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Fourteenth-century charitable institution

Fourteenth-century granary and church of the guilds

Fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Franciscan church and friary

The Loggia of the Bigallo

Florence As It Was' first 3D model is that of the Loggia of the Bigallo, one of Florence's most visible structures on the Piazza San Giovanni and a physical reminder of the city's rich Medieval past. The structure housed charitable organizations that ministered to orphaned children, poor unwed girls, the homeless, and pilgrims on the way to and from Rome. These confraternities sponsored the creation of some of the city's most unique art in order to decorate their residence and proclaim their importance in the fabric of Florentine society. And like much of Florence's past, the Bigallo has undergone significant changes-changes that we hope to unravel, peeling back the layers of time to find the Medieval city that gave birth to the Italian Renaissance. The Bigallo, then, is a perfect starting point for our work, and a snapshot that captures the essence of Florence As It Was.

Sam Joseph created the model using thousands images (which he took with a point-and-shoot camera and a tripod over the summer of 2017) and pieced it together using a process called photogrammetry. For future models, we hope to gain access to a high-resolution drone for detailed exteriors and a laser scanner for interiors.

Del Migliore

Italian, 1628-1696

Ferdinando del Migliore was born in 1628 and spent his adult life researching and writing about the history of Florence. A gifted archivist, del Migliore scoured the registers and contracts of individuals and institutions in an effort to present to his readers accurate accounts of the city's past.

Migliore on the Bigallo

Richa

Italian, 1752-1760

Richa on the Bigallo

Paatz

Paatz - German, 1952-1955 - A German husband-and-wife team of art historians with an incredible attention to detail.

Paatz on the Bigallo

Paatz on Orsanmichele

Miscellaneous

Context-Dependent Sources

Summer's End

August 28th, 2019

This is it for me! It's been an incredibly productive month for the website and for our photogrammetry. Alice is hard at work on finishing up the Siena model, while I finally finished the San Miniato model - which we'll hopefully be able to add to the Potree interior of that model!

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Fourteenth-century charitable institution Fourteenth-century granary and church of the guilds Fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Franciscan church and friary Florence As It Was' first 3D model is that of the Loggia of the Bigallo, one of Florence's most visible structures on the Piazza San Giovanni and a physical reminder of the city's rich Medieval past.

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In this activity students will survey a series of images of the Three Kings/Magi dating from the Middle Ages to the modern era. They will talk about the presence of a black Magus, what he is supposed to represent, and why he was introduced in the first place. This activity will introduce students to ways of thinking about human difference that pre-dated modern scientific racism.

Goal

As part of lessons on how Germans in the Middle Ages thought about blackness, this activity will challenge the presumption that depictions of black people must invariably be determined by racist prejudice. Students will come to understand that, before the age of scientific racism, Europeans conceived of human difference first and foremost in terms of religion, with Blackness a much more fluid category with both negative and positive associations. The Black Magus illustrates how blackness could be used to represent an inclusive, Christian egalitarianism that transcended all differences. Represented as an outsider, he is nevertheless also a figure of veneration who symbolized the universal reach of Christianity. This was a useful symbol in an era of increasing contact with the wider world, which Europeans defined in terms of a battle between Christians and non-Christians, Muslims in particular.

Lesson Plan

Break students into small groups and give each group a packet of images, arranged randomly. Ask them to put them in chronological order and to explain any shifts they notice. The most noteworthy feature is the appearance of black figures and eventually the black Magus himself and his persistence into the present. Students in the US or UK may not be familiar with the idea of a black Magus, so it may be necessary at this point to explain that in Germany and the rest of the continent it is assumed that one of the Kings is black (referring to the Playmobil image can help make this point), and Germans are generally surprised to hear that there was a time when all the Kings were light-skinned.

Students will hopefully have discussed what the black Magus looks like, but if not then direct them to examine and interpret his features relative to his companions. They should notice his flashy, exotic clothing; his youth; and the fact that he is placed to one side rather than in the center. Upon asking them to explain these features, students often start from the presumption that he is being marginalized and exoticized, but push them as well to think of ways that this depiction is positive: he is not caricatured, his bearing is noble and attractive, his clothing rich and admirable if also fantastical. Ask them to think about why artists might have started to include a black figure. Depending on prep and background reading they may or may not know the answers to this, but eventually guide them into thinking about the value of including people who represent distant lands.

In the Middle Ages Europeans thought of the world as divided into three continents (Asia, Europe, Africa-see T-O maps LINK), and in the context of fights against Muslims in the Iberian peninsula, the Holy Land (Crusades), and Eastern Europe it was a useful propaganda tool to show the "entire" world bowing before the Christ child. Africa is the youngest not because it was the least important but because it was imagined (incorrectly) to have been the most recent convert to Christianity. Although there were longstanding associations between blackness and devils and paganism, these images turn those on their head and provide a positive portrayal.

The magus's blackness here is not incidental-it does mark him as coming from a distant land-but in these images it is not assumed to be demeaning nor to make him different on the inside from white Europeans, presuming that he accepts the truth of the Gospels of course. In the end students should be encouraged to step away from a present-day mindset to inhabit a different way of seeing the world, which will give them a better appreciation for the significance of later developments (e.g. the slave trade, the Enlightenment) for changing how Europeans viewed black people.

Important contextual events to be aware of might include the following:

711-1492: Muslims crossed the Straits of Gibraltar in 711 and soon extended their reach as far as France. A few Christian nobles and rebels resisted their authority, and, supported by their co-religionists across Europe, were able to "reconquer" (Reconquista) some territories over the span of many centuries. What had been the most sophisticated court in Europe declined until the final conquest of Granada and the expulsion of Muslims from Spain in 1492.

1095-1291: In the seventh century Muslim armies took the Holy Land from the Byzantine Empire but it was only when threatened by Ottoman Turks in 1095 that the Byzantines called on their western brethren to come to their aid. Pope Urban II called for Christians to reconquer the Holy Land, sparking a wave of more or less successful military expeditions over the next two centuries. Although some initial successes led to the establishment of Christian kingdoms, they gradually fell to later opponents, with the fall of the fortress at Acre in 1291 marking the end of the Christian kingdoms. The Crusades brought Christian Europeans into direct contact with Muslims in the Holy Land through warfare but also, when many settled there, through trade, diplomacy, and intermarriage.

ca. 1299-1683: But even while advancing against Muslims in western Europe, in eastern Europe and the Holy Land Christian kingdoms were being overwhelmed by the expansion of the Ottoman Turks. After establishing a base in Anatolia and conquering lands in the Balkans, they eventually defeated the Byzantine Empire (Constantinople finally fell in 1453) and came to rule a vast empire reaching from Hungary through the Middle East all the way across North Africa and around the Red Sea. At its height in 1683 the Ottomans besieged Vienna (for the second time!), but their expansion in Europe was halted then. In the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a period of decline that culminated in its collapse during the First World War.

The expansion of Islam provoked hopes of a Christian ruler in distant lands (India or Africa) known as Prester John who might become an ally.

The association of Muslims with darker skin tones and "African" facial features came from the presence of sub-Saharan Africans among Muslim forces, especially in Egypt.

Lesson Materials
Black Magus lesson plan PDF download

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Lesson Plan - Medieval Germany: The Black Magus

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Overview In this activity students will survey a series of images of the Three Kings/Magi dating from the Middle Ages to the modern era. They will talk about the presence of a black Magus, what he is supposed to represent, and why he was introduced in the first place.

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Yasuke: Story of the African Samurai in Japan

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A Good Roast Alows de Beef Autre Vele en Bokenade Balls or Skinless Sausages Beef Pie Beef y-Stewed Bukkenade (beef stew) Chopped Liver Cinnamon Brewet Custarde (savory quiche with meat) Drawyn Grwel Florentine Style Meat in a Baking Dish Heathen Cakes Kabobs Pompys Pumpes (meatballs) Roman Meatloaf Sausedge Stewet Beef Veal Tart with Cream

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A journey to the medieval city of Burgos

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A journey to the medieval city of Burgos

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This Course Video Transcript

This advanced course focuses on two primary goals: (1) appraising how Jews, Christians, and Muslims shaped the history of medieval Spain and (2) mastering the craft of Spanish paleography, the skill of identifying Spanish handwriting in the 11th- through 15th-century manuscripts. Through the lens of the medieval history of Burgos, we dedicate 75% percent of our efforts to developing pragmatic expertise in the interpretation of Carolingian/French/Gothic handwriting. Specifically, the course explores how the royal Castilian city of Burgos influenced, and was influenced by, Jews, Christians, and Muslims. We closely evaluate the Spanish Christian Reconquest, the Plague and the 14th-century Castilian civil war, anti-Jewish pogroms, the emergence of elite conversos (Jewish converts to Christianity), and the role of the king and Roman Catholic Church in the creation of Catholic Spain. Through onsite interviews in archives and museums in Burgos, we experience the medieval city, artifacts, and manuscripts. While we teach using Spanish manuscripts, very little or no knowledge of the Spanish language is necessary to complete the course. Using an intensive array of paleography practices, exams, independent projects, and collaborative efforts, you will garner exceptional skills that you can apply to interpreting any medieval European handwriting. To demonstrate your mastery of paleography you will (1) create a 14th-15th-century alphabet, numeral, and abbreviation guide using manuscript images, and (2) transcribe one selection from a medieval manuscript.

View Syllabus

14th Century Tragedy, Jewish and Christian Museum Artifacts, and Continuing 11th Century Manuscripts

This week we delve into the Castilian crisis of the 14th-century -- the arrival of the Black Death (Plague), an intensive civil war, and rampant anti-Jewish violence. We explore the creation of a new Spanish identity -- the conversos -- Jewish converts to Christianity. Via virtual field trips, we visit medieval Burgos and return to the Museo de Burgos. We continue our investigation of 11th-century manuscripts, working hard to perfect our paleography skills.

Taught By

Dr. Roger Louis Martínez-Dávila

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Virtual Field Trip: A journey to the medieval city of Burgos - 14th Century Tragedy, Jewish and Christian Museum Artifacts, and Continuing 11th Century Manuscripts | Coursera

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Video created by University of Colorado System for the course "Burgos: Deciphering Secrets of Medieval Spain". This week we delve into the Castilian crisis of the 14th-century -- the arrival of the Black Death (Plague), an intensive civil war, ...

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The Dark Ages have been misunderstood. History has identified the period following the fall of the Roman Empire with a descent into barbarism – a terrible time when civilisation stopped. Waldemar Januszczak disagrees.

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The Dark Ages: An Age Of Light - Part One (Ancient History Documentary) | Timeline

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Medieval West Africa (African Geography)

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Medieval China: Crash Course History of Science #8

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In 1023, Bishop Warin of Beauvais suggested a few additions to the knight's oath. Warin asked King Robert of France to modify his loyalty oath. The bishop recommended asking knights to swear not to assault, rob, or kidnap villagers. Knights should also vow to avoid plundering and pillaging the poor or burning down their homes. With his recommendations, Warin hoped to address the intense onslaught caused by knights.

Bishop Warin wasn't the only one pleading with knights to stop targeting the defenseless. In 989, Archbishop Gunbald of Bordeaux warned knights not to go after unarmed priests and monks. He also told knights to stop taking from the poor, particularly by abducting their farm animals.

Today, we often imagine medieval knights as honorable warriors fighting for the chivalric code. Knights protected the weak, defending women's honor and fighting nobly for their lords. When they weren't off fighting, knights practiced their skills with jousts and competitions. But during the medieval period, many saw knights as a menace that was tearing apart society. As noblemen who had more wealth and power than peasants, knights frequently took advantage of Europe's poorest farmers and villagers. As a result, men like Warin and Gunbald repeatedly pleaded with knights to stop targeting peasants.

Knights Blackmailed And Kidnapped Peasants During Wartime

Medieval knights wielded their swords in the name of honor. They fought for their kings, raising troops and training on horseback to hone their skills. But during those clashes, the main victims were often peasants. Although we imagine knights riding off to fight each other, most clashes involved raiding, pillaging, and wiping out Europe's peasants and the land they worked.

Peasants often became pawns in the conflicts between nobles. Knights burned the fields, villages, and manors held by their rivals, ending the lives of peasants in the process.

And sometimes knights even targeted their own peasants. In France, during the disastrous Hundred Years' War, French knights vented their rage at the peasants. According to cleric Jean de Venette, the nobles "subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages." Instead of protecting the weak, as the code of chivalry demanded, these knights "trample [their country] underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods."
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In the 12th century, chronicler Orderic Vitalis strongly praised a knight for not slaying 100 unarmed peasants. By sparing their lives, the knight "did something that deserves to be remembered forever," according to Orderic. The knight could have kidnapped the peasants and held them for ransom, which would have earned him a "great price." Instead, the noble only looted their homes. Orderic's praise for sparing the lives of the peasants shows how often knights slayed peasants.

Cruelty was common among the knights. One, Count Waleran, stumbled on peasants cutting wood and decided to take them as prisoners. He cut off their feet, making the peasants worthless to their lord. Because nobles depended on peasants for their wealth, targeting defenseless peasants was a common way knights punished their rivals.

Nobles Exploited Peasants With Heavy Taxes And Few Rights

Knights relied on peasants for their livelihood. While knights in stories devoted their time to noble quests and adventures, in practice knights spent most of their time acting as landlords. And many nobles misused their powers, demanding heavy taxes and giving peasants little control over their lives.

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In the medieval period, around 85% of Europe's population lived as peasants. But not all peasants lived in the same conditions. Some were called freemen. They might rent land from a noble or even own their land. At the bottom were the serfs, legally bound to the land. In many ways, the serfs were owned by the nobles. Serfs owed their labor to the landlords, who demanded work from the serfs in exchange for a place to live. Serfs generally worked at least three days a week on the lord's lands. During harvest time, they were expected to work even more to earn their keep.

In some places, the labor obligation of the serfs transformed into heavy taxes. In 1366, Swedish peasants paid the equivalent of over 350 pounds of butter each year in taxes to the royal treasury. Peasants also had to pay rent and a tithe to the church, equivalent to 10% of the peasant's entire farming output. Many were forced to pay in seeds, farm animals, or crops. After paying all their taxes, many peasants were left nearly destitute. To add to the peasant burden, nobles were often exempt from paying taxes.

On top of taxes, nobles charged serfs fees for all kinds of things. When the lord's daughter married, the serfs had to pay a fine. If a serf perished, the lord claimed an inheritance tax on everything passed on to the deceased's heirs. If a serf's daughter married someone who didn't live on the noble's estate, the serf had to pay a fine. These fees increased resentment between knights and peasants.

Peasants Were Described As Ignorant And Treacherous By Nobles

Nobles owned the land while peasants worked it. Peasants certainly felt dependent on the landowners, but nobles also feared the power of the peasants. As a result, many sources written by the nobility described peasants as treacherous, animal-like, and ignorant.

In 1381, England's peasants revolted, demanding an end to serfdom. In response, the noble chronicler Jean Froissart called the peasants evil. According to Froissart, the peasants nearly wiped out the country. "Never was a country in such jeopardy as was [England]," Froissart lamented, "and all through the too great comfort of the commonality." Peasants had it too good, Froissart claimed, which made them jealous of their betters.

The nobleman also likened the Peasants' Revolt to a "pestilence." The word choice points to Froissart's fear of the peasants. Only a generation earlier, the Black Death truly did devastate England, but by the late 14th century, Froissart saw peasants as another pestilence.

The Peasants' Revolt was quickly suppressed after King Richard II went back on his promise to free the peasants. Noblemen quickly executed the revolt's leaders. England's nobility reacted swiftly to peasants demanding more rights than farm beasts, underscoring the precarious relationship between the two social classes.
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What were the English peasants' grievances? According to John Ball, the peasants resented the nobles living finely off their labor:

They are clothed in velvets and rich stuffs, ornamented with ermine and other furs, while we are forced to wear poor cloth. They have wines, spices, and fine bread, when we have only rye and the refuse of the straw; and if we drink, it must be water. They have handsome seats and manors, when we must brave the wind and rain in our labours in the field; but it is from our labour they have wherewith to support their pomp.

This language terrified knights, as they lived off the peasants' labor.

In addition to fearing the peasants, knights mocked them relentlessly. In one story, a group of knights found a beautiful field, perfect for jousting, only to have their plans disrupted by peasants using the field as a toilet. Other noble stories described peasants as beast-like, cowardly, and deformed.

Peasants And Clerics Agreed That Knights Were Out Of Control

Medieval Europeans wrote about the three orders of society: those who pray, those who fight, and those who work. In the 11th century, Gerard of Cambrai explained, "From the beginning, mankind has been divided into three parts, among men of prayer, farmers, and men of war."
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Knights and clerics were often grouped together as men who used their minds rather than their hands. But the clerics agreed with the peasants on a fundamental problem in society: The knights were out of control. In fact, the clergy created the code of chivalry to limit the cruelty of knights. As a result, the chivalric code ordered knights to protect the weak and poor - during an era when most knights were exploiting peasants.

Europe's knights were incredibly ruinous. They burned villages, slayed peasants, and wiped out crops. According to medievalist Norman Cohn, their onslaught even helped inspire the First Crusade. When Pope Urban II called for a crusade in 1095, Cohn explains, he was hoping to give "the largely unemployed and over-aggressive nobility of France something to do, get them out of Europe and stop them devastating the... land."

On their way to the Holy Land, the Crusaders slayed thousands of Jewish people, turning their rage against non-Christians. That was also one of the pope's goals: Stop knights from slaying Christians and send them off to end the lives of other people.

The Code Of Chivalry Was Supposed To Improve Relations Between Knights And Peasants

Ironically, the code of chivalry that gives knights a good reputation today was actually created to stem their mayhem. Courtier Olivier de la Marche said that knighting men would ennoble them because they would become part of the "profession of arms," which required valorous service to their prince. William Caxton advised King Richard III to hold "jousts of peace" multiple times a year, which would "cause gentlemen to resort to the ancient customs of chivalry." By promoting valor and giving knights an outlet for their aggression, jousting encouraged better behavior.
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Instead of simply slaying everyone, armed nobles were supposed to follow a code of honor designed to protect the vulnerable. Yet even during the height of chivalry, knights continued to oppress and slay peasants. As John Ball said, "It is from our labour [nobles] have wherewith to support their pomp." While the English Peasants' Revolt failed, sweeping changes would end serfdom across most of Europe and decrease the power of the knights. The era of chivalry ended - and the peasants were happy to see it go.

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What Did The Relationship Between Medieval Knights And Peasants Actually Look Like?

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In 1023, Bishop Warin of Beauvais suggested a few additions to the knight's oath. Warin asked King Robert of France to modify his loyalty oath. The bishop recommended asking knights to swear not to assault, rob, or kidnap villagers. Knights should also vow to avoid plundering and pillagi...

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Films like Raiders of the Lost Ark, National Treasure, and The Da Vinci Code have helped further myths about the Knights Templar, a Christian military group that existed in medieval times. These soldiers worked to protect fellow Christians who were traveling through Western Europe, and in that time, they managed to amass massive amounts of money and treasure while making enemies of the French monarchy. Historical movies that twist stories about the Templars have created some fascinating myths about the Christian soldiers.

Many religious conspiracy theorists believe the Knights Templar used their vast amounts of wealth to escape France in the early 1300s in order to hide the Holy Grail, but the real story of this religious group is actually much simpler. When debunking myths about the Knights Templar, all one needs to do is simply look at the facts. The stories about the Templars are very cool and make for great fiction, but the actual history of the Knights Templar is just as interesting as anything Dan Brown could ever invent.

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Myths About The Knights Templar, Debunked

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Films like Raiders of the Lost Ark, National Treasure, and The Da Vinci Code have helped further myths about the Knights Templar, a Christian military group that existed in medieval times. These soldiers worked to protect fellow Christians who were traveling through Western Europe, ...

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You might expect full armor to be incredibly restrictive. In some ways, that was true, but you might also be surprised by just how much mobility some of these knights had. They could jump and run fairly well, but the plates were still an encumbrance. In fact, thanks to contemporary re-enactors, historians estimate that running in 15th-century chain mail armor required twice the amount of energy of running without it.

Nowhere was that more apparent than the Battle of Agincourt, which the French famously lost. One of the biggest reasons for that loss was the weather. It had rained for two straight weeks beforehand, turning the ground into a field of mud. Marching through that in 50 kilograms of armor made the French troops incredibly tired before they even had a chance to fight.

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7 Ways Medieval Knight Armor Was More Dangerous Than Just Wearing Nothing

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Chain mail and suits of armor were some of the most recognizable parts of medieval warfare. Created in response to swordplay, the dominant form of combat at the time, they've become somewhat legendary for their striking appearance on the battlefield. A good suit of plate armor was c...

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Many have imagined going back in time and becoming a real medieval knight or lady. Life for knights is assumed to have been brimming with jousting, courting, and slaying dragons. However, most of this isn't true. Jousting took some time to become popular, chivalry was a list of rules about whom not to abuse, and dragons didn't exist.

Much of a knight's life involved sitting around waiting for the next war to happen. When they did don their shining armor for battle, the gear was likely so bulky and heavy that the knights might have been better off with nothing at all.

Even if the daily life of a knight wasn't as glamorous as we initially believed, it still offers insight into medieval lives and times.

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What It Was Actually Like To Be A Knight During Medieval Times

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Many have imagined going back in time and becoming a real medieval knight or lady. Life for knights is assumed to have been brimming with jousting, courting, and slaying dragons. However, most of this isn't true. Jousting took some time to become popular, chivalry was...

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Lesson Activities on Antisemitism in Medieval Times

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Lesson Activities on Antisemitism in Medieval Times

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The common people were divided into peasants and serfs. There was a huge difference between being a peasant and being a a serf.

Serfs were bound to the land. They were almost like slaves. The people could not be bought and sold, but they could not leave their land without permission. Their land could be bought and sold. The land and all the food they grew belonged to the manor (noble). A serf's job was whatever the noble told them it was, carpenter, blacksmith, baker, farmer, and tax collector, serfs did it all. A serf could buy their own freedom if they could get the money, but where could they get the money? They were uneducated and mostly unskilled.

Peasants were free sort of. Sometimes they owned their own business or small plot of land, again most were uneducated and unskilled. They were in the same boat as the serfs.

