Search provides simple, one-stop searching for books and e-books, videos, articles, digital media, and more.

Library Search also helps you manage your research. Sign-in in order to:

Renew books and videos

Create favourites lists

Export citations to Refworks and Endnote Web

View full search results. (Some databases, only show results when you're signed in.)

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Library Search provides simple, one-stop searching for books and e-books, videos, articles, digital media, and more. Library Search also helps you manage your research. Sign-in in order to: Renew books and videos Create favourites lists Export citations to Refworks and Endnote Web View full search results.

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Student Learning - Waikato University

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During Covid-19 campus closure, Student Learning is providing online consultations. These are either video consultations or written comments on draft. Click the yellow "Book a consultation now" button to request an online consultation.

The Student Learning team provides a University-wide service to support students' academic learning needs.
Our goal is to help students acquire the skills, knowledge and attributes to become independent, successful learners.

In Hamilton: Phone: 07-838 4657 | Email: slsadmin@waikato.ac.nz | Office hours: Mon-Fri 8.30am to 3.00pm | Student Learning hours: 9.00 am to 5 pm

In Tauranga: Information for Tauranga students

In China: Information for China students

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During Covid-19 campus closure, Student Learning is providing online consultations. These are either video consultations or written comments on draft. Click the yellow "Book a consultation now" button to request an online consultation. The Student Learning team provides a University-wide service to support students' academic learning needs.Our goal is to help students acquire the skills, knowledge and attributes to become independent, successful learners.

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Let's do some yoga

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If you find something useful for this group, please feel free to share it here! Thanks

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If you find something useful for this group, please feel free to share it here! Thanks

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Mindfulness is not all over the place just to be a trend. It is highly respected because it works! At least with me. And I know the least I can do is talk about it to other people so that it helps them as well, especially if they area going through a hard time with PhD write up.

A bit of back story... I went to a Yoga class for the first time back in 2011, in my hometown Athens. It was a Hatha class, our yogini was amazing, and the practice really worked as a stress release. Being very busy at that time, I only attended a few classes. From then till last year, I always kept in touch in touch in various ways but never really committed to it. Last year I decided to do something to cope with my PhD anxiety. I started going to a central Yoga studio where I live (it's called Yoga Sweat and I recommend it 100%).

During the period I attended classes in that studio, I felt that all my stress and pressure were taken away. I felt reinvigorated every single time I left the class and used the distance I walked back home to reflect on my practice and identify what I feel grateful for.

I am not really a gym person, so for the first time, I was commiting to an exercise routine that also helped me unwind! Unfortunately, a leg operation made me stop practicing yoga for the last 6 months. I felt quite 'empty' since I lost my exercise but also the minfulness state it provided. It was like I was so frustrated from not being able to do it that I gave up.

Quite recently, I attended a meetup on Mindfulness for high performance in Agile environments. I want to really thank the people behind who organised it -Nita Patel and Sam Moody from Mindbeing-, because they inspired me and brought back my motivation. During the meetup we talked about Agility (the ability to respond to change, whether that means pivoting in our business model or experimenting with new tools and software), Neuroplasticity (the practice of mindfulness affects different parts of the brain, working to reconnect and shape our cortical mapping) and of course Mindfulness (cleansing of mind, getting positive thoughts and outcome and understanding negative feelings such as jealousy). We also discussed about how to measure performance change in a working environment. I was the only PhD student in the room, all other people were working, mostly in the tech sector or big firms, within Agile enviroments. I was surprised to see how considerate they were about their colleagues and teams they managed and how they wanted mindfulness to be part of everyday routine. I am looking forward to our next meetup to get to know more about how they practice mindfulness in their work environments.

The take away message from this meetup was: 1. Read The Mindful Athlete book from George Mumford; 2. Start meditating before starting to write.

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Mindfulness, meditation and Yoga: how to increase productivity in PhD thesis writing

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Mindfulness is not all over the place just to be a trend. It is highly respected because it works! At least with me. And I know the least I can do is talk about it to other people so that it helps...

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maryam@waikato.ac.nz
andrea.haines@waikato.ac.nz
*In-cooperating voice - in writing - find resources : https://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2013/03/in-participants-own-voices-using-quotations-from-user-research-ethically.php

http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/int.htm
Incorporating sources in academic writing
https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/706946/Incorporating_Sources_100113_ST.pdf

More resources:
Online Academic Writing resources:
Grammar - https://padlet.com/roberto_eusebio1/grammar
Prepositions
https://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/prepositions.php
http://www.freecollocation.com/     On line collocation dictionary - really useful
Flow
Coherence
Academic voice
Annotations
Understanding

Paradigms in Educational Research
Understanding and Applying Research Paradigms in Educational Contexts: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1154775.pdf

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The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological 'nuts and bolts' of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the top menu ). Other phrases are listed under the more general communicative functions of academic writing (see the menu on the left). The resource should be particularly useful for writers who need to report their research work. The phrases, and the headings under which they are listed, can be used simply to assist you in thinking about the content and organisation of your own writing, or the phrases can be incorporated into your writing where this is appropriate. In most cases, a certain amount of creativity and adaptation will be necessary when a phrase is used. The items in the Academic Phrasebank are mostly content neutral and generic in nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people's ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism. For some of the entries, specific content words have been included for illustrative purposes, and these should be substituted when the phrases are used. The resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers of English. However, native speaker writers may still find much of the material helpful. In fact, recent data suggest that the majority of users are native speakers of English. More about Academic Phrasebank.

Call for research participants
Are you a postgraduate student with a specific learning difficulty? We are conducting research into how Academic Phrasebank can be useful for postgraduate students who have specific learning difficulties. Would you like to assist with this project by taking part in an online interview? If so, please complete thisshort form. It will only take around one minute of your time.

This site was created by John Morley.

Academic Phrasebank is the Intellectual Property of the University of Manchester.

Copyright © 2023 The University of Manchester

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The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological 'nuts and bolts' of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the top menu ).