Taxes: Everyone had to pay taxes. The peasants paid taxes to the lord or noble; they paid taxes up to the local duke or count who paid taxes to the king. Sometimes the taxes were paid in crops, sometimes in money, plus they had to set aside a number of days every year to work for the noble.

Festivals: Festivals were a big deal. This was the only time a peasant or serf could relax and socialize. All Festivals were church festivals usually to honor a saint or holy day. At a festival, a peasant could watch a play or take part in contests like archery or wrestling, and maybe even see a juggler or magician. The noble paid the local church to put on the festival.

Power of the Church: During medieval times, the church was all powerful. The only way to get to heaven was to follow the Bible. However, since most people couldn't read. the local priest had to read it to them. The local priest could tell people that the Bible told them how to behave, who to obey, even who to marry.

New Ideas: Since most people never left their village area, ideas spread thoughout Europe through the priests and wandering musicians and traders. This was a slow process.

Commoner Homes: Peasants homes were usually one room huts, made of logs held together with mud, with thatched roofs. There was a hole in the roof for the smoke to get out so people could cook inside. Homes had little furniture, perhaps a three-legged stool and beds made of straw covered with a leather toss. There were pegs on the walls to hold clothes. They usually had iron cooking pots and pans.

Food: Peasants grew their own food. Three days a week, they worked to provide food for the lord of the manor. Three days a week they worked to provide food for themselves. Sunday was a day for prayer. They kept bees to make honey. They drew water from the village well, or if they were lucky, from a nearby stream. They kept fruit trees. They grew vegetables. They kept chickens. A peasant might own a cow for milk.

Animals: Because winters were cold, animals were brought inside at night, to keep them warm.

Clothes: Their clothes were made of wool. They were held together with a rope tied around their waist. They usually went barefooted, even in the winter. Shoes took leather to make. Leather was made, but it was used to make shoes and clothing for the lord of the manor and his family. If there was any leather left over, they could make shoes for themselves.

Baths: Both peasants and nobles took infrequent baths. There was no running water or hot water heater. They bathed in a creek or river. Most had a barrel outside to catch rainwater. The soap was made of lye and was very rough on your skin. The peasants slept and worked in the same clothing for days and even weeks at a time, especially in the winter. There was no toothpaste or toothbrushes. People used watered spices on their lips and teeth, but all that did was to briefly hide the smell of rotting teeth.

Garbage: In the towns and villages, people threw their garbage in the streets. They handled cattle and then directly handled food.

Death: Peasants died young from malnutrition and the simplest of diseases. Women died in childbirth from ignorance. There was almost no medical help, although they did have doctors. But they believed in blood letting, cutting you to let your blood run out. The idea was that the disease would run out with your blood. Naturally, many people died because they lost too much blood.

On a typical day: Peasants and serfs got up, while it was still dark usually. The first thing they did was say their morning prayers. Then the men left to get their assignement for the day from the reeve, the manor lords' who directed their work. Usually the peasant's wife stayed home, fed the livestock, collected eggs, milked the cow, pulled water from the well or river, and cooked and washed. Women were responsible for weeding the garden near their home, picking vegetables, and spinning cloth. Kids did not go to school. Children worked with their mother. When the boys got old enough, they worked with their father. At night, they ate a simple meal of stew and black bead and sometimes cheese. Right after sunset, they went to bed.

Peasants were content. They knew nothing else. The Middle Ages was time of violence. Peasants and serfs were glad to have the protection of the manor lord.

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The Middle Ages for Kids - Manorial System, Commoners, Peasants - Middle Ages for Kids

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The common people were divided into peasants and serfs. There was a huge difference between being a peasant and being a a serf. Serfs were bound to the land. They were almost like slaves. The people could not be bought and sold, but they could not leave their land without permission.

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Introduction: Context and Definition of a Serf

A serf is a worker bound to a certain piece of land (called a fief) who is loyal to a vassal (lord or noble) above him, usually called a lord. Serfs are tied to the land they work, perform the same menial tasks each day, and receive little or no benefit for their labors. Serfs were part of the feudal system that existed in the European Dark Ages, ca 500-1450 CE.

After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, Europe was a dark and scary place. Life was unpredictable, attacks from outsiders common, and nothing was certain. In fact, many historians refer to this era as the Dark Ages. Over time, and through the intercessions of leaders, such as William the Conqueror in England, a system of social order developed called feudalism. In this system, people were ranked on a pyramid-shaped hierarchical system, bound to the person above them. Here is a simple visual:

Role of Serfs in the Feudal System

In the feudal system, serfs were at the bottom of the social order. As feudalism follows a hierarchical form, there were more serfs than any other role. Above serfs were peasants, who shared similar responsibilities and reported to the vassal. The main difference between serf and peasant is that peasants were free to move from fief to fief or manor to manor to look for work. Serfs, on the other hand, were like slaves except that they could not be bought or sold.

Above peasants were knights whose job it was to be the police force of the manor. After several years and stages of training, these armor-wearing, sword-carrying protectors of all traveled from manor to manor. They would swear loyalty to the feudal role above them as well as protection, and in return, the lord, the next feudal role, would allow them to live on the manor as well as provide them with food. Lords also dictated what serfs did for the manor.

At the top of the feudal pyramid were monarchs, more commonly known as a king or queen. They over saw everything on the manor and were the undisputed leaders of all. They were given loyalty by the lords/nobles in exchange for the power to control day-to-day aspects of the manor.

Life for Serfs

Serf life was dull, boring, and downright difficult. Clothes were ragged, housing substandard, and food scarce. Each day was spent working hard on the land they were bound to. They did not receive this land for free, though. They had to pay taxes called tallage to the lord. This tax could be actual money or, more commonly, providing services to the lord. An additional aspect of the tallage consisted of giving a part of their sowed crops to the manor.

All this was done in exchange for the ability to work land on the fief. It seems unusual that a serf would have to pay something to work land to which they were bound, yet this system existed for hundreds of years. Such a requirement was a larger part of the system of near-slavery to which they were tied. It contributed to the oppressed nature of serfs in Europe.

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Serf: Definition, System & Life | Study.com

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A serf is a worker bound to a certain piece of land (called a fief) who is loyal to a vassal (lord or noble) above him, usually called a lord. Serfs are tied to the land they work, perform the same menial tasks each day, and receive little or no benefit for their labors.

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Art and Literature

Manuscript from the Middle Ages
Bernhard von Clairvaux by Unknown

History >> Middle Ages

Art during the Middle Ages was different based on the location in Europe as well as the period of time. However, in general, Middle Age art can be divided up into three main periods and styles: Byzantine Art, Romanesque Art, and Gothic Art. Much of the art in Europe during the Middle Ages was religious art with Catholic subjects and themes. The different types of art included painting, sculpture, metal work, engraving, stained glass windows, and manuscripts.

The end of the Middle Ages is often signaled by a great change in art with the start of the Renaissance Period.

Byzantine Art

The start of the Middle Ages is often called the Dark Ages. This is the period of time from 500 to 1000 AD. The main form of art during that time was Byzantine art produced by artists from the Eastern Roman Empire, also called Byzantium.

Byzantine art was characterized by its lack of realism. The artists did not try to make their paintings realistic, but focused on the symbolism of their art. Paintings were flat with no shadows and the subjects were generally very serious and somber. The subjects of the paintings were almost entirely religious with many paintings being of Christ and the Virgin Mary.

Rochefoucauld Grail by Unknown

Romanesque Art

The period of Romanesque Art started around 1000 AD and lasted to around 1300 with the beginning of the Gothic Art period. Art prior to that is called pre-Romanesque. Romanesque art was influenced by both the Romans and Byzantine Art. Its focus was on religion and Christianity. It included architectural details like stained glass art, large murals on walls and domed ceilings, and carvings on buildings and columns. It also included illuminated manuscript art and sculpture.

Gothic Art

Gothic art grew out of Romanesque art. Gothic artists began to use brighter colors, dimensions and perspective, and moved toward more realism. They also began to use more shadows and light in their art and tried out new subject matters beyond just religion including animals in mythic scenes.

Artists of the Middle Ages

Many of the artists from the early Middle Ages are unknown to us. Some of the most famous lived during the latter part of the Middle Ages and are often considered to be part of the beginning of the Renaissance. Here are a few artists that made a name for themselves at the end of the Middle Ages:

Donatello - An Italian sculpture known for his statues of David, Mary Magdalene, and the Madonna.

Giotto - Italian artist from the 13th century famous for his frescos in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy.

Benvenuto di Giuseppe - Also called Cimabue, this Italian artist from Florence was known for his paintings and mosaics.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti - An Italian painter of the Gothic movement, he is famous for his frescoes, the Allegory of Good Government and the Allegory of Bad Government.

Literature

The majority of the literature produced during the Middle Ages was written by religious clerics and monks. Few other people knew how to read and write. Much of what they wrote was hymns, or songs, about God. Some also wrote philosophical documents about religion. One of the most popular books of the Middle Ages was the Golden Legend, by archbishop of Genoa Jacobus de Voragine. It told stories about the lives of the Saints during Medieval times. Some secular, meaning non-religious, books were written as well.

Here a few of the more famous literary works from the Middle Ages:

Beowulf - Unknown author. This Epic poem was written in England, but tells the story of the hero Beowulf in Scandinavia.

The Canterbury Tales - by Geoffrey Chaucer. A series of tales that portray Chaucer's view of English society at the time.

Caedmon's Hymn - This hymn, recorded by a monk, is the oldest surviving Old English poem.

The Divine Comedy - by Dante Alighieri. Often considered one of the greatest works in world literature, this story describes Dante's view of the afterlife.

The Book of Margery Kempe - by Margery Kempe. This book is considered to be the first autobiography written in English.

The Ecclesiastical History of the English People - by Venerable Bede. This history of the English church earned Bede the title "Father of English History".

The Decameron - by Giovanni Boccaccio. This book has a number of stories and describes life in 14th century Italy.

The Travels of Marco Polo - by Marco Polo. This book tells the story of how Marco Polo traveled to the far east and China.

Le Morte d'Arthur - by Sir Thomas Malory. This book tells the story of legendary King Arthur.

Piers Plowman - by William Langland. This allegorical poem tells of a man in search of the true Christian life.

Activities

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History >> Middle Ages for Kids

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Kids learn about art and literature during the Middle Ages and Medieval times. Paintings, frescos, and manuscripts.

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Teacher website, activities aplenty

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Social Studies : History : World History :

Middle Ages / Renaissance

Teaching Grades 4-6 Join us for a friendly exchange of ideas! Teachers in grades 4-6 are encouraged to listen in and get involved! Meet fellow teachers from across the country in our five intermediate and middle grade forums! Free! source

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Middle Ages - Ideas and activities for teaching middle ages. source

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ProTeacher! Middle Ages and Renaissance lesson plans for elementary school teachers in grades K-6 including castle activities, programs and thematic units, information about castles,kingdoms in Europe, classroom and teaching ideas

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Social Studies : History : World History : Middle Ages / Renaissance Teaching Grades 4-6 Join us for a friendly exchange of ideas! Teachers in grades 4-6 are encouraged to listen in and get involved! Meet fellow teachers from across the country in our five intermediate and middle grade forums! Free!

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Interactive Activities Exploring Feudal Life

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The Middle Ages Interactive - Annenberg Learner

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Discover what it was like to live during the Middle Ages. Explore topics such as Feudal Life, Religion, Homes, Clothing,…

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Ranker

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Middle Ages lists at Ranker - the ultimate source for lists and rankings in all categories

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Getting Medieval on Your Search!

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Present Perfect Tense vs. Past Simple: Tom’s Story (A comical story of Tom, the ESL student - Video)

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Subject Verb Agreement (Grammar Lesson), Part 1 - Basic Subject Verb Agreement

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The Japanese people consider the love of learning to be one of life's main virtues. That fact has led to education playing a crucial role in their culture, especially since the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Virtually all Japanese people complete education through the high school (also called upper secondary) level, and most go on to further technical or university training. This emphasis on the value of education has contributed to the success of Japan in the modern world.

Despite its overall exemplary record in education, Japan does face some serious challenges in the new century. For example, minorities such as the native Ainu and the Korean-Japanese still do not participate adequately in the educational system. Also, the system has been criticized for focusing too much on test-taking and not enough on critical-thinking skills. Because many parents believe public school fails to prepare students adequately, they send their students to juku (private academies), after school and on weekends, to prepare for the next level within or beyond the public school system. But the Japanese educational system does satisfy the needs of the vast majority of the population and has helped the nation compete on the international scene for over 100 years.

The Ancient Period: Formal education in Japan started when the Chinese language system was introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. At that time only the aristocracy had access to education through schools that primarily taught Confucianism and Buddhist thought and practice. The first real school, the Daigakuryo (the university), was started by Emperor Tenji during this period. Located in the capital of Kyoto, the Daigakuryo focused mainly on providing prospective government officials with a background in Confucian practice that would relate to their future jobs. Later the school became an official institution under the Taiho Code of 701. Young men usually entered the university in their early to mid-teens. When they graduated, they were placed in government positions at levels that corresponded to their success at the university. The Taiho Code also called for establishing colleges called kokugaku, located in each of the country's provincial areas. Besides teaching the Chinese classics, these early provincial schools provided training in medicine and in divination.

During the Heian Period (794-1185 A.D.), the height of Japan's aristocratic age, educational institutions continued to be focused on the nobility and were located in the capital of Kyoto. However, the curriculum of the Daigakuryo made a transition from Confucianism to the arts, reflecting the great emphasis on aesthetics during the Heian Period. Perhaps more than any other time in Japanese history, this period placed the highest value on the ideal of courtly love through the medium of poetry, music, visual art, calligraphy, and dance. Such refinements were of course reserved for those privileged to be educated in the court. Education also continued to take place in the Buddhist temples, both in the capital and in the provinces. After completing their training, priests became the primary means for providing education to those who were not among the aristocracy.

Thus education and religion were intertwined during the ancient period. Two of the most prominent figures in religious education were Saicho (767-822) and Kukai (774-835). Saicho established the Enryakuji Temple at Mt. Hiei near Kyoto. Besides being the center during the Heian Period for educating monks in the Tendai sect of Buddhism, it became a focal point for Japanese religious education for hundreds of years. Saicho's friend and rival, Kukai, established a monastery on Mt. Koya, which became the educational center for Shingon Buddhism. Kukai's central role in the history of Japanese education is evidenced by his having invented Kana, the Japanese alphabet, and by his effort to establish a school that addressed the needs of commoners, a group not enrolled in the Daigakuryo or the kokugaku. His private academy, the Shugei Shuchiin, did not exclude the lower classes and promoted the personal, moral, spiritual, and intellectual development of its students.

Medieval Period: During the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) and the Muromachi Period (1333-1573), Japanese education paralleled the militarism of the times. With the rise to power of the bushi (warrior class, made up of samurai) and the shogun (chief lord and military dictator), education in the cities and countryside added skills for warfare to the religious training. A departure from the aesthetics of the Heian Period, the medieval education for warriors included training in weaponry and horseback riding-while still teaching young samurai the importance of good manners and knowledge of their culture. Schooling revolved around the warrior's home, the estate of his lord, and the local temples. As for the shogunate and the ruling families, there continued to be educational opportunities unavailable to commoners.

Rather than start new schools, however, the shogunate established several major learning centers that contained libraries open to scholars and members of the priesthood. A famous one called the Kanazawa Library opened in 1275 and remains open today as a museum. Another medieval Japanese educational center, the Ashikaga School, opened in 1439 and offered curricula in Confucianism and military science. Thus even schools and libraries for the ruling class focused on traditional Confucian values and on military education, matching the cultural themes of the age.

Toward the end of the medieval period, Japan's educational system was subjected to a new influence-Jesuit Catholic missionaries, beginning with the arrival of Francis Xavier in 1549. These missionaries established schools and churches that emphasized general education, vocational training, Western technology, and-of course-Christianity. Although Christianity was banned less than a century after Xavier came to Japan, and wasn't permitted back into the country for more than two centuries, it did help shape education in late medieval Japan.

Early Modern Period: The early modern period in Japan comprises the years of the Tokugawa Period (1600-1868), during most of which Japan remained isolated from the rest of the world. One positive byproduct of this isolation was that the country could focus on the development of its own culture, including the educational system. Although the very best education remained open only to the upper classes, the period did witness the spread of education among the commoners in a way that had not occurred previously in Japan. By the end of the period, about 40 percent of the boys and 10 percent of the girls were provided education outside the home. These figures probably meant Japan's education opportunities and literacy rate were ahead of most countries in the world, with the exception of two or three nations in the West.

The Tokugawa educational system included several main types of schools such as the hanko, terakoya, Shoheiko, and shijuku. Established in each of the domains of the daimyo (lords), the hanko mainly educated the children of the lord's samurai on topics related to Confucianism. Only later in the Tokugawa Period did the schools enroll a wider range of social classes and expand their curriculum to include non-Confucian topics such as medicine, Japanese studies, and Western science.

Unlike the hanko, the terakoya were independent schools intended mainly for the children of the merchants and townspeople-not the samurai. Usually set up in Buddhist temples, they offered instruction in a wide range of basic subjects such as penmanship, reading, and arithmetic. Children entered at the age of seven or eight and stayed for about three or four years. In addition to the terakoya were the shijuku, private academies that often were housed in the homes of the teachers and that focused on subjects usually considered to be the favorite fields of the teacher. Finally, the Tokugawa Period also had an official school of the shogunate called the Shoheiko, located in Edo (Tokyo). Here the children of the nation's leaders were educated by Confucian scholars.

Thus far our discussion of educational opportunity in Japan has mostly included only male children. Girls generally were not sent to schools and instead were trained at home in matters of homemaking and etiquette. Although a few girls may have been exposed to education in literature and the arts, most were not. However, opportunities for girls to receive an education did increase in the closing years of the period, with an increase in female students in terakoya and even the start of a few schools exclusively for girls. But the curriculum in these schools was slanted toward nonintellectual subjects such as tea ceremony, flower arranging, and etiquette.

Modern Period: The modern period in Japan began with the restoration of the emperor in 1868, about 15 years after the country had been "opened" to the outside world by the expeditionary tour of U.S. Admiral Matthew Perry. This period saw a tremendous amount of educational reform as the country sought to catch up to the West after more than 200 years of virtual isolation. Although World War II, including its prelude and aftermath, certainly devastated Japan's educational system, the country has witnessed unparalleled educational advancement from the Meiji Period to the present.

Educational goals in the modern period were reflected in the Gokajono Goseimon, the Imperial Oath of Five Articles (or Charter Oath) issued by the emperor in 1868. Article 5 best articulated Japan's international objectives for education that would become the theme of the modern era: "knowledge shall be sought all over the world, and the foundations of imperial rule shall be strengthened." The document also made it clear that "the common people... shall all achieve their aspirations," thus setting out a second basic theme of education in Japan's modern era: availability of the appropriate level of education to all the people.

Four years into the Meiji Period, the government issued the Educational Order of 1872 ( Gakusei,) which formed the basis for the modern public system of education in Japan. The Gakusei called for strong control of education by the central government and integrated many of the Tokugawa-era schools into the new system. For example, the terakoya-previously the schools in the provinces for commoners-were transformed into the new primary schools. These primary schools formed the core of the new public school system and numbered 25,000 by the mid-1870s. Students throughout the nation were required to attend primary school. Although schooling was compulsory, the cost still had to be paid by the students' families. Resentment toward the new system led to several later revisions, including Kyoikurei, the Education Order of 1879. It permitted more local control of the curriculum and school policies, and it also relaxed the compulsory requirements.

Despite these revisions, the trend toward national standards for public education continued throughout the rest of the modern era, as did the effort to bring basic education to all the people. The end of the shogunate in 1868 meant an end to the class system that had created significant differences between education for the lords and samurai families and the common people. Now the four former classes-samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants-were viewed as equal participants in the new schooling.

Besides the new primary (also called elementary) schools, Japan's modern educational system included two other main elements: secondary schools and universities. Secondary school was not yet compulsory and was intended for children deserving of additional training. Then, an even smaller group of highly qualified candidates would proceed on to the university system. The most distinguished university of the period was Tokyo University, which had its roots in the elite shogunate institutions of the past. It became the forerunner of other imperial universities such as those established in Kyoto, Tohohu, Kyusha, Hokkaido, Osaka, and Nagoya. Private universities that began during the period include Keio, Waseda, Doshisha, Meiji Gakuin, and Tsudajuku.

During the early years of the Meiji Period, there was a strong and intentional reliance on Western assistance in the development of all levels of education. The government sent emissaries abroad to learn as much as possible about all elements of Western culture, including education, so that Japan could achieve Western-style success in technological advancement. The most famous group to go abroad was the Iwakura Mission, a large group of high-ranking government officials and students that traveled to the United States and Europe from 1871 to 1873. Such missions had a strong influence over the curricula adopted at all levels of schooling in Japan.

Just as important as the Japanese missions to the West were the Western experts who traveled to Japan in the 1870s and 1880s. David Murray, hired to serve as an advisor to the Ministry of Education, came to Japan in 1873 and worked on a wide range of new educational initiatives, including the Education Order of 1872. He also was instrumental in having the government establish the Tokyo Women's Normal School, as well as being heavily involved in planning Tokyo University. Like other Western experts, Murray faced the challenge of deciding what combination of Western and native Japanese features would produce the best educational system for modern Japan. That's the challenge Japan faced throughout the period during which Western influence was strong.

Another Western contributor to the development of Japanese education was James Curtis Hepburn, a missionary doctor who came to Japan in 1859, just six years after Admiral Perry's arrival. Hepburn founded Meiji Gakuin University, became the university's first president, invented a system of Romanizing the Japanese language, and took part in translating the Bible into Japanese. Many other Western Christians were instrumental in promoting education in Meiji Japan, including those who established the so-called "Schools of Western Learning." The three most famous such schools, or "bands" as they were called, were located in Kumamoto, Sapporo, and Yokohama. The Kumamoto Band was led by an American teacher, L. L. Janes, who taught a Western curriculum of mathematics, history, and English, but who also exposed his young sons-of-samurai students to the tenets of Christianity. These young men in the Western bands learned about Western science, technology, and religion. Some of the early leaders of modern Japan were Christian, even though Christianity remained a minority religion in Japan, never gaining more than 1 percent to 2 percent of the population.

Perhaps Japan's best-known private university, Doshisha University, was founded in 1875 by Niijima Jo, a former member of the Kumamoto Band, and by Jerome Davis, a Congregational minister. Niijima was one of the first Japanese to be educated in the United States (at Amherst College). Like some other private universities in Japan, Doshisha adopted curricula similar to that of Western educational institutions. It has six main academic groupings-theology, law, economics, letters, commerce, and engineering-with over 25,000 students enrolled.

Doshisha also was the first university in Japan to admit women. Private universities served an important role in coeducation in that the government, in 1879, restricted coeducation to the primary (or elementary) schools. It was only through the support of private groups that high schools and university-level education became available to women. Christian missionaries were particularly active in supporting coeducational and women's high schools and colleges. Also serving an important role in the development of women's education during the Meiji Period was Tsuda Umeko, who had been a student member of the Iwakura Mission in 1871 and became one of the first Japanese women to study in the United States. After completing studies at Bryn Mawr College and also working as a tutor and teacher of young women in Japan for many years, Tsuda founded the Women's English School (now called Tsuda College) in Tokyo in 1900. The government did strongly support coeducation in primary schools in the Meiji Period, but it took support from many dedicated individuals and private groups to maintain educational opportunities for women at the high school and postsecondary levels.

Notwithstanding the efforts Japan was making to pattern much of its modern education after Western content and procedures, by 1890 there was strong sense among many leaders that the nation also needed to emphasize "moral education" that was unique to Japan. The document that resulted from this concern for morality in education was the Imperial Rescript on Education, issued on October 30, 1890, in the name of the Emperor Meiji. Written with the advice and counsel of the Confucian scholar, Nagazane Motoda, the Rescript made clear the essential connection between the education of the people and the tenets of Confucian thought and loyalty to the emperor. A few excerpts from the 315-word document follow:

Know ye, Our subjects: Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a broad basis and everlasting... Our subjects, ever united in loyalty and filial piety, have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein lies the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; bear yourselves in modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore advance public good and promote common interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws... and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth.

The promulgation of this document served as a corrective measure to the more liberal Western influences on education since the beginning of the Meiji Restoration. Distributed throughout the country by the Ministry of Education, the Rescript reminded the populace that education was inextricably connected to the nation's needs, to traditional Confucian values, and to an Imperial House descended from Heaven. It was read during ceremonial events in schools throughout the nation, with the appropriate bowing required. Though generally accepted by the people, one famous incident of an inappropriate response remains well known in Japan even today. Uchimura Kanzo, a high school teacher who had been educated in Japan and in the United States, apparently failed to bow deferentially enough to the Emperor's signature on the Rescript when it was read at his school. This incident led to his leaving the school, after which he became a famous journalist and religious figure until his death in 1930. In about 1900 Uchimura founded what became the largest branch of indigenous Christianity in Japan, Mukyokai, or nonchurch Christianity.

By the end of the 1900s, Japan had seen considerable development of all parts of its education system-both under the influence of Western experts and under the watchful eye of nationalists who made certain the country retained its Confucian and imperial focus. With direction from the Ministry of Education-and its influential first minister, Mori Arinori-the country had a compulsory primary school system throughout the country; about 500 secondary schools throughout the country, with some providing technical training and others providing traditional academic subjects; and an elite system of public and private universities that prepared students for teaching, medicine, law, government service, and other professions.

In the early years of the twentieth century, attendance in primary schools continued to rise to over 90 percent, and in 1907 the years of compulsory education were increased from three to six. From the 1890s to the start of World War I, Japan's rush to industrialize and to create a strong military led to a greater focus on industrial education and training than in the past. Victories in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) had stimulated this change in direction. Japanese education came somewhat under the influence of the democratic, socialistic, and related worldwide movements that were "in the air" after World War I and after the Russian Revolution. One example was the Shin Kyoiku Undo (New Education Movement), which emphasized the individuality of children and encouraged each child's effort to demonstrate initiative in ways that were largely not reflected in conventional Confucian education. Although this movement lost favor when a more conservative climate returned during the militarism of the 1930s, it did significantly influence the direction of Japanese education during the Taisho Period (1912-1926). Another noteworthy trend of the period after World War I was the expansion in the number of colleges and universities. The University Order of 1918 stimulated this growth by extending government recognition to postsecondary institutions that were not associated with the government. Students surged into the private schools as a result of this change.

The militarism of the 1930s and the beginning of World War II ended Japan's brief period during which progressive ideas had been promoted in education. Now the schools could best be characterized as tools of the state. Even the name of primary schools was changed to kokumin gakko, or national people's schools, reflecting their mission of training loyal subjects for the Japanese empire. Graduates of the kokumin gakko were obligated to attend seinen gakko, schools that emphasized the kinds of vocational skills that would serve the country in its effort to marshal a major militaristic expansion. Even textbooks were used during the wartime period to reinforce the ultranationalistic objectives of the state. One set of texts, called the Kokutai No Hongi (Cardinal Principles of the National Entity), served the government's purpose to control the people's thinking and their access to a full range of historical information.

After its defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Forces under the command of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), General Douglas MacArthur. From 1945 until 1952, the Occupation forces aimed to transform Japan into a democracy and to demilitarize the country. A significant part of the plan involved altering the educational system that had been part of the prewar and wartime culture. The socalled "moral education," central to the ultranationalism of the wartime period, was ended. The major catalyst for all changes was the United States Educational Missions to Japan, which took place from 1946 to 1950. The recommendations of these missions formed the plans by which education was reformed after the War.

The centerpiece of the postwar educational transformation in Japan was a series of reforms that took place in 1947. They were overseen by SCAP and by the Education Reform Council, consisting of Japanese civilians. At the core of the reforms was the Fundamental Law of Education, which replaced the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education that had been issued by the Emperor Meiji. Consisting of a preamble and 11 articles, the law replaced the former emphasis on training to be a loyal subject of the emperor with a new focus on the following principles: equal opportunity to education for all citizens, coeducation, the full development of one's personality, an appreciation and respect for truth and justice, and a new emphasis on academic freedom for faculty. Following are some specific features of the reformed system:

The 6-3-3-4 structure with six years of primary school (also called elementary school), three years of lower secondary school (also called middle school or junior high school), three years of upper secondary school (also called high school), and four years of university

Compulsory education for nine years-that is, both for primary and lower secondary school

Education of handicapped persons

Replacement of government-produced textbooks with texts that were published privately, with less involvement by the government than in the past

New emphasis on the training of public school teachers at the university level

Shift from total central control of education to much greater autonomy in villages, cities, and prefectures

Permission to have teacher unions and other support organizations such as parent-teacher groups

Most reforms were retained after the Occupation ended, but there was some backtracking when a conservative government came to power in 1956. For example, the government increased its efforts to review textbooks, influence appointments to local school boards, place restrictions on leftist teachers' unions, and reestablish some level of moral education in the school system.

The decades since the 1950s have brought few structural changes to Japanese education. However, a number of social and political events have related to education, such as the following: criticism of government influence on textbooks in the 1960s; student demonstrations in 1968 against rising costs of a university education; the introduction in 1979 of a common general admission exam for public universities; and concern that private academies are needed to supplement a child's public education if he or she is to have a good chance of being accepted to a university.

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The Japanese people consider the love of learning to be one of life's main virtues. That fact has led to education playing a crucial role in their culture, especially since the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Virtually all Japanese people complete education through the high school (also called upper secondary) level, and most go on to further technical or university training.

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Interesting history, facts and information about the life of the people
who lived in England during the Medieval times

Medieval Farming - Feudalism and Rural Life
The introduction of feudalism fostered the movement from town to country, for feudalism, rested on the soil as its basis. The lord, his family, his servants, and his retainers were supported by the income from landed property. The country estate of a lord was known as a manor.

Medieval Farming - The Manor
A manor varied in size, according to the wealth of its lord. In England perhaps six hundred acres represented the extent of an average estate. Every noble had at least one manor; great nobles might have several manors, usually scattered throughout the country; and even the king depended on his many manors for the food supply of the court. England, during the period following the Norman Conquest, contained more than nine thousand of these manorial estates.

Medieval Farming
The Medieval Times website provides interesting facts, history and information about these great people and important historical events which scatter the Medieval History books including Medieval Farming. The Medieval Times Sitemap provides full details of all of the information and facts about the fascinating subject of the lives of the people who lived during the historical period of the Middle Ages. The content of this article on Medieval life and times provides free educational details, facts and information for reference and research for schools, colleges and homework for history courses and history coursework.

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Interesting history, facts and information about the life of the people who lived in England during the Medieval times Medieval Farming - Feudalism and Rural Life The introduction of feudalism fostered the movement from town to country, for feudalism, rested on the soil as its basis.

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The Peasants: Advances in Agricultural Technology, 800-1000 | Lectures in Medieval History

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Lectures in Medieval History,
by Lynn Harry Nelson, Emeritus Professor of Medieval History, The
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

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Around most medieval villages there were three large arable fields. Two of these fields grew crops while the third was left fallow. The village would also have hay meadows and common land where the peasants had the right to graze their animals.

The three arable fields were divided into strips, each one being separated from the next by balks of unploughed land. To ensure that everybody had a fair share of the good land, each family was given strips in all three fields.

These strips were long and narrow because the peasants wanted to reduce to a minimum the number of times the plough-team had to turn round. On light soils a pair of oxen could successfully pull a plough. However, heavy clay soils needed a team of eight oxen. As most peasants only owned about two oxen they would have to join with others in order to have their land ploughed.

Medieval farmers preferred oxen to horses because they were less expensive to feed, stronger on heavy land and could be eaten when they died. The plough they used had an iron-tipped coulter in front to make the initial cut and a mould board to turn the soil over in a furrow. The fields were ploughed three times: the first turned the stubble over, the second removed the thistles and weeds and the third prepared the ground for sowing.

Illustration in Queen Mary's Psalter (c.1320)

The three-field system of crop rotation was employed by medieval farmers, with spring as well as autumn sowings. Wheat or rye was planted in one field, and oats, barley, peas, lentils or broad beans were planted in the second field. The third field was left fallow. Each year the crops were rotated to leave one field fallow. This system also ensured that the same crop was not grown in the same field two years running.

Medieval farmers did what they could to increase the fertility of the land. They were aware that the soil would only give back as much as was put into it. Marl (a mixture of clay and carbonate of lime) and seaweed were used as fertilisers. Farmers knew that the best fertiliser was animal dung. However, small farmers could not afford the cost of feeding large numbers of animals and so manure was often in short supply.
(Source 11) The Luttrell Psalter (1325)

The timing of the harvest in the Middle Ages was vitally important. If the wheat was too dry the grain would fall off. If it was too wet the grain would rot. To ensure that his own crops did not go to waste, the lord of the manor could demand extra labour services called boon-work during harvest time. Boon-work was hated by the villeins as it delayed their own harvesting and could cause their own crops to be ruined.

Despite the efforts of medieval farmers, their crop yields per acre amounted to only about a fifth of those achieved by farmers today. As villeins had to give about half their crop away as rent and taxes, they needed to farm a large area of land to provide an adequate diet for themselves. People dying of starvation was not unusual in the Middle Ages. This was especially true when bad weather led to a poor harvest.

(1) Part of a song performed by medieval minstrels, The Husbandman Song (c. 1360)

To find money for the king I sold my seed.
Wherefore my land lies fallow and learns to sleep.

(2) Chronicle of Bury St Edmunds (1258)

There was a great shortage of everything because of the floods of the previous year, and corn, which was very scarce, cost from 15 shillings to as much as 20 shillings a quarter. Famine resulted so that the poor had to eat horse-meat, the bark of trees and even more unpleasant things. Many died of hunger.

The Reeve, elected by the village to that office as the best manager... Let him therefore not be slothful or sleepy, but let him unceasingly strive for his lord's profit... When the dung is to be carried to the fields, let the Reeve stay with the carters, that they may labour and finish their day's work without trickery... Let the threshers and winnowing-women be closely spied upon, lest they steal corn in their shoes, gloves, bags or satchels hidden near the barn.

(4) Anonymous, The Reign of King Stephen (c. 1190)

In 1143... a terrible famine prevailed all over England... some, from lack of food, ate the forbidden flesh of dogs or horses... people wasted away and died in droves... You could have seen villages extremely well-known standing lonely and almost empty because the peasants of both sexes and all ages were dead.

Charged with children and overcharged by landlords, what they may spare they spend on milk/ or on meal to make porridge to still the sobbing of the children at meal time... The sadness of the women who live in these hovels is too sad to speak of or say in rhyme.

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Around most medieval villages there were three large arable fields. Two of these fields grew crops while the third was left fallow. The village would also have hay meadows and common land where the peasants had the right to graze their animals.

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For more than a century after the Battle of Hastings, all substantial stone buildings in England were built in the Romanesque style. Known in the British Isles as Norman, it is a direct descendant of late Roman architecture. It was superseded from the later 12th century by a new style - the Gothic.

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For more than a century after the Battle of Hastings, all substantial stone buildings in England were built in the Romanesque style. Known in the British Isles as Norman, it is a direct descendant of late Roman architecture. It was superseded from the later 12th century by a new style - the Gothic.

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Medieval architecture simply refers to architectural styles in medieval Europe during the middle ages. In fact, architecture during these times had gone through several changes and phases such as from Romanesque style to Gothic style.

Generally, the architecture of structures in medieval Europe was predominantly related to the building of sacred building such as churches, which was the primary structure signifying Christian faith. The most prevalent layouts during the medieval period depicting classic medieval architecture is the Latin Cross in the West and the central-plan church in the East.

Byzantine architecture was an improvised version of its predecessor' styles and building techniques but with a more of a religious dimension to it

Read more about the Byzantine Architecture >>

Medieval Gargoyles were a popular features of medieval architecture, Usually menacing, mythical creatures Read more about the Medieval Gargoyles >>

Medieval architecture characteristics

Medieval architecture featured various styles from Romanesque, French style and Gothic styles of architecture. Each style has distinctive medieval architectural characteristics.Romanesque architecture was widely adopted from 1066 to 1200 and was basically characterized by round arches and vaults.

Most of the architectural structures during these times were highly characterized by the use of piers instead of columns. Generally, medieval builders preferred round arches at this time. However, this would occasionally vary from time to time, where they used slightly pointed arches instead.

Gothic style medieval architecture characteristics included stained-glass windows, the use of flying buttresses, tall spires, gargoyles, turrets and arches that were pointed instead of being round.

Medieval England architecture

Architecture played a very important role in Medieval England. The church believed the grander the architecture employed in a church design, the more it is appealing it would be to God.

The church invested a lot of their time and wealth in creating these medieval architectural projects, especially making the cathedrals of Canterbury and York more grandiose.

The medieval English architecture used for the creation of churches and cathedrals was of an amazing quality of workmanship. Designs were also dominated mostly by rounded shapes and designs.

Medieval architecture in Europe

The center of medieval architecture in Europe was the creation of spectacular churches and cathedrals. Although medieval architecture went through the same phases as medieval England, the medieval secular architecture that survived to this day mainly served defense purposes during the medieval era.

Castles and walls were the most notable non-religious examples of medieval architecture throughout Europe. However, Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles flourished across the western part of Europe with France at the heart of both production and innovation. These styles, especially the Romanesque architectural style, were developed from Carolingian and Ottonian models.

Byzantine architecture

While the rest of western Europe experienced radical divergence in architecture during the medieval period, Byzantine architecture remained classically conservative. It continued to show classical proportions as well as plain, unadorned surfaces. However, the Byzantine architects also developed a unique style that primarily distinguished them from the Romans.

This was done with complex layouts together with the designs affinity for domes. Mosaics were Byzantine's most favorite artwork. It was no surprise that most building interiors were coated with lavishly designed mosaics and murals. Building architecture and design in Byzantine capitals were mostly derived from Greek and classical Roman designs.

Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture began in the 12th century in France. It was a new style in architecture and design, which was then referred to as the French style. However, as this new style ceased to embody the classic line and proportion in most designs, it was later on called the "Gothic" style during the Renaissance period.

Gothic architecture was light, graceful and mostly spacious in nature. Several advances in architectural technique came from the Arabs, especially during the time of the Crusades which led to changes in Gothic styles.

These changes included the use of a pointed arch, ribbed vaults and buttress. Heavy piers were also replaced by clustered slender ones, while window dimensions became larger as vaults and spires increased in height.

Medieval Religious Architecture

Cathedral buildings and other medieval religious architectures were expressions of faith. Moreover, they were channels of creative energy during the medieval period.

Churches spent large sums of money for beautification and the creation of these buildings. The church even granted indulgences for those who desired to help build churches and cathedral structures.

The Roman basilica was the primary model of medieval religious architecture and the Latin cross plan was the most common among these religious buildings. Cathedrals were also commissioned by Justinian. They embraced Byzantine styles in creating domes as well as the Greek cross.

Medieval Church Architecture

Medieval church architecture played a very significant role during the medieval period. Cathedrals started during the reign of William the Conqueror. These were the largest buildings seen in England and across Europe.

Most cathedrals in the middle ages were built in accordance with Norman architecture and this style dominated the designs of cathedrals which were built during Williams reign. Norman architecture was also called Romanesque architecture. A medieval cathedral was considered a museum in itself, as it housed various samples of art and craftsmanship.

As part of medieval church architecture, an altar was usually situated on the far east end. However, according to art and architectural historians, it actually varied. The orientation of the altar was based on the position of the rising sun from the altar's site extending towards the west.

Tudor style architecture

Tudor style architecture was the final stage of medieval architecture development in England. This type of medieval architecture had distinct features that set it apart from other medieval architectural types.

Large houses built during the Tudor period were rather less defensive in style and were built for aesthetics. Tudor style architecture was best defined by a four-centered arch called the Tudor Arch.

Also, some of the most exceptionally designed windows were modeled with this type of architectural styling. Moldings were spread out while foliage was crafted to have more naturalistic effects.

Elizabethan Architecture

Elizabethan architecture was a Renaissance style architecture during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. And the upper class houses followed this style in architecture. Stones and bricks were used as opposed to timber and wattle.

This was done mainly for durability and appearance. Elizabethan architecture adopted classic Greek and Roman architecture. The original Royal Exchange in London was the first important building designed by Henri de Paschen.

However, Renaissance architecture manifested itself in large and tall houses during the period. During this period, English houses started to adopt newer concepts such as having a long gallery as the chief reception room. Most of these buildings also had asymmetrical towers which were signs of how medieval architecture had evolved.

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Medieval architecture simply refers to architectural styles in medieval Europe during the middle ages. In fact, architecture during these times had gone through several changes and phases such as from Romanesque style to Gothic style. Generally, the architecture of structures in medieval Europe was predominantly related to the building of sacred building such as churches, which was the primary structure signifying Christian faith.

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Labeling idleness a crime may have been a bit strict, but the justice system in medieval England should never be considered backwards.

Punishments for offenses in those days were perhaps even more sensible and humane than they are now, say some historians. [ Medieval Torture's 10 Biggest Myths]

"The common view of the medieval justice system as cruel and based around torture and execution is often unfair and inaccurate," said University of Cambridge historian Helen Mary Carrel. Most criminals received gentle sentences merely meant to shame them, Carrel said, with the punishments often carried out in the open so townspeople could bring them charity.

Carrel presented her views recently during the International Medieval Congress, hosted by the University of Leeds.
Open-door policy
The notion that our system is better because law and order happens behind closed doors especially needs to be challenged, Carrel said.

"There is a real downside to keeping those who are punished out of the public eye-we often have no idea how they are being treated," Carrel told LiveScience.

With most medieval communities lacking any proper policing, crime prevention was trusted in the hands of the village common-folk. There was no reason-or means-for punishment to be any different, say experts.

"Punishments therefore had to be simple and generally seen to be fair," according to the online exhibitions of the United Kingdom's National Archives. "Fierce, physical mutilation (cutting off part of the offender's body), common in earlier periods, was now rarely used."

Though murderers were often executed, the majority of lesser medieval offenses were punished by shaming the criminal publicly, according to Carrel. Fastening the offender into stocks wasn't considered barbaric, she said, and was seen as a much better alternative to spending the time in jail.

"Medieval town inhabitants would probably have a much clearer idea of how criminals were treated-and may well have had much more contact with the incarcerated-than most people do today," Carrel said.
Criminal charity
Even medieval jail wasn't a closed-off affair. Prisoners were often let out to beg and could make money behind bars as long as they shared their take with the jailers.

"Charity towards criminals was much more acceptable and much more common in the Middle Ages," Carrel said. "Many people left bequests to help prisoners in their wills, for example." Town officials looking for good press would also leave baskets of food or ale for the jailed, Carrel said.

Medieval authorities were lacking the funds to construct and upkeep jail systems as we know them today. In special cases when long-term incarceration was required, or to hold a prisoner awaiting trial, castle dungeons would have been used, according to the National Archives.
Twelve shillings for a maid
But cash payment was sufficient enough punishment for minor crimes-today's misdemeanors-and was mostly intended to keep everyone involved happy and out of trouble, say historians.

"The Anglo-Saxon system of criminal justice was mainly concerned to prevent feuds provoked by violent or serious crime," according to medieval historians Andrew Barrett and Christopher Harrison. "The system was designed to force the victim or, if he was dead or incapacitated, his family to accept compensation rather than turn to violence."

The common toll for sleeping with a nobleman's serving maid in early medieval times was twelve shillings, Barrett and Harrison give as an example in their book "Crime and Punishment in England" (Routledge, 2001).

The lack of police patrols and maximum-security penitentiaries didn't translate into a lawless society, however. Murder rates per capita in 14th-century England were a fifth that of Washington D.C. in the 1990s, according to estimates by the British government.

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Labeling idleness a crime may have been a bit strict, but the justice system in medieval England should never be considered backwards. Punishments for offenses in those days were perhaps even more sensible and humane than they are now, say some historians.

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In the 1300s in northern France, a nasty character named Jacquemon bribed a jailer to let his unwanted son-in-law die a painful death in prison. Jacquemon then, with the help of his son, killed his nephew, Colart Cordele. The impoverished Cordele had followed Jacquemon during the harvest, trying to glean the wheat from behind him, but angered his uncle by coming too close. Jacquemon grabbed his nephew by his hood, hurled him brutally to the ground and "spurred his horse to ride again and again" over the crumpled body.

It's an episode that might have been lifted from Game of Thrones - no wonder the era has become a byword for brutality. Indeed, during a brutal scene in the film Pulp Fiction, one of the characters menaces that: "I'm gonna get medieval on your ass." There's no need to explain what this might involve because the stereotype of the violent, sadistic Middle Ages is well known to all of us.

But how accurate is this stereotype? As the Jacquemon episode shows, there is plenty that is shocking and disturbing in the surviving records for the later Middle Ages. But even more striking is that medieval contemporaries were also horrified by such events. Of course, we only know about this case because it provoked a legal reaction: it wasn't seen as acceptable or even normal.

Measures of violence

Levels of interpersonal violence were certainly higher in the Middle Ages than today, but it's very hard to quantify this precisely - even more so if we add war and the horrors of genocide into the equation. In part, this is because the changing nature of legal prosecutions means that we are not comparing like with like. Definitions of criminal violence have also changed; for example, rape and domestic violence were defined very narrowly in the Middle Ages.

The historian Laurence Stone calculated that homicide levels in medieval England were at least 10 times what they are today. Certainly, we cannot doubt that it was a dangerous time in which to live. An exceptional case, even by medieval standards, is provided by 14th‑century Oxford. Levels of violence there were considered unacceptably high by contemporaries: in the 1340s, the homicide rate was around 110 per 100,000. (In the UK in 2011, it was 1 per 100,000.)

Why were levels of interpersonal violence so high in the Middle Ages? Historians have offered various explanations. Steven Pinker has put forward a psychological theory, claiming that humankind learned only recently to tame its most savage impulses, but this doesn't really account for the complexity of reactions to violence in the medieval period, as we shall see.

Others have pointed to the prevalence of alcohol, and the fact that many people were wandering round armed with daggers and other knives on a daily basis. There were no permanent police forces, as there are now, and in many cases the capture of a perpetrator depended on the co-operation of the community. Moreover, in an era of rudimentary medical care, many died from wounds that might today be successfully treated.

There are more complex explanations too. These were cultures in which honour was paramount and violence was recognised as a means of communicating certain messages. If you hacked off a woman's nose, for example, most people would recognise this as a signifier of adultery. They were also profoundly unequal cultures, characterised - particularly from the 14th century - by high levels of social unrest. Sociologists and historians have been able to demonstrate a correlation between levels of inequality and levels of violence, which is particularly compelling for late medieval Europe.

Homicides varied from premeditated attacks to tavern brawls that ended in disaster. Often these were over-exuberant episodes gone horribly wrong. In 1304, for example, one Gerlach de Wetslaria, provost of a church in the diocese of Salzburg, applied for a pardon for killing a fellow student many years earlier when a playful sword fight had ended in tragedy.

Carrying out acts of violence seems to have been as much about proving oneself in front of one's peers, and belonging to a group, as it was about the victim - which probably explains why men in gangs were responsible for much of the mayhem. This sense of fraternity characterises a group of men led by Robert Stafford. Stafford was a chaplain; perhaps because of his clerical status, he wittily named himself 'Frere Tuk' after the figure from the Robin Hood legends. His gang's actions mostly took the form of poaching and offences against property, though there were more brutal undertones - apparently "they threatened the gamekeepers with death or mutilation".

Female victims

It is much rarer to find women perpetrating violent crime; more often they were the victims. It is very difficult to assess levels of rape, because the offence was subject to changing definitions, most of which would appear far too narrow to our modern eyes. Women had to be able to physically demonstrate their lack of consent, and risked their reputations and punishment themselves in doing so. The odds were loaded against them.

Cases that were eventually reported tended to be particularly brutal. In 1438, one Thomas Elam attacked Margaret Perman. He broke into her house, attempted to rape her and "feloniously bit Margaret with his teeth so that he ripped off the nose of the said Margaret with that bite, and broke three of her ribs there". The case came to court because she died from her wounds. Elam was condemned to be hanged.

Definitions of domestic violence were also radically different in the later Middle Ages. Most acts of aggression that we would deem to be criminal were then thought of simply as acceptable discipline. If a wife disobeyed her husband, it was thought right and proper that she should be punished. Domestic violence does, though, sometimes appear in the records of ecclesiastical courts when a wife sued for divorce, or in criminal records when the violence resulted in permanent maiming, miscarriage, or death.

How to distinguish between levels of 'acceptable' domestic discipline and unacceptable domestic violence was an ongoing problem. One famous solution often cited was the 'rule of thumb', whereby - it's claimed - it was acceptable to beat your wife, as long as the stick you used was thinner than your thumb. However, in reality, discussions were more sophisticated and less conclusive than this.

In 1326 in Paris, one Colin le Barbier hit his wife with a billiard stick so hard that she died. He was tried in a criminal court and found guilty of murder. However, he appealed and claimed that his wife deserved her suffering because she had nagged him so relentlessly in public. He said that he had not meant to kill her: "He meant only to scare her, so that she would be quiet; however, the stick accidentally entered into her thigh a little above the knee." The reason she had died, he added, was "because she failed to tend [the wound] properly" rather than because he had mistreated her. His subsequent acquittal tells us a lot about attitudes in this period.

Homicide, rape and domestic violence could be found across the social spectrum. However, some kinds of violence were more common in certain milieux. Violent theft was most often perpetrated by people on the economic margins of society, who stole out of desperation. It peaked during periods of particular deprivation, such as the horrific famine of the 1310s in which as much as 25 per cent of the population died.

England in the 14th and 15th centuries was also notorious for the prevalence of frightening gangs, often comprising gentry or even noblemen. These marauded around the countryside, plundering and leaving a trail of blood in their wake. In 1332, for example, the Folville gang was accused of kidnapping a royal official; they had already killed a baron of the exchequer. These were young men who quite literally thought themselves to be beyond the law, often involved in feuds and vendettas, and for whom honour was a key concept.

A question of honour

Honour-driven violence was also prevalent at the top of the social tree. During periods of weak kingship, violence by noblemen could reach terrifying levels. In early 15th-century France, with a king (Charles VI, 'the Mad') intermittently suffering from paranoid schizophrenia and believing himself to be made of glass, powerful warring nobles were able to seize control. The result was spiralling violence that culminated in the 1407 assassination of the Duke of Orléans and, ultimately, the English entry into France.

Things were not much rosier for the English. In the second half of the 15th century, the weakness of the reigning monarch, Henry VI, and the accumulation of huge retinues by hostile aristocrats were, at least in large part, responsible for the Wars of the Roses. The lines between interpersonal violence, civil war and full-blown war were indistinct.

At the other end of the social spectrum, in the later Middle Ages the growing structural inequalities created by rapid commercialisation and urbanisation, as well as competing forms of government, generated a series of riots and revolts. Plotted on a map, these are concentrated along the main trading belt of Europe, from London to Paris and the Netherlands through the markets of Champagne to the commercial heartlands of northern Italy. The most famous examples - the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 in England, the Ciompi revolt of 1378 in Florence, and the Paris rebellion and Jacquerie revolt in northern France in 1358 - all involved complex alliances of rebels from various social groups demanding greater representation, railing against corruption, and protesting their economic marginalisation.

Revolts along social lines sometimes overlapped with violence driven by religion. Famously, medieval Europe was marked by waves of popular religious persecution, with anti-Semitism rearing its ugly head with depressing frequency.

Yet perhaps the most violent dimension of medieval life was that of the law, which carried out its own gruesome rituals. Punishment was intended to be spectacular. Most serious crimes were punishable by hanging, but plenty more imaginative ways of disposing of criminals were employed.

In many areas of Europe, those found guilty of forging money were boiled alive. This obsession with providing a spectacle of violence - to emphasise the guilt of the accused, and to deter and awe observers - led to some almost farcical episodes. An old man questioned in the 1290s remembered how, when he was young, he saw a man hanged for murder. The body was cut down from the gibbet by a competing jurisdiction and rehanged - only for the original jurisdiction to construct a straw effigy that they hanged.

Reactions to violence

We're left, then, with a picture of an extraordinarily violent society. Though it's very difficult to arrive at precise numbers, it's clear that this is not a society one would wish to visit for any length of time.

There is, though, a flip side to all of this. The evidence suggests that, though violence was common, people were not simply inured to it. On the contrary - they really cared about it. This is not to say that violence was simply deemed to be wrong: rather, it was a problem about which people worried and talked.

The ethos of chivalry represents one way in which attempts were made to channel violence. Chivalric custom suggested that one should fight only with certain kinds of weapons; that one should seek only worthy opponents; and that one should exercise mercy and generosity. The reality was that chivalry underpinned some of the most brutal and bloodiest episodes in our history (notably the Hundred Years' War), but the point remains that this was a set of customs arising out of concern and a sense that violence can be a problem.

The most important clue that people worried about violence is the fact that they wrote about it. Medieval literature is full of descriptions of torture, but close readings of these texts show that torturers were demonised. Such a strategy would work only if people felt torture to be profoundly problematic - and they certainly did think it a problem. In 14th-century France, criminal courts usually subjected the evidence gained from torture to extra scrutiny because it was deemed unreliable.

Chronicle sources, the official histories written in the Middle Ages, tend to provide wildly exaggerated tallies of levels of violence, particularly in revolts. Again, though, the desired literary and political effect only worked because people found such violence disturbing. The majority of our evidence is in the form of legal documents. Burgeoning legal systems in this period only bothered to produce such documentation because high levels of violence were deemed unacceptable.

In literary depictions of violence, such as the entertaining stories of Renard the Fox, popular throughout Europe, violence and cruelty were omnipresent precisely because they were shocking. The horrific story of the fox raping the wife of his friend, the wolf, then urinating on her children, often provoked troubled laughter from its medieval audience.

In the poetry of the time we can also find comments about the disturbing nature of violence. In Dante's 14th-century vision of Inferno, hell is characterised by endless cycles of violence. And in the French poet François Villon's Le Ballade des Pendus, the decaying bodies swinging on the gibbet speak directly:
Human brothers who come after us,
Don't harden your hearts against us...The rain has washed away our filth,
The sun has dried and blackened us.
Magpie and crows have scratched out our eyes
And torn our beards and eyebrows.
We are never still, but sway to and fro in the wind.
Birds peck at us more than needles on a thimble...Brothers, there's nothing funny about this.
May God absolve us all.
It's an arresting image - a very visual representation of the prevalence of violence in the Middle Ages, but one that also shows it was, even then, profoundly upsetting.
Dr Hannah Skoda is a specialist in medieval history based at the University of Oxford. This article was first published in the January 2016 issue of BBC History Magazine
Medieval violence was sparked by everything from social unrest and military aggression to family feuds and rowdy students...
Ciompi revolt, 1378
Chevauchées of the Black Prince, 1355-56
Peasants' Revolt, 1381
St Scholastica's Day riots, 1355 Murder of Nicholas Radford, 1455 Nicholas Radford was a justice of the peace under Henry VI, during the period of factionalism that later escalated into the Wars of the Roses. His godson's brother, Thomas Courtenay, came to his gates one night and brutally murdered him; Henry Courtenay, the victim's godson, later subjected the corpse to a grotesque coroner's inquest. This was the culmination of a private vendetta, but also a deliberate affront to royal justice.
On 10 February 1355 two students took umbrage at being served watered-down wine in the Swindlestock Tavern in Oxford, throwing the wine in the tavern-keeper's face and brutally beating him. The violence swiftly spread: some 200 more students joined the original pair, burning and robbing houses. Retribution was not slow to follow, as people from the surrounding countryside joined the townsfolk in attacking the students with bows and arrows. Two days of rioting left 63 students dead.
In the aftermath of the Black Death, taxes were levied to fund the Hundred Years' War - and in 1381 the peasants rose up to protest the latest poll tax. Violence ranged from burning legal documents to liberating prisoners and lynching figures of authority, notably the lord chancellor. The rebels, led by Wat Tyler, were inspired by the sermons of John Ball, who preached a message of freedom from servitude. The peasants presented their demands to Richard II but Tyler was killed and they were defeated.
The Black Prince was the eldest son of Edward III. During the Hundred Years' War, he achieved military success at Poitiers. He also led a series of chevauchées in France, armed raids involving pillaging, raping and devastation on a horrifying scale. The aim was to destroy enemy resources and morale, and to provoke battle. Tellingly, the Black Prince is still known as a great chivalric hero.
This revolt in Florence stands out because it was momentarily successful, leading to a radical regime change. The revolt unfolded in three stages: reform, followed by violent revolution, then by a vicious backlash. Florence was a highly developed town with a proto-industrial wool industry, but many disenfranchised workers. The revolt was driven by the desire for greater representation, fiscal discontent and ever-shifting alliances of political factions.

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In the 1300s in northern France, a nasty character named Jacquemon bribed a jailer to let his unwanted son-in-law die a painful death in prison. Jacquemon then, with the help of his son, killed his nephew, Colart Cordele.

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Behave!

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During the medieval period people carried out all sorts of crimes from petty crimes like stealing to more serious crimes like murder. There were no police in medieval times and in order to make sure that people kept themselves away from crime and disorder, they were subjected to strict punishments. These punishments included fines, shaming, cutting off body parts and death, depending upon the type of medieval crime committed. There were different types of trials and torture was also considered as a legitimate way to extract confessions from suspects. Accused persons had to go through different ordeals in order to prove their innocence from medieval crimes.

History of Medieval Crime & Punishment

The History of Medieval Crime and punishment is filled with harsh punishments. The punishments were harsh because the overall system was influenced by the Church and such punishments were given in order to create fear in the hearts of the people and to keep them from committing crimes. Punishments were mostly given through trials by ordeal in which the innocent and guilty both had to go through tough ordeals. In the 13th century AD trial by ordeal was replaced by trial by jury.

Types of Medieval Crime

There were different types of medieval crimes. Theft was very common as people were mostly poor, although stealing of valuable and less valuable items had different kinds of punishments. Vagrancy was also considered a crime during the Middle Ages as it was against the law to be a homeless or a jobless person. The gossip of women was also a type of crime. People not working hard, cheating on ones spouse and being drunk and disorderly were also considered to be punishable medieval crimes. Murder was also a very common crime in medieval times, high treason, heresy and witchcraft were also the types of crime that had strict punishments.

Types of Medieval Punishment

Different types of punishments were awarded for different types of crimes. For theft the punishment was extra work and fines or the hands of the guilty were cut off. Murderers were given the death penalty by hanging or beheading. Flogging was the punishment for people not working hard enough whereas the people accused of cheating and drunkenness were put in the stocks or pillory. The Stocks held peoples ankles whereas the pillory held their heads and wrists. The punishment for women's gossip was the scold's bridle. The punishment of high treason was very severe as the culprit was hung and cut down while he was still alive. Then he was beheaded and body hacked into four quarters, which were then sent to different cities throughout the realm and were put on public display. The punishment for heresy was banishment if the culprit repented and was burnt at the stake if did not repent. The punishment for witchcraft was strangulation whereas in case of serious offenses witches were also burned at stake.

Manorial Courts & Trial by Jury

The Manorial Court was the lowest court of law during the medieval period. All crimes apart from serious crimes were dealt by the manorial court. A manorial court was held multiple times during a year and it was mandatory for all the villagers to attend or else they had to pay a fine. All men were divided into the groups of ten known as the tithing. Each tithing was given the responsibility to make sure that no member of their group committed a crime and if one did then other members had to make sure to bring him to the court. The person in charge of the court was Lord's Steward. There was a jury that consisted of twelve men chosen by the villagers. It was the jury's responsibility to collect evidence in order to decide whether the accused was guilty or not. And if accused was found guilty the jury had to decide and they then decided the punishment as well.

The King's Court - Trial by Ordeal

The King's court dealt with the serious crimes such as assault, murder and treason as these crimes were considered as crimes against the King. The King's court met several times in a year and had a prominent role in the medieval crimes and punishment system. The accused had to face the trial by ordeal in which their innocence or guilt was judged by subjecting them to unpleasant ordeals. These ordeals were ordeals by fire, The ordeal by water and The ordeal by Combat.

Medieval Punishment - Ordeal by Fire

During the ordeal by fire the accused had to walk a distance of around 9 feet either by holding a red hot iron or over a red hot plough share. After that, their wounds were bandaged and they were asked to appear before the court after three days. After three days their bandages were opened. In cases where healing of wounds had started the accused were declared innocent, whereas in cases where there were no signs of improvement the accused were pronounced guilty and were punished according to their crime. It was thought that God intervened in order to save the innocent and with God's powers the healing of wounds started to take place.

Medieval Punishment - Ordeal by Water

In the ordeal by water, there were two kinds of ordeals. One was an ordeal by cold water, whereas the other was an ordeal by hot water. In the ordeal by cold water, hands and feet of the accused were tied together and they were thrown into the water. If they started floating, it meant that they were innocent but if they sank they were declared guilty. During ordeal by hot water the accused had to dip their hands in a kettle with boiling water and had to pick a stone from depth. After three days their wounds were judged. In case of healing signs they were considered innocent anything else mean't they were guilty.

Medieval Punishment - Ordeal by Combat

In case of ordeal by combat the two parties in dispute had to fight. It was mostly done when one party was accused by the other, but there were no witnesses or confessions. The winner of the fight was declared innocent. It was one of the most common methods employed by the judiciary during the middle ages

Summary of Medieval Crime & Punishment

Crimes such as theft and murder were very common during the medieval ages and in order to create the fear in the hearts of people strict punishments were given to guilty people. These punishments included fines, mutation, banishment and death through hanging and by being burned at the stake.

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history of medieval crime and punishment

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During the medieval period people carried out all sorts of crimes from petty crimes like stealing to more serious crimes like murder. There were no police in medieval times and in order to make sure that people kept themselves away from crime and disorder, they were subjected to strict punishments.

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7 ingenious inventions of the middle ages.

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Welcome to medieval England, a period that introduced us to some of the most revolutionary solutions to society's greatest challenges including hygiene and defence. Here's a list of seven of the top inventions - how many surprise you?

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1. Mechanical Clock
Timekeeping devices have emerged since the ancient world, but it was not until the Middle Ages that the technology was invented that allowed for mechanical clocks to accurately keep track of time. The knowledge of not only what hour it was, but even what minute and second it was, would change the way people scheduled their days and work patterns, especially in urban areas.
2. Printing Press
While printing technology had been developed in 11th century China, it was the 15th century German Johannes Gutenberg and his printing press that started a new era of the mass production of books. Until the rise of computers in the 20th century, books and the printed word would remain the dominant form of media for the world's knowledge.
3. Gunpowder
Gunpowder was invented in China sometime between the 9th and 11th centuries, and it did not take long it to be used in weapons. As the Mongols spread its knowledge throughout Eurasia in the 13th century, it would revolutionize warfare and make previous military technology obsolete.
4. Water and Wind Mills
While mills were in used from antiquity, it would be in the Early Middle Ages that they became very popular. Throughout the medieval period, new and ingenious forms of mills were invented, which allowed people to harness the energy from natural forces like rivers and wind, a process that continues to the present-day.
5. Coffee House
It did not take long after the drink of coffee emerged in 15th century Arabia that coffee houses became popular in Arabic and Ottoman lands. These kind of establishments would spread into Europe during the early modern era, changing not only how people ate and drank, but creating new ways of social interaction.
6. Eyeglasses
Although we are not sure who can be credited with the invention of eyeglasses, this device could be found in Western Europe the latter years of the 13th century. Its ability to correct vision problems makes it a much it one of the most useful medieval inventions and a great benefit to hundreds of millions of people today.
7. Public Library
The Library of Malatesta Novello in Cesena, Italy is considered to be first ever public library in the world. Opened in 1452, the building was owned by the city commune and allowed for readers to freely make use of its collection. Today, public libraries are common throughout much of the world.
8. Flying Buttress
One of the architectural innovations associated with Gothic churches from the 12th century, the flying buttress allowed buildings to have much higher ceilings, thinner walls and larger windows. The ideas behind these innovations would influence architectural design into modern times and allow for the construction of larger and more spacious buildings.
9. Paper money
The first known version of paper money dates back to 7th century China. It has a very important advantage over coins made from precious metals - they were much easier to transport around, which proved to be a great benefit to merchants. However, the concept of placing value on a marked piece of paper was slow to catch on. In the 13th century the Mongols tried to introduce paper money into the Middle East, but it became an immediate failure. It would take until the 17th century before regular bank notes would be circulating in Europe, but it is now the common way currency is issued.
10. Quadrant and Astrolabe
While these devices were known about in ancient times, it was during the Middle Ages that Arabic astronomers refined and improved upon them. Being able to measure the distance between two objects, they proved to be useful instruments in astronomy, navigation and surveying. Eventually these devices would be replaced by more modern inventions, but the concepts behind the quadrant and astrolabe have remained important for science and technology.

Learn more:
Time and Clocks in the Middle Ages The Printing Press: As An Agent of Social Change The civil uses of gunpowder: demolishing, quarrying, and mining (15th-18th centuries). A reappraisal The role of the monasteries in the development of medieval milling Spectacles through the ages and period inaccuracies Salisbury Cathedral and Its Diversity of Flying Buttresses Building a Model Astrolabe ✉Sign up for our weekly email newsletter!

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Ten Medieval Inventions that Changed the World - Medievalists.net

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1. Mechanical Clock Timekeeping devices have emerged since the ancient world, but it was not until the Middle Ages that the technology was invented that allowed for mechanical clocks to accurately keep track of time.

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Medical Practices in Medieval Europe

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Phlebotomy aimed to maintain or restore the humoral balance in the body by removing a moderate amount of blood. We know today that losing a small quantity of blood is usually not harmful, but nor is it beneficial. In the Middle Ages it was recognised that it was dangerous to draw blood from the elderly or the very sick, and that excessive bleeding, through injury or another cause, needed to be staunched.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

These magical remedies were not without benefit, since they sometimes incorporated medicinal plants and other therapeutic substances - and they could serve to reassure the patient. Nonetheless, the treatments usually contained fewer beneficial components than comparable non-magical recipes.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

Herbal treatments based on plants such as sage, rue and pennyroyal were administered to women seeking to induce an abortion, often in the form of a drink. Several of the plants in question are known today to act as stimulants, and to promote menstruation. It is known that a high dosage of pennyroyal can bring about an abortion.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? YES

Medieval surgeons treated cataracts by using a needle to dislodge the cloudy lens from its position in front of the pupil of the eye. People recognised that the procedure could be dangerous, and that specialist skills were required for it to work. Today, couching is seen as an ineffective method of treating cataracts that often results in blindness.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

Apothecaries compounded medicines using a wide array of substances. While some materials were probably ineffective or even dangerous, others, such as ginger and senna, are used today for their medicinal properties. The pages of medieval pharmaceutical manuscripts may in fact contain remedies of which the benefits are asyet unknown to modern medicine.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? YES

Rogue practitioners sometimes marketed counterfeit medical remedies, especially during times of heightened anxiety about plague. These treatments prevented sick people from seeking more beneficial advice, and could prove dangerous, especially if a poisonous substance was sold to a patient.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

Doctors paid attention to the movements of the planets and the signs of the zodiac to determine the appropriate time to treat specific ailments. The Zodiac Man image (shown above left), widely copied in medieval manuscripts, shows the signs of the zodiac associated with particular parts of the body. Ideas still exist today about the influence of celestial bodies, especially the Moon, on menstruation and other aspects of health. However, scientific research seems to have disproven such ideas.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

Although medieval hospital patients were unlikely to be treated by a physician or surgeon, they benefited from the expertise of nursing staff, who were often women. Hospitals offered basic bodily care, in the form of food, drink and shelter. While this care did not encompass specialised treatments, it enabled the sick to regain strength towards their recovery.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? YES

This remedy, in which plant extracts were ground up with the flesh of vipers and other substances, was held as a powerful antidote to poisons, and believed to have many other healing properties. However, although theriac was expensive and highly sought-after, it is difficult to discern how this medicine would have proved effective or beneficial.

COULD IT HAVE WORKED? NO

Examining urine was one of the only ways in which the medieval doctor could assess the internal state of the body. The urine was collected in a flask, and its colour, smell and consistency were assessed. Medieval medical manuscripts often contain diagrams showing the different qualities of urine and how these related to diseases and states of health. Urine samples are still analysed by doctors today.
This article was first published in the September 2018 edition of BBC History Magazine
COULD IT HAVE WORKED? YES

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Kill or cure? 10 medieval medical practices and their effectiveness

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Phlebotomy aimed to maintain or restore the humoral balance in the body by removing a moderate amount of blood. We know today that losing a small quantity of blood is usually not harmful, but nor is it beneficial.

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Key Facts & Summary

Medical knowledge during the Middle Ages was derived from antiquity (in particular from Hippocrates and Galen).

Medieval civilisations carried out medical practices that today are considered unhygienic, hazardous, and unreasonable.

Looking back in time, one can be shocked when discovering the hygiene of our ancestors: fortunately, many of the practices mentioned below are no longer in use. However, it is nonetheless interesting to discover the way the generations that preceded us lived.

Overview

The superstition and dogmatism that marked the rise of Christianity in Europe continued to flourish throughout the Middle Ages. As in Babylon, astrology ruled the prognosis; diagnosis was largely limited to an inspection of the urine. Free inquiry, observation, experiments were out of question; learning, including magical learning, was devoted to the study of the ancient authoritative texts. Therapy relapsed into magic and prayer, fantastic and often revolting concoctions, charms and amulets, and faith healing. Venesection and various herbs were used widely. Dissection of cadavers was completely forbidden, and anatomy, if studied outside of textbooks, was based of the dissection of pigs. The root of the mandrake was surrounded with legends and was regarded as the sovereign remedy.

Hygiene and sanitation were at a very low level, since the human body was held in contempt. Saint Jerome saw no reason for any baths after the baptism. Tertullian thought that investigation was made unnecessary by the Gospel. And Gregory of Tour regarded seeking secular medical aid as blasphemy. The demonic theory of disease again gained ascendancy, or else, as in the case of the devastating plague epidemics, the blame was placed on the Jews.

It has been a recent tendency in the study of the history of medicine to regard the rise of the medieval medical school as a patch of light in the surrounding gloom of the Dark Ages, almost as a promise of the Renaissance. This view is debatable. Though the development of medical schools gave rise to a certain revival of Greek learning, acquired indirectly through the Arabic translations, it was the body of learning, and not its spirit that was revived. The canons of Hippocrates and Galen, Aristotle, and Avicenna, became the law, not their methods of research and observation.

The famous School of Salerno which flourished from the X to the XIII century, was the first organised medical school in Europe. It was probably also the most enlightened. The Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew influences merged in Salerno, and it was known as the Hippocratic City The curriculum required three years of preliminary studies and five of medical; the graduate received the degree of Magister of Doctor, and the practice of calling a physician a 'Doctor' derives from Salerno. According to laws promulgated in 1240 by the Emperor Frederick II, a year of postgraduate practice under an established physician was required before the the graduate was licensed: ownership of an apothecary shop, or any business relation with an apothecary, was forbidden, and preparation of drugs was supervised by a inspectors.

The School of Salerno

The School of Salerno had many famous graduates. Its Regimen Sanitatis, a compendium of domestic medicine in the form of proverbs, was among the most popular books of the Middle Ages . Women were admitted to the School, but it is not certain whether as nurses, midwives, or physicians. For all its comparatively advanced character, Salerno still regarded suppuration as part of the natural wound healing, and its first textbook on anatomy was based on that of the pig. The connection of Constantinus Africanus (1010-1087) with the School of Salerno is uncertain, though he is known to have spent some time there and at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino. Constantinus is known best for his extensive translations from the Arabic into Latin; in this way, he brought back to the West its lost Greco-Greco-Roman heritage. Subsequently Avicenna, Haly Abbas, and Maimonides, as well as Galen and Hippocrates, became entrenched in all the schools of the Medieval Europe.

After the decline of Salerno, at the end of the XIII century, the medical schools of Montpellier, Bologna, Padua, and Paris came into prominence, but their contribution to medical evolution was slight. Mundinus of Bologna dissected two cadavers, but he saw them through the eyes of Galen and Avicenna, and added nothing to the development of anatomy. The University of Paris outlawed surgical operations and clinical examinations. Arnold of Villanova, a celebrated teacher in Montpellier, invented alcoholic tincture of herbs, but he placed the diseases of women in his book on poisons, 'since women are poisonous creatures'. Guy de Chauliac (1300-1367 AD), the most famous of medieval surgeons, was among the first to employ extensions for fractures.

Black Death

Throughout the Middle Ages, only the wealthiest could afford physicians. On the other hand, the poor were obliged to consult local practitioners that referred to folkloric traditions.

For most individuals, the lines between magic and medicine were blurred: medical practices resembled occult rites rather than practical cures. In fact, doctors sought to cure their patients through herbal remedies, concoctions, incantations, and charms.

When the bubonic plague started in Europe due to the widespread unhygienic habits, people were not aware that the main cause of death was the bacteria Yersinis pestis, which was spread by infected rat's fleas. Not having scientific explanation for the disease that had wiped out over one third of Europe's population, people attempted to save their lives in a variety of ways. When the plague started manifesting in a person's body, it would initially appear as a common flu with chills and feelings of weakness (Bardot 2019). It was necessary to tackle the illness within the first 24h of its contraction in order to destroy the bacteria. Failure to do so would result in it spreading across the lymphatic system before affecting the skin and internal organs. Subsequently, it caused 'severe trembling accompanied by profuse sweating, subcutaneous haemorrhaging, and painful, dark reddish-purple spots rapidly developed. In addition, painful hypersensitive buboes formed in the lymph nodes of the armpit and groin. The buboes swelled as large as oranges, and filled up with pus and blood. If the buboes were not carefully lanced, the infection causes blood poisoning', and further spreading of the disease happened when the buboes bursted (Bardot 2019).

Such a horrendous plague must have resembled a scene from a horrific gruesome movie, and in an age when religion ruled society and its thought, it is not surprising that the black death was considered a sort of divine punishment inflicted by God on the sinful members of humanity. In fact. some Christians that believed such theory punished themselves severely through self-flagellation.

Others thought that the best solution to avoid the plague was hiding in the sewers, were no one could reach them, see them, or touch them. However, the filthy conditions of the sewers, with their foul-smelling surroundings and fetid insects, did not save them from death: and although they may not have been infected by the bubonic plague, they nonetheless died due to other sever illnesses and infections.

The measures taken in order to avoid (or attempt to cure the plague) were ridiculous and often were the cause of death. In fact, some of these practices involved 'drinking arsenic or mercury, not having thoughts about death in general, not having thoughts about the plague, not having sad thoughts, not eating figs, not eating meat, not running or walking outside, not exercising at all, not bathing, not sleeping in the day, and finally for good measure, not having sex' (Sheriff 2013).

Richer people, on the other hand, ingested a crunchy mixture of crushed emeralds, and ingested the powdered stones either with a drink, or with food such as bread.

Aromatherapy was also employed, and individuals were encouraged to carry everywhere with them flowers with a sweet scent or herbs.

However, less hygienic practices were also in vogue. For instance, one practice involved cutting oped the buboes filled with pus and blood and applying a thick layer of...(wait for it..!) human excrements, resins, and flower roots. As if this was not enough, the concoction was wrapped tightly in order to be kept in place.

Others blamed the plague on the Jews, and believed that one of the ways to get rid of the plague was by killing them. Such an irrational decision to murder thousands of Jews was placated by Pope Clement VI who actively condemned the attacks and prompted members of the Church to protect them.

Other Medieval medical practices

If cures to the black death do not seem weird enough, the treatment reserved to the mentally ill during the Middle Ages was not any better. In fact, according to Tan (2016), those who were judged as mentally impaired, had their arms and legs tied up, meanwhile, their feet were plunged into salt water, their hair and nose were pulled, whilst pigs were squealing in their ears.

If an individual suffered from regular headaches, migraines, or epilepsy, trepanation was carried out: such practice consisted in perforating the skull with the intention of relieving pressure. However, such operations left the dura mater (i.e. the thick membrane that covers the brain) exposed to airborne bacteria, causing infections that could lead to death.

Teeth, on the other hand, were not treated with the utmost care and attention: not only were they cleaned with a cloth or with leaves, but also, in case of decay, they were extracted by local barbers. There was no such thing as a dentist!

Stomach problems were cured thanks to herbal remedies. One of them is St. Paul's potion, which involved the use of several ingredients such as : 'liquorice, sage, willow, roses, fennel, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cormorant blood, mandrake, dragon's blood and three kinds of pepper' (Tan 2016). All these ingredients, played a part in the protection of a certain part of the body. For example, the liquorice was useful to ward off coughs and bronchitis; sage was useful for blood flow and increased memory; whereas 'fennel, cinnamon, and ginger are carminatives that relieve the intestinal gases and a colicky stomach' (Tan 2016).

On the whole, during the Middle Ages, very little was added to medical knowledge.

Bibliography

[1.] Bardot, J. B. (2019). Garlic kills Bubonic Plague and other pathogen -based Disease Epidemics. Available from: https://www.jbbardot.com/garlic-kills-bubonic-plague-and-other-pathogen-based-disease-epidemics/

[2.] Bovey, A. (2015). Medicine, diagnosis, and treatment in the Middle Ages. British Library. Available from: https://www.bl.uk/the-middle-ages/articles/medicine-diagnosis-and-treatment-in-the-middle-ages#

[3.] Goldiner, S. (2012). Medicine in the Middle Ages. Met Museum. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/medm/hd_medm.htm

[4.] Horder, P. (2011). What's wrong with Early Medieval Medicine? Social History of Medicine. 24 (1). Pp. 5-25.

[5.] Murrell, D. (2018). What was medieval and renaissance medicine? Medical News Today. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323533.php

[6.] Shariff, M. (2013). Ten Crazy cures for the Black death. Listverse. Available from: http://listverse.com/2013/01/21/10-crazy-cures-for-the-black-death/

[7.] Tan, L.A. (2016). 6 Horrifying and weird Medieval medical practices. Available from: https://today.mims.com/6-horrifying-and-weird-medieval-medical-practices

Image sources:

[1.] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Blood_letting.jpg

[2.] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/13th_century_anatomical_illustration_-_sharp.jpg

[3.] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[4.] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Great_plague_of_london-1665.jpg

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Medieval Medicine | Facts, Summary, Discoveries & Medicine Practices

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Medical knowledge during the Middle Ages was derived from antiquity (in particular from Hippocrates and Galen). Medieval civilisations carried out medical practices that today are considered unhygienic, hazardous, and unreasonable. Looking back in time, one can be shocked when discovering the hygiene of our ancestors: fortunately, many of the practices mentioned below are no longer in use.

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Norman and medieval fashion and clothing

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British fashion from the Normans through the Medieval and Middle Ages to the end of the 15th century.

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Fashion of the High and Late Middle Ages

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Fashion of the High and Late Middle Ages

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wikimedia commons; public domain

The Evolution of Fashion

In the High and Late Middle Ages, European clothing began to evolve into what we think of today as fashion. The cut, shape, style, and decoration of clothing changed at a much faster pace than in the Early Middle Ages (sometimes known as the Dark Ages), when styles varied little over time. While we think of fashion changes occurring from year to year, the clothing designs of the Late Middle Ages changed from generation to generation.

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Fashion History of the High and Late Middle Ages: Medieval Clothing

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In the high and late Middle Ages, attractive styles became more available to a new middle class. Clothing styles changed more quickly due to new technology, Eastern influences, and a better economy.

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Medieval Europe

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Facts and interesting information about Medieval Clothing, specifically History of Medieval Fashion,
ideal for research into Medieval Costumes

History of Medieval fashion
The History of fashion during the Medieval times of the Middle Ages was dominated and highly influenced by the Kings and Queens of the era. Only the wealthy could dress in fashionable clothes. Sumptuary Laws restricted ordinary people in their expenditure including money spent on clothes. Under the Sumptuary Laws passed by King Edward III only royalty were allowed to wear cloth of gold and purple silk. Expensive veils were banned for lower class women. Only the wives or daughters of nobles were allowed to wear velvet, satin sable or ermine. Fashions changed with each king and queen. The head-dress worn by people during the Medieval times of the Middle Ages immediately conveyed the rank of the person.

Timeline History of Medieval fashion
The following timeline charts the history of fashion through the Medieval times of the Middle Ages:

1066-1087
The reign of King William the Conqueror
The Normans invaded England and introduced French fashion to the English court

The reign of King William Rufus (son of William)
William Rufus was believed to be a homosexual, he had no wife and did not influence fashion during his reign. But the first crusade started in 1095 and fine silks, satins, damasks, brocades, and velvets were imported from the Far East

The reign of King Henry II (grandson of Henry I) the first Plantagenet King of England. He married Eleanor of Aquitaine who brought further refinement to the court and an appreciation for music and the arts. The fashion changed to more simpler clothes

The reign of King John (fifth son of Henry II) saw extravagant fashion for men whist female fashions remained simple. Hose took the place of trousers

The reign of King Edward II (son of Edward I) famous for his 'friendship ' with Piers Gaveston. He married Isabella of France. The Great Famine of 1311-1315 tempered the extravagance of courtly fashion

The reign of King Edward III (son of Edward II) he married Philippa of Hainault. Prosperous reign and fashions became extravagant and sumptuous following victory in France and at the Battle of Crecy. King Edward III passed Sumptuary Laws in 1336, 1337 and 1363 to regulate the dress of various classes of the English people, promote English garments and to preserve class distinctions by means of costume, clothes and dress. This was tempered by the Black Death which reached England in 1347

The reign of King Richard II (grandson of Edward III, son of the Black Prince) married Anne of Bohemia, daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and Princess Isabella of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France. Fashion was influenced by France and Spain

The reign of King Henry IV (grandson of Edward III, son of John of Gaunt) He married Mary de Bohun and Joanna of Navarre. Fashion was influenced by their countries

The reign of King Henry V (son of Henry IV) The English win victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and the country prospers and fashions become extravagant

The reign of King Richard III (uncle of Edward V) which ended with the emergence of the Tudor dynasty

History of Medieval fashion
The Medieval Times website provides interesting facts, history and information about the clothes and fashion which scatter the Medieval History books including History of Medieval fashion. The Medieval Times Sitemap provides full details of all of the information and facts about the fascinating subject of the lives of the people who lived during the historical period of the Middle Ages. The content of this article on Medieval life and times provides free educational details, facts and information for reference and research for schools, colleges and homework for history courses and history coursework.

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Facts and interesting information about Medieval Clothing, specifically History of Medieval Fashion, ideal for research into Medieval Costumes History of Medieval fashion The History of fashion during the Medieval times of the Middle Ages was dominated and highly influenced by the Kings and Queens of the era.

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Use this list to find something you are interested in to look up more information!

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This is a list of Japanese inventions and discoveries. The Japanese have made contributions across a number of scientific and technological domains. In particular, the country has played a crucial role in the digital revolution since the 20th century, with many modern revolutionary and widespread technologies in fields such as electronics and robotics introduced by Japanese inventors and entrepreneurs. Japanese popular culture, strongly shaped by its electronic technologies, commands considerable influence around the world.

Adam L. Kern has suggested that , picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books. These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes. Some works were mass-produced as serials using woodblock printing.

The history of manga has origins in scrolls dating back to the 12th century, and it is believed they represent the basis for the right-to-left reading style. During the Edo period (1603-1867), Toba Ehon embedded the concept of manga. The word itself first came into common usage in 1798, with the publication of works such as Santō Kyōden's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the Hokusai Manga books (1814-1834).

Japanese animation, or anime, today widely popular both in Japan and abroad, began in the early 20th century.

Man with No Name

A stock character that originated with Akira Kurosawa's (1961), where the archetype was first portrayed by Toshirō Mifune. The archetype was adapted by Sergio Leone for his Spaghetti Western Dollars Trilogy (1964-1966), with Clint Eastwood playing the role of the "Man with No Name". It is now a common archetype in Samurai films and Western films as well as other genres.

The mecha genre of science fiction was founded in Japan. The first depiction of mecha Super Robots being piloted by a user from within a cockpit was introduced in the manga and anime series by Go Nagai in 1972.

Postcyberpunk animation/film

The first postcyberpunk media work in an animated/film format was Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex in 2002. It has been called "the most interesting, sustained postcyberpunk media work in existence."

Imari porcelain

Imari porcelain or Arita-yaki is a type of Japanese porcelain made in the town of Arita. It was widely exported from the port of Imari, Saga to Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Jet streams were first discovered by Japanese meteorologist Wasaburo Oishi by tracking ceiling balloons. However, Oishi's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto.

Drifting competition

In 1988, Keiichi Tsuchiya alongside Option magazine founder and chief editor Daijiro Inada organised the first contest specifically for sliding a car sideways. In 1996, Option organized the first contest outside Japan which began to spread to other countries.

Aikido was created and developed by Morihei Ueshiba in first half of the 20th century.

It began as a common fighting system known as "" (or "te") among the pechin class of the Ryukyuans. There were few formal styles of ti, but rather many practitioners with their own methods. One surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara. Early styles of karate are often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three cities from which they emerged.

Developed by groups of people mainly from the Iga Province and Kōka, Shiga of Japan. Throughout history, many different schools () have taught their unique versions of ninjutsu. An example of these is the Togakure-ryū. This ryū was developed after a defeated samurai warrior called Daisuke Togakure escaped to the region of Iga. Later he came in contact with the warrior-monk Kain Doshi who taught him a new way of viewing life and the means of survival (ninjutsu).

Okinawan martial arts

In the 14th century, when the three kingdoms on Okinawa ( (唐手, Chūzan, Hokuzan, and Nanzan) entered into a tributary relationship with the Ming Dynasty of China, Chinese Imperial envoys and other Chinese arrived, some of whom taught Chinese Chuan Fa (Kempo) to the Okinawans. The Okinawans combined Chinese Chuan Fa with the existing martial art of Te to form Tō-de Okinawan: Tū-dī, Tang hand), sometimes called Okinawa-te. By the 18th century, different types of Te had developed in three different villages - Naha, Shuri, and Tomari. The styles were named Naha-te, Shuri-te, and Tomari-te, respectively. Practitioners from these three villages went on to develop modern karate.

Sumo

Sumo is said to have started in the Heian period (794-1192). The imperial family watches sumo as a form of entertainment. It has evolved over the centuries with professional sumo wrestlers appearing in the Edo period (1603-1868).It may have been based from Mongolian, Chinese, and Korean wrestling. The word sumo is written with the Chinese characters or Kanji of "mutual bruising."

Active Time Battle

Hiroyuki Ito introduced the "Active Time Battle" system in Final Fantasy IV (1991), where the time-keeping system does not stop. Square Co., Ltd. filed a United States patent application for the ATB system on March 16, 1992, under the title "Video game apparatus, method and device for controlling same" and was awarded the patent on February 21, 1995. On the battle screen, each character has an ATB meter that gradually fills, and the player is allowed to issue a command to that character once the meter is full. The fact that enemies can attack or be attacked at any time is credited with injecting urgency and excitement into the combat system.

The first game to feature fist fighting was Sega's boxing game Heavyweight Champ (1976), but it was Data East's fighting game Karate Champ (1984) which popularized martial arts themed games. The same year, Hong Kong cinema-inspired Kung-Fu Master laid the foundations for scrolling beat 'em ups with its simple gameplay and multiple enemies. Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun, released in 1986 in Japan, deviated from the martial arts themes of earlier games and introduced street brawling to the genre. (released the same year) added an underworld revenge plot that proved more popular with gamers than the principled combat sport of other games. Renegade set the standard for future beat 'em up games as it introduced the ability to move both horizontally and vertically.

Bullet hell

The bullet hell or danmaku genre began to emerge in the early 1990s as 2D developers needed to find a way to compete with 3D games which were becoming increasingly popular at the time. Toaplan's (1993) is considered to be the ancestor of the modern bullet hell genre. The Touhou Project series is one of the most popular bullet hell franchises.

Fighting game

Sega's black and white boxing game Heavyweight Champ was released in 1976 as the first video game to feature fist fighting. However, Data East's Karate Champ from 1984 is credited with establishing and popularizing the one-on-one fighting game genre, and went on to influence Konami's Yie Ar Kung-Fu from 1985. Yie Ar Kung Fu expanded on Karate Champ by pitting the player against a variety of opponents, each with a unique appearance and fighting style. Capcom's Street Fighter (1987) introduced the use of special moves that could only be discovered by experimenting with the game controls. Street Fighter II (1991) established the conventions of the fighting game genre and, whereas previous games allowed players to combat computer-controlled fighters, Street Fighter II allowed players to play against each other.

Platform game

Space Panic, a 1980 arcade release, is sometimes credited as the first platform game. It was clearly an influence on the genre, with gameplay centered on climbing ladders between different floors, a common element in many early platform games. Donkey Kong, an arcade game created by Nintendo, released in July 1981, was the first game that allowed players to jump over obstacles and across gaps, making it the first true platformer.

Psychological horror game

Silent Hill (1999) was praised for moving away survival horror games from B movie horror elements to the psychological style seen in art house or Japanese horror films, due to the game's emphasis on a disturbing atmosphere rather than visceral horror. The original Silent Hill is considered one of the scariest games of all time, and the strong narrative from Silent Hill 2 in 2001 has made the series one of the most influential in the genre. Fatal Frame from 2001 was a unique entry into the genre, as the player explores a mansion and takes photographs of ghosts in order to defeat them.

Rhythm game

Dance Aerobics was released in 1987, and allowed players to create music by stepping on Nintendo's Power Pad peripheral. It has been called the first rhythm-action game in retrospect, although the 1996 title PaRappa the Rapper has also been deemed the first rhythm game, whose basic template forms the core of subsequent games in the genre. In 1997, Konami's sparked an emergent market for rhythm games in Japan. The company's music division, Bemani, released a number of music games over the next several years.

Scrolling platformer

The first platform game to use scrolling graphics was (1981), a simple platform-shooter developed by Alpha Denshi. In August 1982, Taito released Jungle King, which featured scrolling jump and run sequences that had players hopping over obstacles. Namco took the scrolling platformer a step further with the 1984 release . Pac-Land came after the genre had a few years to develop, and was an evolution of earlier platform games, aspiring to be more than a simple game of hurdle jumping, like some of its predecessors. It closely resembled later scrolling platformers like and Super Mario Bros and was probably a direct influence on them. It also had multi-layered parallax scrolling.

Space Invaders is frequently cited as the "first" or "original" in the genre. Space Invaders pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing rate of speed. As with subsequent shoot 'em ups of the time, the game was set in space as the available technology only permitted a black background. The game also introduced the idea of giving the player a number of "lives". Space Invaders was a massive commercial success, causing a coin shortage in Japan. The following year, Namco's took the genre further with more complex enemy patterns and richer graphics.

Stealth game

The first stealth-based videogame was Hiroshi Suzuki's Manbiki Shounen (1979). The first commercially successful stealth game was Hideo Kojima's (1987), the first in the Metal Gear series. It was followed by Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake (1990) which significantly expanded the genre, and then Metal Gear Solid (1998).

Survival horror

The term survival horror was coined by Capcom's Resident Evil (1996) and definitely defined that genre. The game was inspired by Capcom's earlier horror game (1989). The earliest survival horror game was Nostromo, developed by Akira Takiguchi (a Tokyo University student and Taito contractor) for the PET 2001 and published by ASCII for the PC-6001 in 1981.

Biology, chemistry, and biomedical science

Aspergillus oryzae

The genome for Aspergillus oryzae was sequenced and released by a consortium of Japanese biotechnology companies, in late 2005.

Ephedrine synthesis

Ephedrine in its natural form, known as má huáng (麻黄) in traditional Chinese medicine, had been documented in China since the Han dynasty. However, it was not until 1885 that the chemical synthesis of ephedrine was first accomplished by Japanese organic chemist Nagai Nagayoshi.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

Japanese chemist Jōkichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka first discovered epinephrine in 1900. In 1901 Takamine successfully isolated and purified the hormone from the adrenal glands of sheep and oxen.

Esophagogastroduodenoscope

Mutsuo Sugiura was a Japanese engineer famous for being the first to develop a Gastro-camera (a present-day Esophagogastroduodenoscope). His story was illustrated in the NHK TV documentary feature, "Project X: Challengers: The Development of a Gastro-camera Wholly Made in Japan". Sugiura graduated from Tokyo Polytechnic University in 1938 and then joined Olympus Corporation. While working at this company, he first developed an esophagogastroduodenoscope in 1950.

Immunoglobulin E (IgE)

Immunoglobulin E is a type of antibody only found in mammals. IgE was simultaneously discovered in 1966-7 by two independent groups: Kimishige Ishizaka's team at the Children's Asthma Research Institute and Hospital in Denver, Colorado, and by Gunnar Johansson and Hans Bennich in Uppsala, Sweden. Their joint paper was published in April 1969.

Methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1894 by chemist Nagayoshi Nagai. In 1919, methamphetamine hydrochloride was synthesized by pharmacologist Akira Ogata.

Okazaki fragment

Okazaki fragments are short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging template strand during DNA replication. They are complementary to the lagging template strand, together forming short double-stranded DNA sections. A series of experiments led to the discovery of Okazaki fragments. The experiments were conducted during the 1960s by Reiji Okazaki, Tsuneko Okazaki, Kiwako Sakabe, and their colleagues during their research on DNA replication of Escherichia coli. In 1966, Kiwako Sakabe and Reiji Okazaki first showed that DNA replication was a discontinuous process involving fragments. The fragments were further investigated by the researchers and their colleagues through their research including the study on bacteriophage DNA replication in Escherichia coli.

Thiamine was the first of the water-soluble vitamins to be described, leading to the discovery of more such trace compounds essential for survival and to the notion of vitamin. It was not until 1884 that Kanehiro Takaki (1849-1920) attributed beriberi to insufficient nitrogen intake (protein deficiency). In 1910, Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid. He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. The Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk later proposed the complex be named "Vitamine" (a portmanteau of "vital amine") in 1912.

Urushiol, a mixture of alkyl catechols, was discovered by Rikou Majima. Majima also discovered that Urushiol was an allergen which gave members of the genus Toxicodendron, such as poison ivy and poison oak, their skin-irritating properties.

Candlestick chart

Candlestick charts have been developed in the 18th century by Munehisa Homma, a Japanese rice trader of financial instruments. They were introduced to the Western world by Steve Nison in his book, Japanese Candlestick Charting Techniques.

Bernoulli number

Studied by Seki Kōwa and published after his death, in 1712. Jacob Bernoulli independently developed the concept in the same period, though his work was published a year later.

Determinant

In Japan, determinants were introduced to study elimination of variables in systems of higher-order algebraic equations. They used it to give shorthand representation for the resultant. The determinant as an independent function was first studied by Seki Kōwa in 1683.

Elimination theory

In 1683 (Kai-Fukudai-no-Hō), Seki Kōwa came up with elimination theory, based on resultant. To express resultant, he developed the notion of determinant.

Itô calculus

Developed by Kiyosi Itô throughout the 20th century, Itô calculus extends calculus to stochastic processes such as Brownian motion (Wiener process). Its basic concept is the Itô integral, and among the most important results is a change of variable formula known as Itô's lemma. Itô calculus is widely applied in various fields, but is perhaps best known for its use in mathematical finance.

Iwasawa theory and the Main conjecture of Iwasawa theory

Initially created by Kenkichi Iwasawa, Iwasawa theory was originally developed as a Galois module theory of ideal class groups. The main conjecture of Iwasawa theory is a deep relationship between and ideal class groups of cyclotomic fields, proved by Iwasawa (1969) for primes satisfying the Kummer-Vandiver conjecture and proved for all primes by Mazur and Wiles (1984).

In 1683 (Kai-Fukudai-no-Hō), Seki Kōwa came up with elimination theory, based on resultant. To express resultant, he developed the notion of determinant.

Japanese geometrical puzzles in Euclidean geometry on wooden tablets created during the Edo period (1603-1867) by members of all social classes. The Dutch Japanologist Isaac Titsingh first introduced sangaku to the West when he returned to Europe in the late 1790s after more than twenty years in the Far East.

Nagaoka model (first Saturnian model of the atom)

Airsoft originated in Japan, then spread to Hong Kong and China in the late 1970s. The inventor of the first airsoft gun is Tanio Kobayashi.

Jōmon pottery

The Jōmon Pottery is a type of ancient pottery which was made during the Jōmon period in Japan. The term "Jōmon" (縄文) means "rope-patterned" in Japanese, describing the patterns that are pressed into the clay. The pottery vessels crafted in Ancient Japan during the Jōmon period are generally accepted to be the oldest pottery in Japan. Bits of pottery discovered in a cave in the northwest coast of modern-day Kyushu date back to as far as 12,700 BCE in radiometric dating tests. It is believed by many that Jōmon pottery was probably made even earlier than this date. However, due to ambiguity and multiple sources claiming different dates based on different dating techniques, it is difficult to say for sure how far back Jōmon Pottery was made. Some sources claim archaeological discoveries as far back as the 14th millennium BCE.

Tactile paving

The original tactile paving was developed by Seiichi Miyake in 1965. The paving was first introduced in a street in Okayama city, Japan, in 1967. Its use gradually spread in Japan and then around the world.

Compact Disc player

Sony released the world's first CD Player, called the CDP-101, in 1982, using a slide-out tray design for the Compact Disc.

There are various disputes about who first invented the name karaoke (a Japanese word meaning "empty orchestra"). One claim is that the karaoke styled machine was invented by Japanese musician Daisuke Inoue in Kobe, Japan, in 1971.

Direct-drive turntable

Invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, the first in their influential Technics series of turntables. The Technics SL-1100, released in 1971, was adopted by early hip hop DJs for turntablism, and the SL-1200 is still widely used by dance and hip hop DJs.

Fully programmable drum machine

The Roland TR-808, also known as the 808, introduced by Roland in 1980, was the first fully programmable drum machine. It was the first drum machine with the ability to program an entire percussion track from beginning to end, complete with breaks and rolls. Created by Ikutaro Kakehashi, the 808 has been fundamental to hip hop music and electronic dance music since the 1980s, making it one of the most influential inventions in popular music.

In 1968, Shin-ei's Uni-Vibe effects pedal, designed by audio engineer Fumio Mieda, incorporated phase shift and chorus effects, soon becoming favorite effects of guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix and Robin Trower.

Vowel-Consonant synthesis

A type of hybrid Digital-analogue synthesis first employed by the early Casiotone keyboards in the early 1980s.

Pocket calculator

The first portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet". Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed about one pound, had a vacuum fluorescent display, and rechargeable NiCad batteries. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971.

Chindōgu is the Japanese art of inventing ingenious everyday gadgets that, on the face of it, seem like an ideal solution to a particular problem. However, Chindōgu has a distinctive feature: anyone actually attempting to use one of these inventions would find that it causes so many new problems, or such significant social embarrassment, that effectively it has no utility whatsoever. Thus, Chindōgu are sometimes described as "unuseless" - that is, they cannot be regarded as 'useless' in an absolute sense, since they do actually solve a problem; however, in practical terms, they cannot positively be called "useful." The term "Chindōgu" was coined by Kenji Kawakami.

Continuous wave semiconductor laser

Invented by Izuo Hayashi and Morton B. Panish in 1970. This led directly to the light sources in fiber-optic communication, laser printers, barcode readers, and optical disc drives, technologies that were commercialized by Japanese entrepreneurs.

Digital system design, and digital computer theory

In the 1930s, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima laid the foundations for digital system design with his switching circuit theory, where formulated a two-valued Boolean algebra as a way to analyze and design circuits by algebraic means in terms of logic gates. His switching circuit theory provided the mathematical foundations and tools for digital system design in almost all areas of modern technology, and was the basis for digital computer theory.

Fiber-optic communication

While working at Tohoku University, Jun-ichi Nishizawa proposed the use of optical fibers for optical communication, in 1963. Nishizawa invented other technologies that contributed to the development of optical fiber communications, such as the graded-index optical fiber as a channel for transmitting light from semiconductor lasers. Izuo Hayashi's invention of the continuous wave semiconductor laser in 1970 led directly to light sources in fiber-optic communication, commercialized by Japanese entrepreneurs.

JFET (junction gate field-effect transistor)

Despite that Adam Osborne announced the "first laptop/notebook" called Osborne 1 but it is now called a luggable portable computer along with other protable computers such as IBM 5100. Yukio Yokozawa, an employee for Suwa Seikosha, a branch of Seiko (now Seiko Epson), invented the first laptop/notebook computer in July 1980, receiving a patent for the invention. Seiko's notebook computer, known as the HC-20 in Japan, was announced in 1981. In North America, Epson introduced it as the Epson HX-20 in 1981, at the COMDEX computer show in Las Vegas, where it drew significant attention for its portability. It had a mass-market release in July 1982, as the HC-20 in Japan and as the Epson HX-20 in North America. It was the first notebook-sized handheld computer, the size of an A4 notebook and weighing 1.6 kg (3.5 lb). In 1983, the Sharp PC-5000 and Ampere WS-1 laptops from Japan featured a modern clamshell design.

Microcomputer

The first microcomputer was Sord Computer Corporation's SMP80/08, developed in 1972, using the 8-bit Intel 8008 microprocessor.

Microprocessor

The concept of a single-chip microprocessor central processing unit (CPU) was conceived in a 1968 meeting in Japan between Sharp engineer Tadashi Sasaki and a software engineering researcher from Nara Women's College. Sasaki discussed the microprocessor concept with Busicom and Intel in 1968. The first commercial microprocessor, the 4-bit Intel 4004, began with the "Busicom Project" in 1968 as Masatoshi Shima's three-chip CPU design, which was simplified down to a single-chip microprocessor, designed from 1969 to 1970 by Intel's Marcian Hoff and Federico Faggin and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima, and commercially released in 1971.

Optical communication

Hardware elements providing the basis of internet technology, the three essential elements of optical communication, were invented by Jun-ichi Nishizawa: the semiconductor laser (1957) being the light source, the graded-index optical fiber (1964) as the transmission line, and the PIN photodiode (1950) as the optical receiver. Fiber-optic communication was proposed by Nishizawa in 1963. Izuo Hayashi's invention of the continuous wave semiconductor laser in 1970 led directly to the light sources in fiber-optic communication, commercialized by Japanese entrepreneurs, and opened up the field of optical communication, playing an important role in the communication networks of the future. Their work laid the foundations for the Information Age.

Radio-controlled wheel transmitter

Futaba introduced the FP-T2F in 1974 that was the first to use a steering wheel onto a box transmitter. KO Propo introduced the EX-1 in 1981 that integrated a wheel with a pistol grip with its trigger acting as the throttle. This became one of the two types of radio controlled transmitters currently for surface use.

Stored-program transistor computer

The ETL Mark III began development in 1954, and was completed in 1956, created by the Electrotechnical Laboratory. It was the first stored-program transistor computer.

Switching circuit theory

From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima introduced switching circuit theory in a series of papers showing that two-valued Boolean algebra, which he discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits.

In 1982, Nintendo's Gunpei Yokoi elaborated on the idea of a circular pad, shrinking it and altering the points into the familiar modern "cross" design for control of on-screen characters in their Donkey Kong handheld game. It came to be known as the "D-pad". The design proved to be popular for subsequent titles. This particular design was patented. In 1984, the Japanese company Epoch created a handheld game system called the Epoch Game Pocket Computer. It featured a D-pad, but it was not popular for its time and soon faded. Initially intended to be a compact controller for the Game & Watch handheld games alongside the prior non-connected style pad, Nintendo realized that Gunpei's design would also be appropriate for regular consoles, and Nintendo made the D-pad the standard directional control for the hugely successful Nintendo Entertainment System under the name "+Control Pad".

Motion-sensing controller

Invented by Nintendo for the Wii, the Wii Remote is the first controller with motion-sensing capability. It was a candidate for Time's Best Invention of 2006.

3D printing

In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two additive methods for fabricating three-dimensional plastic models with photo-hardening thermoset polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.

The world's first android, DER 01, was developed by a Japanese research group, The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University, and Kokoro Co., Ltd. The Actroid is a humanoid robot with strong visual human-likeness developed by Osaka University and manufactured by Kokoro Company Ltd. (the animatronics division of Sanrio). It was first unveiled at the 2003 International Robot Exposition in Tokyo, Japan. The Actroid woman is a pioneer example of a real machine similar to imagined machines called by the science fiction terms android or , so far used only for fictional robots. It can mimic such lifelike functions as blinking, speaking, and breathing. The "Repliee" models are interactive robots with the ability to recognise and process speech and respond in kind.

Karakuri puppet

(からくり人形, Karakuri puppets karakuri ningyō) are traditional Japanese mechanized puppets or automata, originally made from the 17th century to the 19th century. The word karakuri means "mechanisms" or "trick". The dolls' gestures provided a form of entertainment. Three main types of karakuri exist. Butai karakuri (舞台からくり, stage karakuri) were used in theatre. Zashiki karakuri (座敷からくり, tatami room karakuri) were small and used in homes. Dashi karakuri (山車からくり, festival car karakuri) were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional myths and legends.

Blu-ray Disc (alongside with other nations)

After Shuji Nakamura's invention of practical blue laser diodes, Sony started two projects applying the new diodes: UDO (Ultra Density Optical) and DVR Blue (together with Pioneer), a format of rewritable discs which would eventually become the Blu-ray Disc. The Blu-ray Disc Association was founded by Massachusetts Institute of Technology alongside with nine companies: five from Japan, two from Korea, one from the Netherlands and one from France.

Compact Disc (also Dutch company Philips)

Digital video disc (also Dutch company Philips)

The DVD, first developed in 1995, resulted from a cooperation between three Japanese companies (Sony, Toshiba and Panasonic) and one Dutch company (Philips).

Aperture grille

One of two major cathode ray tube (CRT) display technologies, along with the older shadow mask. Aperture grille was introduced by Sony with their Trinitron television in 1968.

LCD television

The first LCD televisions were invented as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko's R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions. In 1982, Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with an active-matrix LCD television. In 1983, Casio released a handheld LCD television, the Casio TV-10.

Automatic power loom

Sakichi Toyoda invented numerous weaving devices. His most famous invention was the automatic power loom in which he implemented the principle of Jidoka (autonomation or autonomous automation). It was the 1924 Toyoda Automatic Loom, Type G, a completely automatic high-speed loom featuring the ability to change shuttles without stopping and dozens of other innovations. At the time it was the world's most advanced loom, delivering a dramatic improvement in quality and a twenty-fold increase in productivity.

The second man-made fiber to be invented, after nylon. It was first developed by Ichiro Sakurada, H. Kawakami, and Korean scientist Ri Sung-gi at the Takatsuki chemical research center in 1939 in Japan.

Bullet train

The world's first high volume capable (initially 12 car maximum) "high-speed train" was Japan's Tōkaidō Shinkansen, which officially opened in October 1964, with construction commencing in April 1959. The 0 Series Shinkansen, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, achieved maximum passenger service speeds of 210 km/h (130 mph) on the Tokyo-Nagoya-Kyoto-Osaka route, with earlier test runs hitting top speeds in 1963 at 256 km/h.

A category of small automobiles, including passenger cars, vans, and pickup trucks. They are designed to exploit local tax and insurance relaxations, and in more rural areas are exempted from the requirement to certify that adequate parking is available for the vehicle.

A two or three-wheeled passenger cart seating one or two people that serves as a mode of human-powered transport pulled by a runner draws a two-wheeled cart. The rickshaws was invented in Japan around 1869, after the lifting of a ban on wheeled vehicles from the Tokugawa period (1603-1868), and at the beginning of a rapid period of technical advancement across the Japanese archipelago.

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^ Selin, Helaine. (1997), An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Saunders College Publishing. p. 891, ISBN 0-03-029558-0

Styan, George P. H.; Trenkler, Götz. (2007), . Journal of Applied Mathematics and Decision Sciences, 2007, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, pp. 2

^ Howard Eves: "An Introduction to the History of Mathematics", page 405, Saunders College Publishing, 1990. (ISBN 0-03-029558-0)

M. Kobayashi; T. Maskawa (1973). "CP-Violation in the Renormalizable Theory of Weak Interaction" (PDF). Progress of Theoretical Physics. 49 (2): 652. Bibcode:1973PThPh..49..652K. doi:10.1143/PTP.49.652.

^ "The History of Airsoft". Abbey Supply. 2 March 2016. Archived from the original on 28 October 2018.

^ Japan Patent Office Archived 2011-03-05 at the Wayback Machine, Kyota Sugimoto (Japanese Typewriter), 28 January 2009.

^ Fine, Thomas (2008). Barry R. Ashpole (ed.). "The Dawn of Commercial Digital Recording" (PDF). ARSC Journal. Ted P. Sheldon.

^ Who Invented the Karaoke Machine? Archived 2008-03-05 at the Wayback Machine Events-in-Music.com

^ 井上大祐【カラオケ発明者】 J-ONE/INOUE Archived 2009-03-21 at the Wayback Machine Events-in-Music.com

^ Contemporary Keyboard, Volume 7, Issues 1-6, 1981: "The Roland TR-808 will undoubtedly become the standard for rhythm machines of the future because it does what no rhythm machine of the past has ever done. Not only does the TR-808 allow programming of individual rhythm patterns, it can also program the entire percussion track of a song from beginning to end, complete with breaks, rolls, literally anything you can think of."

^ "Keywords to understanding Sony Energy Devices". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.

^ Toshiba Firsts of Their Kind: Automatic Electric Rice Cooker Archived 2009-06-17 at the Wayback Machine

^ "New Medal Honors Japanese Microelectrics Industry Leader". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

^ 【Shinshu Seiki / Suwa Seikosha】 HC-20, Information Processing Society of Japan

Michael Katz, Robert Levering, Milton Moskowitz (1985), ^ Computer Entrepreneur, page 469, Penguin Group

S. Millman (1983), ^ A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System, page 10 Archived 2017-10-26 at the Wayback Machine, AT&T Bell Laboratories

Radomir S. Stanković (^ University of Niš), Jaakko T. Astola (Tampere University of Technology), Mark G. Karpovsky (Boston University), Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory, 2007, DOI 10.1.1.66.1248

Sony sold 15,000 U-matic machines in the U.S. in its first year. "Television on a Disk," ^ Time, September 18, 1972.

^ MacDorman, Karl F.; Ishiguro, Hiroshi (2006). "The uncanny advantage of using androids in social and cognitive science research" (PDF). Interaction Studies. 7 (3): 297-337. doi:10.1075/is.7.3.03mac. ISSN 1572-0373.

Jane Marie Law, ^ Puppets of Nostalgia - The Life, Death and Rebirth of the Japanese Awaji Ningyo Tradition, 1997, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-02894-1

Shinkansen Chronology Archived 2009-02-15 at the Wayback Machine, byun byun Shinkansen.

^ Hanchao Lu (1999). Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century. 1999: University of California Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-0520215641.

James Francis Warren (2003). Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History of Singapore, 1880-1940. NUS Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-9971692667.

^ David Diefendorf (2007). Amazing . . . But False!: Hundreds of "Facts" You Thought Were True, But Aren't. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 223. ISBN 978-1402737916.

^ Hantaro Nagaoka (1929). "Possibility of the radio transmission being disturbed by meteoric showers". Proceedings of the Imperial Academy. 5 (6): 233-236. doi:10.2183/pjab1912.5.233. Cited in

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List of Japanese inventions and discoveries

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This is a list of Japanese inventions and discoveries . The Japanese have made contributions across a number of scientific and technological domains. In particular, the country has played a crucial role in the digital revolution since the 20th century, with many modern revolutionary and widespread technologies in fields such as electronics and robotics introduced by Japanese inventors and entrepreneurs.

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Remember, Wikipedia is not a source. But you can find the names and time frames you are looking for here to go look up what interests you!

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List of Korean inventions and discoveries

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This is a list of Korean inventions and discoveries; Koreans have made contributions to science and technology from ancient to modern times. In the present, South Korea plays an active role in the ongoing Digital Revolution, with one of the largest electronics industries and most innovative economies in the world.

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Remember, the term Medieval is a Western term, so often in Asia you will find they use the term Ancient. Listen and read and find the dates for what you are looking for. :)

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Korea

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Only need the Middle Ages details

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Korea vs China

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What is First conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War?, Explain First conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War

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Korea

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Goryeo Buddhist Painting: A Closer Look | Freer Gallery of Art ... 2555 × 1095 - 606k - jpg asia.si.edu

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The Goryeo dynasty (918-1392) (article) | Khan Academy

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Korea from 668 to 1637, Japan from 710 to 1603

This chapter covers the following topics:

668 to 926

Though the period after the Three Kingdoms is usually called the age of unified Silla, you may also hear it called the North-South States Period because there were really two kingdoms, Silla in the central and southern thirds of Korea, and Balhae in northern Korea and Manchuria. A Goguryeo general, Dae Joyeong, fled to Manchuria, founded a kingdom called Balhae (Parhae in older texts and Bohai in Chinese), and crowned himself as its first king (King Ko, 698-720). Other Goguryeo refugees joined him, and in the same year he secured recognition and friendship from China by sending a son as a hostage to the Tang court. Relations with Silla, however, were always tense.
We do not know much about Balhae today. This is mainly because neither modern China nor the North Korean government has much interest in archeological excavations of the places where Parhae once ruled; communists have an aversion to uncovering parts of the past they are trying to erase. Moreover, no historical records from Balhae have come down to us. After Balhae fell, the later Goryeo kingdom took in refugees from there, but as far as we know it did not write any history of Balhae, either. The border between Balhae and Silla ran across the peninsula's narrowest point, from the Taedong River in the west to Wonsan in the east; Silla marked the boundary by building a defensive wall along it in the ninth century. Most of Balhae's territory was actually in Manchuria, and the capital, Sanggyong ("High Capital"), was located near the modern Chinese city of Dongjingcheng, in Heilongjiang province; it was laid out in a grid pattern in imitation of the Chinese capital, Changan. At its peak in the early ninth century, Balhae was a prosperous state whose population exceeded 500,000 people. This is the last time a Korean state ruled any land outside of the peninsula, and because so little is known of Balhae, Silla gets all the credit during this period; many Asian history books do not even mention the northern kingdom.

The international position of Balhae remained precarious, for King Ko's successors declared independence from Chinese authority and enlarged the state. The frontiers were pushed north to the Amur River, and west to the Liao River; in 732 Balhae even launched a naval expedition against China. The result was an alliance between Silla and China against Balhae, which Balhae countered with ties to Japan and northeast Asian nomadic tribes like the Malgal. In the reign of Tae Hum-mu (King Won, 738-794), relations with China were normalized, and Balhae scholars and monks went to study in China. Soon the Balhae government was being run on Confucian principles, and all officials were expected to be educated, as was the case in China.

But Goguryeo traditions also influenced Balhae. The ondol system of heating through hot-air flues in the floor has been found at Balhae sites. Tombs, Buddhist statues, and temple roof tiles are all faithful copies of Goguryeo architecture. Furthermore, the royal family adopted the Goguryeo royal surname (Ko) as its own, adding weight to their claim that Balhae was run by the heirs of Goguryeo.

710 to 784

Japan's Fujiwara government was better organized than those before it, but it needed a permanent location to function as smoothly as the Chinese bureaucracy it imitated. Before this time Shintoism was so obsessed with cleanliness that whenever an emperor/empress died the imperial family abandoned the palace and built a new one elsewhere, in order to escape any evil spirit the corpse might place on the house (see also the next footnote). This was no major hardship in an age when even the best buildings were oversized huts, but now this ancient custom was becoming too expensive to maintain. The Japanese noticed that the Chinese maintained a capital in the same place for generations, and that the country had not collapsed from spiritual pollution, so in 710 Nara, Japan's first true city, was built as a permanent capital.
Located in the center of the Yamato plain, Nara was laid out as a smaller copy of China's capital, Changan; eventually it grew to house 200,000 people, and it was a lovely city filled with pagodas, parks, and cherry trees. Here art and literature flourished, and more elements of Chinese culture, especially Buddhism, entered the country. Buddhism was seen as a source of both modern civilization and enlightened philosophy, but since the emperors derived their authority from being descendants of Amaterasu, they could not under any circumstances forsake the native religion. The differences between Buddhism and Shintoism were finally resolved by an influential monk named Gyogi, who prayed at the door of Amaterasu's shrine for seven days and nights, asking her opinion. The sun goddess answered by saying that the two religions were really just two different ways of expressing the same faith, and it was okay to build Buddhist shrines anywhere in the country after that. Japan's upper class now embraced the new faith, with its accompanying values, even more fervently than contemporary Germanic tribes in Europe accepted Christianity.(1)

Nara gave Japan a brilliant capital, but not the best administration. The Ainu tribes to the north--as they always had been previously--were still a threat; more dangerous, however, was the growing power of the Buddhist clergy. A monk named Dokyo became the lover of the Empress Koken (749-770), and he dominated her in a way similar to the way that Rasputin dominated the last tsarina of Russia. Dokyo exiled and later murdered the crown prince; then he appointed himself both prime minister and high priest. Too ambitious to stop there, Dokyo then produced an oracular pronouncement from Hachiman, the Shinto god of war, that promised everlasting peace for Japan if Dokyo would become the next emperor. Even the empress was skeptical about this, and she sent an emissary to Hachiman's shrine to ask if this was true; the god responded that the monk could never be emperor because he lacked imperial lineage. Nara's wrathful nobility stripped Dokyo of his titles and banished him to a small island.

These unseemly events caused the Japanese to draw two conclusions: (1.) they must never again allow a female to reign, and (2.) they must put the government in a priest-proof city. In 784 the capital was moved from Nara to nearby Nagaoka, but eleven years later it was abandoned as an ill-omened place. The new capital that was than built, Heian-kyo, was only 28 miles from the temples of Nara, but that was far enough to separate church & state.(2) It was from there that Japan would be ruled for the next millennium.(3)

668 to 935

Under the Silla monarchs and the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392) that followed them, Chinese influence peaked, and then Korean culture achieved its first full flowering. The Silla rulers consciously strove to turn their kingdom into a miniature of the Tang Empire. They regularly sent embassies and tribute to the Tang court, where Korean scholars collected Chinese texts and noted the latest fashions in court dress and etiquette. The Koreans' regular attendance on the Chinese emperors was a key manifestation of their prominent and enduring participation in the Chinese tribute system. At various times, the participants in the system included nomads from central and North Asia, Tibet, many kingdoms of Southeast Asia, and the emperors of Japan. None of these participants was more committed to the system than the Koreans.
Rather than attempt to conquer the Koreans and other surrounding peoples, most Chinese emperors were content to receive embassies from them. These emissaries both offered tribute in the form of splendid gifts and acknowledged the superiority of the Son of Heaven by their willingness to kowtow to him (kowtowing involved a series of ritual bows in which the supplicant prostrated himself before the throne).

To most of the peoples involved, this seemed a small price to pay for the benefits they received from the Middle Kingdom. Not only did submission and tribute guarantee peace with the Chinese, it brought far richer gifts in return for those offered to the Chinese ruler, and privileged access to Chinese learning, art, and manufactured goods. Tribute missions normally included merchants, whose ability to buy up Chinese manufactures and sell their own goods in the lucrative Chinese market depended on their country's participation in the tribute system. The missions also included contingents of scholars, who studied at Chinese academies(4) or Buddhist monasteries and busily purchased Chinese scrolls and works of art to fill the libraries and embellish the palaces back home. Thus, the tribute system became a major channel of trade and cultural exchange between China and its neighbors. Until forcibly dismantled by the European powers in the 19th century, the system was virtually the only means by which the Middle Kingdom maintained ongoing relations with the pro-Chinese (and thus civilized) states and the "barbarian" peoples who surrounded it on all sides.

Unified Silla saw the flowering of absolute monarchy, and the influence of the Hwabaek was reduced to almost nothing. A central administrative body called the Chipsabu was established in its place to carry out royal decrees. Aristocrats were given salaries and land, but the land was expected to revert to the state when they left their jobs, thereby limiting their power.(5) Like the monarchs of other countries, the Silla kings built extravagant palaces and tombs as a symbol of their strength.

The Silla rulers rebuilt their capital at Gyeongju to look like its Chinese counterpart, Changan.(6) The streets were laid out in a rectangular grid; there were central markets, parks and lakes, and a separate district to house the imperial family. Like their Japanese counterparts during the same period, the Korean aristocrats fled backward rural areas and provincial capitals, and crowded their mansions into the areas around the imperial palace. With their large extended families and hundreds of slaves and hangers-on, they made up a sizeable portion of the capital's population, which peaked at more than 700,000 in the eighth century. A Confucian academy was established to study the Chinese classics, and a few of its aristocratic students even submitted to the rigors of the Confucian examination system introduced under the Silla rulers. Most of the nobility, though, opted for the artistic pursuits and entertainments available in the capital. They could do so because most positions in the government continued to be occupied by members of the aristocratic families, by virtue of their birth and family connections rather than education or ability. In this and other respects, the attempt to duplicate the Chinese bureaucratic apparatus was a failure under Silla. Though the Goryeo monarchs were somewhat more successful in this regard, the aristocratic clans continued to dominate Korean politics and society as a whole.

Partly out of self-interest, the Korean elite continued to favor Buddhism over Confucianism. They and the Korean royal family lavishly endowed monasteries and patronized works of art, which became major forms of Korean cultural creativity. The capital soon became crowded with Buddhist temples; Buddhist monks were constantly in attendance on the ruler as well as members of the royal family and the more powerful aristocratic households. To mass-produce Buddhist scriptures, block-printing was invented in the mid-eighth century; this predated by a century similar printing in China. But the schools of Buddhism that caught on were Chinese; Korean art and monastic design reproduced, sometimes splendidly, Chinese prototypes. Even the location of monasteries and pagodas in high places followed feng-shui, the Chinese philosophy about the need to placate local spirits and balance supernatural forces.(7)

Sometimes the Koreans borrowed from the Chinese and then outdid their teachers. Most notable in this regard was the pottery produced in both the Silla and Goryeo eras. The Koreans first learned the techniques of porcelain manufacture from the Chinese. But in the pale green-glazed celadon bowls and vases of this period, they created masterpieces that even the Chinese admired and collected. They also pioneered in making oxide glazes that were used in the manufacture of the black and rust-colored stoneware of this era, which is still recognized as some of the finest pottery ever crafted.

Frequent conflicts and rebellions unraveled the kingdom after 780. In that year the young king Hyegong was murdered, and afterwards different branches of the royal family competed for the throne, resulting in more assassinations and civil wars. In the final century and a half of Silla's existence there were no less than twenty rulers, plus rebel leaders like a certain Kim Hon-ch'ang, who established himself briefly in Ungjin, the old Baekje capital, in 822. Meanwhile aristocrats managed to gradually wear down the king's absolute power and restore the authority of the Hwabaek. And lower-ranking aristocrats demanded a removal of the restrictions imposed upon them by the strict class structure.

Outside the capital new families rose to prominence and by withholding taxes, they became stronger and central control grew weaker. Taxed by both the central government and the new castle lords, many farmers chose to become drifters or robbers, often staging more rebellions.

The most active provincial leader was Chang Po-go, who, with King Hungdok's approval, built the huge Ch'onghae fortress in 828 to defend the southwest coast from pirates. By putting down piracy he became a powerful warlord in his own right; he took over most of the trade with China and Japan, had a private army of 10,000, and could even afford to endow Korean-built temples in the Chinese province of Shandong. Often Silla's official diplomats to China had to travel on Chang's ships. When a bitter civil war broke out on the death of King Hungdok in 837, Chang Po-go stepped in and installed his own candidate on the throne, but then he alienated the aristocrats in the capital by attempting to force the new king to marry Chang's daughter. In 841 or 842 Chang was murdered by a hired bravo whom the Silla court rewarded with a promotion to the rank of general.

Eventually two provincial leaders, Kyonhwon and Kungye, declared independence from Silla and established the Later Baekje (892) and Later Goguryeo (901) kingdoms; together with Silla, these are sometimes called the Later Three Kingdoms. From this time onward, Silla monarchs continued to sit on the throne in Gyeongju, but their authority could no longer be enforced outside of the capital district. In 918 another rival, Wang Geon, founded a state named Goryeo at the central city of Kaesong.

795 to 1156

During the era when Nara was the capital, China experienced its best years under the glorious Tang dynasty. The Japanese had felt culturally inferior to the Chinese, and every embassy that went to China brought back books, works of art, the latest fashions, and anything else that interested them. This practice continued for a few years after Heian-kyo was built, until China, beset by rebellions, broke up. The lawlessness on the mainland caused the Japanese to stop sending embassies after 838. Occasionally a brave merchant or scholar would go to China after that, but the emperor's advisors no longer thought official visits and groveling before the Son of Heaven were worth all that trouble.
The Japanese did not regret the loss, though. By this time they had absorbed enough Chinese culture to consider themselves fully civilized, and as time went on, those who argued for a revival and strengthening of Japanese traditions at the expense of Chinese influence slowly gained the upper hand. By the end of this period, Japan's political and social systems had been virtually remade. Though important Chinese effects lingered, this new order bore little resemblance to the Chinese Confucian model that ran the Middle Kingdom.

On top of all that, the Japanese had created in their island kingdom a capital city they could be proud of, with a social life so delightful that just about every aristocrat had long since moved there. There they stayed by passionate choice, abandoning the provincial strongholds that they might have used for power bases and using their wealth to patronize peaceful cultural pursuits. Their concentration in the capital, where any form of violence was frowned on, gave Japan a kind of voluntary unity. Heian-kyo itself was remarkably defenseless; the original wall, only six feet high, was not replaced when it crumbled; the brightly colored guards performed a strictly ceremonial function with weapons and training that had a military value close to zero; at one point, a sixteen-year-old boy served as chief of police. None of that mattered, though, until after 1100, when a new class of warlike aristocrats arose in the provinces and brought the Heian age of peace to a violent end.

The buildings of the imperial household and leading aristocratic families were of unpainted wood, which Japanese taste found the most appealing, with sliding panels, matted floors, and wooden walkways running between the separate residences. Fish ponds, man-made lakes with waterfalls, and fine gardens were interspersed among the courtiers' living quarters. Life for the residents of those houses was incredibly sophisticated and complicated. Both sexes wore much makeup, and nearly every detail of clothing was regulated by etiquette. For example, the women might wear as many as twelve silk robes at a time, with sleeves of different lengths so that all would be visible; each robe had to be the right delicate color or the whole court would hear about it. Every move was made with utmost delicacy, and one's career might depend upon a single syllable in a poem. The exact shade of the paper on which a letter was written and the way the paper was folded carried a wealth of meaning. Even perfume-making became a fine art; a well-known gentleman could be recognized in a darkened room by a whiff of his favorite scent.

In this hothouse atmosphere, social status was everything, love affairs were a major preoccupation, and gossip was rampant. By our standards, life in this constricted and very artificial world was false and suffocating. Yet rarely in human history has so much energy been so focused on the pursuit of beauty, or has social interaction, on the surface at least, been so gracious and well mannered.

At the court women were expected to be as poised and cultured as men. They too wrote poems, played flutes or stringed instruments in informal concerts, and became embroiled in elaborate schemes to snub or disgrace rivals. Like their counterparts in China and the Islamic world, they also became involved in palace intrigues and power struggles. Though it was unseemly for women to openly pursue princely lovers, some of them did (if we are to believe the Tale of Genji and other court memoirs) take the initiative. Sometimes a highborn woman would even spurn a suitor and humiliate him in front of her maidservants.

The Heian period also produced great literature. The Chinese system of writing ( kanji), with its thousands of characters, persisted as a symbol of higher education, but it was agonizingly clumsy to use. It was not even a necessary hindrance, because the Japanese language has only 47 sounds, making it easy to write phonetically. In this era two simplified alphabets, called hiragana and katakana, were developed and widely used, but the scholars refused to use them, considering these scripts fit only for rubes. Women, however, were not afraid to write in the popular scripts, so most of the works with any literary value had female authors.

Another by-product of the new alphabets was that fine literature could be written in the countryside. The Manyoshu, a collection of some 4,000 poems, reflects a fresh outpouring of the native Japanese spirit concerning the old religion, the brevity of life, love of nature, and appreciation of friends. These short poems have never been surpassed in equating natural phenomena and human emotion, clinching each point in typical Japanese fashion with a twist of thought at the end of a set syllabic sentence.

The most famous Heian work is The Tale of Genji, by Murasaki Shikibu, the oldest existing novel and still considered the greatest piece of literature Japan ever produced. The Tale of Genji describes the numerous romantic adventures of a Heian prince, not all of them with happy endings (Lady Murasaki wrote about life as it is, with its virtues and vices, instead of creating an unreal fairyland). Genji's life is almost wholly devoted to the pursuit of aesthetic enjoyment, from affairs with beautiful women to musical entertainments in a garden scented with blooming flowers. Uncouth commoners and distasteful things, such as dirt, cheap pottery, and rough popular entertainments, are to be avoided at all costs. When her rivals at the court wish to insult Genji's mother, they leave spoiled fruit in the passages where she or her maid servants must pass. An encounter with a shriveled piece of fruit contributes to the illness that leads to her premature death. Everyone who matters in Genji's world is obsessed with social conventions that govern everything, from which gown is proper for a given ceremony to the composition of a suitable poem to woo a potential lover or win the emperor's favor. The poems, for example, were often written on painted fans or scented paper and sometimes sent in little boats down the streams that ran through the palace grounds, brief verses full of allusions to Chinese and Japanese classical writings. Lady Murasaki's picture of the sophisticated and amoral Heian court life is not only invaluable to historians, but it contrasts sharply with the stern, military virtues that Japan praised in later eras. The one common characteristic Heian Japan has with the modern Land of the Rising Sun is the constant sensitivity to beauty in all its natural forms.

The Heian era came to an end because of polarization between those who lived in the capital and those in the rest of the country, who hardly ever saw anything that was going on in Heian-kyo. The first trouble came from taxation because the central government was never strong enough to collect all the revenue it claimed was owed. Many lords who stayed in the provinces refused to pay taxes, acquired large estates, and later received a tax-exempt status. Emperors also exempted personal friends and the clergy from paying taxes; every time this happened it reduced the income, size, and influence of the imperial court.

Many peasants escaped the oppressive tax collectors, and the imperial agents who drafted them for labor or military service, by entrusting their land to a tax-exempt noble or temple; usually the new overlord kept the peasants on the land by demanding fewer payments/terms of service than the government did. Other peasants, and also nobles, got away from it all by moving north and carving out from the Ainu wilderness a homestead so far away that the government did not bother them. This newly civilized land later came under the rule of locally raised provincial barons, tough ruthless men who had fought Ainu, outlaws, and unruly settlers, and were not at all like the perfumed dandies of the imperial capital.

However they acquired their land, these families turned them into little kingdoms, which they ruled from small fortresses surrounded by wooden or earthen walls and ditches. The local lord and his retainers were housed within the fortress, constantly on the alert for an attack from the outside world. Granaries for storing the rice provided by local peasants, blacksmith forges and stables, wells for water, and armories made the fortresses self-contained worlds.

Within the little kingdoms ruled from the forts, the warrior leaders, or bushi, administered law, supervised public works, and collected revenue--for themselves, not the court. These barons raised private armies to defend themselves or to take land from their neighbors; governors of long-settled provinces and even Buddhist temples & monasteries did the same. This was a good formula for lawlessness; soon the highways were infested with bandits, the seas swarmed with pirates, and private armies battled each other in clear defiance of the central government. Even the "Capital of Peace and Tranquility" was threatened, as armed monks roamed the streets to protect their buildings and attack the monasteries of rival sects, while robbers broke into the houses of noblemen or set buildings on fire.

The central government, which meant in effect the Fujiwara family, watched the loss of taxable land and increase of provincial independence with concern. An alliance was formed with a powerful provincial family, the Minamoto, to deal with their enemies; another family, the Taira, helped the Fujiwara by suppressing the pirates of the Inland Sea. The three clans pooled their resources to put down revolts, and the Minamoto were especially good at chasing clerical hoodlums back to their monasteries. But disorder increased; eventually much of the capital was burned to the ground and never rebuilt.

Worst of all, the Fujiwara seemed to lose their political magic. They had maintained their power the same way the Soga clan had, by marrying into the imperial family. This was done again and again over the generations, until there was little difference in the ancestry of the Yamato and Fujiwara clans.(8) To further check any imperial ambitions, emperors were pressured to retire to Buddhist monasteries when their heirs, usually little boys, were old enough to perform the sacred ceremonies; this kept their Fujiwara uncles or grandfathers in charge of nonreligious matters. But after a while different branches of the Fujiwara clan began to plot against each other, and at a critical time the leading branch of the family failed to produce enough daughters to keep all male members of the imperial family safely supplied with Fujiwara wives. The result was that in 1068 an emperor named Go Sanjo was crowned; his mother was not a Fujiwara, and he saw no reason why he could not rule the country without the Fujiwara clan looking over his shoulder. Realizing that nearly all his time was taken up by ceremonies, he abdicated four years later and placed his son on the throne, but stayed nearby to tell him what to do. This started a curious institution that lasted for nearly three centuries, where an official emperor did the elaborate religious rituals that were expected of the head of state, while a retired emperor made decrees from his private residence, acting much like the chief Soga and Fujiwara ministers of previous eras. Caught between the powerful rural clans and ex-emperors with clout, the once-omnipotent Fujiwara clan's influence dwindled to nothing in the twelfth century.

In 1156 the Fujiwara-Minamoto-Taira alliance came undone, and civil war broke out as the Minamoto and Taira clans fought to control Kyoto and the central government. It was the end of a golden age, as feats of arms replaced poetry contests and "cuckoo-viewing" excursions into the countryside. A new kind of man--the mounted knight in armor--came onto the scene to win dominance over the elegant courtiers of earlier days.

935 to 1392

Balhae was destroyed in 926 by the Khitans, the newest barbarian tribe in Manchuria. In 935 the last king of Silla abdicated in favor of Wang Geon; one year later the Later Baekje kingdom surrendered to him, too. To bring peace, Wang Geon went to great lengths to absorb the people of nearby overthrown states; he gave the Silla nobles jobs in the new aristocracy, and welcomed refugees from Balhae. Now Korea (or Goryeo, as it was now called) was ruled by the Wang dynasty, which lasted until 1392. Under the Wang monarchs Buddhism was the dominant religion, though Confucian ideas about government, including civil service exams, continued to be popular.
Goryeo's relations with China continued to be very good, but Japanese pirates caused some trouble along the south and east coasts. The real threat, however, came from the Khitans. The first Goryeo monarchs proudly proclaimed themselves heirs to Goguryeo, and launched many campaigns to recover northern territory, eventually establishing the kingdom's frontier on the Yalu River. But this was a trivial loss to the Khitans, who by now were also humbling the Chinese, and they swept out of Manchuria and burned Kaesong in 1011. The Koreans built better defenses afterwards, but not until the Khitan empire crumbled in the twelfth century could they breathe easily again.

With the exception of Buddhist sects like the "Pure Land" that had strong appeal to the ordinary people, imports from China continued to be monopolized by the tiny elite. The aristocratic families were divided into several ranks that neither intermarried nor socialized with each other, much less the rest of the population. They not only filled most of the posts in the Korean bureaucracy, but also dominated the social and economic life of the entire kingdom. Much of Korea's trade with the Chinese and Japanese was oriented to providing the aristocrats with the fancy clothing, special teas, scrolls, and art that occupied such an important place in their idle lives. In return, Korea exported mainly raw materials, such as forest products and metals like copper, which was mined by virtual slaves who lived in horrendous conditions. Some manufactured goods, like pottery, ink, paper, and painted fans, also found their way into Korea's trade with China and Japan. Often members of the royal family and the aristocratic households financed artisan production for export or the supply of the court; some backed mercantile expeditions and even engaged extensively in moneylending. All of this, of course, constricted the activities of artisans and traders. Artisans were usually considered low in status and were poorly paid for their talents and labor; the traders were so weak that they did not really form a distinct class.

The aristocrats were the only people who really counted for anything in Korean society. The classes beneath them were oriented to their service. These included government functionaries, who were recognized as a separate social category; commoners, who were mainly peasants; and virtual slaves, who were known as the "low born" and ranged from miners and artisans to servants and entertainers. Persons from these social groups benefitted little from contacts with China, and most lived lives of drudgery and poverty that were scarcely, if at all, enlivened by extensive cultural borrowing from China.

A real Chinese civil service never developed in Korea to provide the services to the masses that the Confucians had envisioned as essential responsibilities of the privileged elite. For example, the sons of a family above the fifth of nine official ranks received official jobs without taking the civil service exams prescribed by the Confucians, and the land granted to aristocrats in the top four ranks belonged to them permanently. Buddhist festivals periodically relieved the monotony of the lives of the common people, and Buddhist teachings on salvation gave them hope for bliss in the afterlife. But much of what the peasants, artisans, and miners produced went to support the outsized court and aristocracy in the capital, where the wealth and cultural creativity of an otherwise impoverished and backward land was concentrated.

Eventually, the common people and the "low born" found their lot too much to bear and rose up against a ruling class that was obviously much more devoted to pursuing its own pleasures than to their well-being. Most of these uprisings were local affairs that were ruthlessly repressed by armies of the ruling class. Each time one happened, the aristocratic families managed to survive the crisis and elevate one of their number above the others, until the military switched sides.

The reason for this was that the soldiers, like the peasants, had been discriminated against, to the extent that the supreme commander of the armed forces was always a civilian. Military officials were excluded from the top two grades of the official hierarchy and the king's supreme council. Even those officers who were allowed into the civil service received less land than their civilian counterparts. When they had enough of this, they staged a coup d'etat in 1170. They gained complete control of the government, reduced the king to a powerless figurehead, set up their own private army, massacred a large number of civilian officials, and suppressed Buddhism. Then the generals fought among themselves, and only in 1196, after much strife, was order restored, under a general named Ch'oe Ch'ung-hon. By allying themselves with civilian bureaucrats, the Ch'oe family was able to rule as military dictators, like the shoguns of Japan, for the next sixty-five years.

In response to the dictatorship, Buddhists, especially members of the Son (Zen) sect, retreated to remote mountain areas, stirred up opposition among underprivileged farmers, and caused a series of upheavals for a period of 30 years. These rebellions were brought under control through a combination of appeasement and naked force, but some went on right until the Mongols began their invasions.

Genghis Khan was mainly interested in conquering northern China, but once his sons finished the job, Korea was next, and they overran the peninsula in 1236. The Ch'oe carried out a long resistance, even moving the court offshore to Ganghwa Island, at the mouth of the Han River, but the Mongols were ultimately successful, and the fourth Ch'oe ruler was assassinated in 1261.

The Mongols allowed the Goryeo king to keep his throne, but enormous annual tribute payments and heavy manpower levies went to serve the heirs of Genghis Khan. Furthermore, a Mongol overlord stayed in residence at the Goryeo capital, and Korea was forced to provide ships and men for the two unsuccessful Mongol invasions of Japan. Later kings were required to marry Mongol princesses, and the Goryeo crown prince was kept as a hostage in the Mongol capital (Beijing after 1260); this caused Korean court life to imitate the Mongol pattern.

Meanwhile Korean culture continued to grow; Buddhist-inspired art and poetry reached a high level during this time. Goryeo craftsmen were inspired to promote Buddhist missionary work; they accomplished the herculean task of carving thousands of wooden blocks, one for printing each page of the enormous Buddhist canon.(9) Then in 1234 the printing of Buddhist texts was made easier by the invention of a movable metal type printing press, a full two hundred years before Johann Gutenberg did the same thing in Europe.

Outside the capital a feudal-style system developed where some aristocrats expanded their landholdings into huge farms, but stayed in the capital and sent agents periodically to collect taxes from the tenants who actually worked the land. Tenants also had to do labor and military service if the state called for it. Many farmers chose to become personal servants of the aristocrats, who in turn treated them like the serfs of medieval Europe, protecting them from war and the state duties. Some aristocrats also caught drifters and illegally made them into servants. The result was a shortage in revenue and manpower by the mid-fourteenth century. Because of the financial strains of the government, it could no longer give much land to new bureaucrats; they called for both land reform and a government that followed Confucianism properly. A revolt against Mongol rule in 1356 began another period of disorder. Finally in 1364, a young Korean general, Yi Songgye, was able to defeat the Mongols after they had been weakened by their long war against the rising Ming dynasty in China.

1156 to 1333

As lawlessness and violence increased during the closing years of the Heian era, landholders armed their sons & retainers and hired experienced warriors to lead them. But the violent trend of the time was against small groups; those that did not make alliances with other groups were almost sure to be defeated and plundered. To increase their strength all the warrior bands in one area might get together and offer their services to an important lord, who would in return protect the minor chiefs and their followers from enemies and share the booty that any member of the alliance might win. To improve his own position, a lord might then place himself and everyone under him at the service of one of the two most powerful clans, either the Minamoto or the Taira. This system of lords and vassals was very similar to the feudalism practiced in Europe at the same time, a crude but effective way to restore order when central authority disappears.
Along with feudalism came the Japanese counterpart to the European knight, the samurai. To cement the bonds between samurai and lord, an elaborate military code called Bushido ("the way of the warrior") was developed that demanded absolute loyalty to one's superiors. Nothing was supposed to interfere with this devotion, neither love of wife & children nor duty to one's parents; an honorable death was the most important goal.(10) Similar values were extended to women, who were expected to bear hardships with Spartan endurance; they now had to fight, and if necessary, die beside their husbands. Their lives were much harder, but they could hold the rights of a vassal and inherit property under the code. Later on, as Bushido became formalized, the warrior would become a special caste in society, and no one below samurai rank was allowed (in theory anyway) to wear the daisho, two superbly crafted swords--one long and one short--that were revered almost like sacred objects.

The lords and the samurai warriors who served them fought battles that were decided not by tactics or the movement of formations, but by man-to-man duels between great champions. These combats represented heroic warfare in the extreme. The time and location of battles were elaborately negotiated beforehand, and each side strove to demonstrate the justice of its cause and the treachery of the other side. Before engaging the enemy, Japanese warriors would proudly proclaim their family lineage and its notable military exploits to their adversaries, who often missed the details because they were shouting back their own. The battles themselves were chaotic affairs, with lots of shouting and clashing but relatively few fatalities; sometimes the loss of too many champions would prompt one side to withdraw from the battlefield, rather than continue the fight with reduced morale.

The decline of the Fujiwara clan left a vacuum at the top that both the Taira and the Minamoto scrambled to fill. The Taira won the first war between them (1156-60); Kiyomori, the Taira leader, moved to Kyoto, married his daughter to an imperial prince, and allowed the emperor, Fujiwara regent, and retired emperor to keep their jobs. Kiyomori's opponents were ruthlessly exterminated, and their lands were confiscated, but the Minamoto survived on the Kanto plain (a large fertile area just west of modern Tokyo), which was too far away for the Kyoto government to control firmly. But the Taira made a fatal mistake in moving to Kyoto; once there they gave themselves up to the pleasures of a capital city that had become little more than a symbol. The real source of power was armed force, and since it came from the provinces, the Minamoto were now in a better position to exploit it.

Minamoto Yoritomo, a son of one of the eliminated opponents, was spared because of his youth and entrusted to a supposedly loyal retainer of the Taira family, Hojo Tokimasa. But this ambitious lord married his daughter to Yoritomo and helped him gain leadership of the clan so he could make a comeback. Yoritomo's rebellion, known as the Gempei War, began in 1180, and the Minamoto armies, which were not softened by the social life in Kyoto, marched southwest to one victory after another. After several battles in the heartland of Honshu, the Taira abandoned Kyoto, taking the child emperor with them, but the retired emperor defected to the other side, giving the Minamoto the legitimacy they needed. A naval battle on the Inland Sea crushed the Taira in 1185.(11)

Once his last rivals were eliminated, Yoritomo set up the system of military dictatorship that characterized Japan for most of the next 700 years. Rather than make the same mistake as the Taira did, he established his government at the small town of Kamakura, 300 miles east of Kyoto. This government, called the Bakufu ("Tent Government"), was a simple but effective system, modeled after the way he ran his household. Most policies were made by an administrative board; the Samurai-Dokoro (Board of Retainers) assigned, rewarded, and punished lords and samurai; a Board of Inquiry became a court of appeals for anyone who had sworn loyalty to the Minamoto clan. In 1192 the emperor recognized that the country was being run more effectively from Kamakura by giving Yoritomo the title of Shogun (Generalissimo).

Ironically, Yoritomo made sure that the Minamoto would not keep control of the government he had set up, due to an obsessive fear of being overthrown by members of his own family. Close relatives, including his brother Yoshitsune, whose courage and military genius had much to do with the Minamoto triumph over the Taira, were murdered or driven into exile. Fear of spies and uncertainty about how to stay above suspicion made paranoia a regular part of life at the Bakufu. Though Yoritomo's rule went unchallenged, the measures he adopted to protect his throne left him without an able heir, and nobody in his family lived long after his death in 1199. Peace was maintained by Yoritomo's widow, Masa-ko, who claimed the title of shogun for her family, the Hojo. The Hojo kept the power of decision-making with their leading family members, though, making the office of shogun just one more figurehead position. Now political power was removed six steps from the official head of state:

Emperor

Fujiwara Regent

Retired Emperor

Shogun

Hojo Regent

Hojo Family Committee

Theoretically each member of the above list was superior to those below him, but in practice each member took orders from his immediate subordinate. Only in a country like Japan, where tradition and hereditary status are revered so highly, could such a hierarchy (or is it lowerarchy?) function effectively.
The age of the Kamakura Shogunate was an age of prosperity and progress. Trade with China resumed after a 350-year interruption, and the constant traffic between Kamakura & Kyoto encouraged commerce at home. Since the artists and writers of the day had patrons with different tastes, the stories and paintings produced vividly described military feats of valor. Unlike the arts of the Heian era, which were produced by aristocrats for aristocrats, the new culture was popular all over the country, inspiring martial values in the Japanese people all the way until 1945. Artisans also went to work producing the finest swords and armor in the world, which were works of art in their own right.(12)

Another aspect of culture affected by the new order was religion. Buddhism had split into many sects with differing doctrines when it was transmitted from India to China; now the same process occurred in Japan. The first Buddhist sects that the Japanese accepted were ones that originated in China; the most famous of these is Zen ( Chan in Chinese). Now the Japanese invented their own sects. The most popular of these was Jodo, or Pure Land Buddhism, which taught that there was an Indian ruler named Amida, who lived a perfect life and ruled a paradise on the western edge of the earth. Pure Land followers believed that a righteous life would allow them to be reincarnated in that paradise, but some dissenting members claimed that repetition of the phrase "Namu Amida Butsu" (Homage to Amida Buddha) was all that was necessary to gain salvation.(13)

A native Buddhist sect with a more militant air was started by an evangelist named Nichiren (1222-82), who claimed that a text called the Lotus Sutra was the only true way to find salvation. Nichiren replaced the traditional Buddhist doctrine of reincarnation with a picture of Heaven and Hell as vivid as Dante's; in an un-Buddhist fashion he denounced all other sects for sending their followers to perdition, and criticized the government for not suppressing these "heresies." Of course this teaching got Nichiren in trouble with the authorities, but when he converted his would-be executioner and correctly predicted that Japan would be invaded a few years later, he won the respect--and conversion--of many samurai. Both Nichiren and Pure Land Buddhism resemble Protestant evangelism in their zeal, married clergy, loose organization, and an emphasis on faith rather than works.

The foreign invasion that Nichiren predicted came from the Mongols, who now ruled most of Eurasia. In 1268 Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, sent a letter addressed to the "King of Japan," stating that he favored continuing trade (meaning tribute) between Japan and China. The Kamakura government refused to answer, though they knew that war would be the likely result. Since Kyushu was the closest part of the country to the Asian mainland, the island's coastal defenses were strengthened and the local warriors were kept on alert; spies in Korea watched the build-up of the Mongol forces. The expected invasion came in 1274, with 15,000 Mongol troops riding 450 ships built and sailed by Koreans. Not willing to wait for the arrival of the Bakufu's main armies, the local samurai charged the Mongols recklessly. The Japanese had the advantage of being familiar with the land they were fighting on, but everything else favored the Mongols. Whereas the samurai used no military formations and challenged their opponents to formalized single combat, the Mongols were experienced tacticians that maneuvered skillfully in tight formations even when on horseback; they also had crossbows and catapults. The battle was inconclusive, but the Korean sailors, not liking the look of the weather, persuaded the Mongols to reboard the ships. That night a storm sank many of the ships and blew the rest back to Korea.

After that abortive invasion, Kublai Khan sent another embassy, ordering the "King of Japan" to come to him and do homage. The Bakufu rejected this ultimatum in the strongest way it could think of, by lopping off the heads of the Mongol ambassadors. Then the Japanese people prepared for the second invasion with a show of unity that the country had never seen before. A fleet was constructed; more defenses were built on Kyushu; more arms were stockpiled; all men able to bear arms were trained to be ready for battle at a moment's notice. The court at Kyoto gave up luxuries to save money for defense. Even the pirates of the Inland Sea enthusiastically joined forces with the navy. Fortunately for the Japanese, the invasion did not come for seven years, because the Mongols were busy subjugating south China in the meantime. When Kublai Khan's force finally arrived, it contained 1,000 ships and 150,000 troops, the largest amphibious invasion force in history before modern times. The struggle lasted for 50 days on Kyushu, with no side gaining the upper hand. Then a great typhoon roared over the island, wrecking the fleets and breaking the back of the Mongol army. It was the worst defeat in Mongol history, and the kami-kazi ("divine wind"), as the typhoon was called, convinced the Japanese that their land was protected by the gods, a belief that lasted until the end of World War II.

28 years after the return of independence, General Yi deposed the last weak ruler of the decadent Wang dynasty, proclaimed himself the founder of a new dynasty, the Joseon, changed his name to Taejo, and swore allegiance to China's Ming rulers, who had given him aid. General Yi's family remained in power from 1392 until the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910. Though there would be some modifications, the Joseon dynasty quickly restored the aristocratic dominance and links to China that had predominated under their predecessors. Of all of the peoples who received civilization from China, none would be as content to live in the shadow of the Middle Kingdom as the Koreans.

Taejo also made Hanyang (later renamed Seoul) the capital, built Gyeongbokgung palace, rejected Buddhism, and in 1394, established Ju Xi Confucianism as the state religion. His son and grandson, Taejong (1400-1418) and Sejong the Great (1418-50), brought about many positive economic and social reforms, like a new land register and the abolition of feudal relations in the armed forces. In foreign affairs, the Joseon rulers conducted successful military oerations, both in Manchuria and against Japanese coastal pirates. Improved agricultural techniques, better communications, and innovations in the crafts increased economic productivity. The manufacture of cotton cloth, learned from China, also stimulated trade. Such economic growth increased the number of craftsmen and merchants, although most were employed in government monopolies.

A well-functioning Confucian bureaucracy, an orderly social structure, rapid development of the educational system accompanied by the publication of many books, and the growth of science and technology seemed to promise a bright future. The next two hundred years were among the best in Korean history. To start with, there was considerable progress in medicine, astronomy, history and agriculture. In 1420 a royal academy called Chiphyonjon was established, and many promising young scholars went there for study and research. In 1443 Hangul, a phonetic alphabet, was made the official Korean script by King Sejong, as a simple alternative to using Chinese characters. Soon government printing presses were publishing many works of literature. Some of these were prose compositions on serious subjects, such as moral responsibility. Poetry, stressing love of nature, personal grief, and romantic love, also became quite popular; many of the lyric poets were women. The other arts, however, were less promising. Painting, sculpture, and architecture generally followed Chinese models, producing many creditable works but generally lacking originality.

In the reign of the seventh monarch, Sejo (1455-68), the government was overhauled to make it more centralized and civilian-oriented. Laws were codified, and the Supreme State Council was set up as the highest governmental body under the king. Three censorial offices were set up to watch the king (a Neo-Confucian practice borrowed from China), which kept the kings from becoming corrupt and served as the government's system of checks & balances. The country was divided into eight provinces, and all governors were appointed by the central government.

The provinces of the Joseon era. From Wikimedia Commons.

But the Joseon dynasty promised more than it delivered. In less than a century, Confucianism and the new centralized administration had spawned another class of privileged bureaucrats who were as corrupt, inefficient, and overbearing as those in Ming China. With their growing power came higher taxes and service requirements for common people, most of whom were peasant tenants or slaves. As in China, the Confucian revival brought more difficulties for women. Until the tenth century, women had enjoyed near legal equality with men in property, inheritance, and marriage rights. Many Silla rulers were women, either as queens, exercising royal authority directly, or as powers "behind the screen," acting through royal consorts or sons. This all changed drastically with the Goryeo dynasty. New laws restricted women's legal rights, and women were prohibited from participating in games, attending feasts, appearing in public unveiled, or even walking alone outside the home.

From the early 16th century, growing factionalism among scholars, mismanagement of state affairs by officials, court intrigues and power struggles, usurpation of power and privileges by the landed gentry, decline of foreign trade, and increasing tax burdens combined to bring about political instability, economic decline and social upheavals. A number of idealistic scholars and officials arose, who criticized the bureaucracy and called for drastic measures to achieve Confucian ideals. But relentless counterattacks and pressure forced most of the reformist scholars to quit their posts, and they set up private academies to teach their view of Confucianism. In the seventeenth century this would be the beginning of what was known as the Silhak, or "Practical Learning" schools. Silhak scholars split into four groups, each emphasizing a different subject: government reform; the development of commerce, industry and technology; critical analysis of the Confucian classics; or the study of Korean history, geography, and language.

In 1592 Korea suffered a major Japanese invasion, led by the new shogun of Japan, Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Seven years of occupation and plundering of the land took place before the Koreans, with Chinese help, "persuaded" the Japanese to withdraw. During this conflict the Koreans never lost control of the sea, and an admiral named Yi Sun Sin won a noteworthy victory over the Japanese in a battle at Chinhae bay, using the oldest known ironclad ships.(14) Fighting between the Japanese and Ming armies left Korea in ruins, and caused widespread famine because crops could not be grown during that time. Many Korean scholars and artisans were taken to Japan, where they were required to teach Korea's latest technology. It took a full half century for the country to recover, and the invasions left an indelible scar on the minds of the Koreans.(15)

The determined efforts of King Kwang-Haegun (1608-23) to rebuild the country came too late. Because Korea aided China in its war against the Manchus, another invasion came from the north in 1627. Ten years later Seoul was captured, and the government submitted, switching its annual tribute from the Ming to the Manchus. Thousands of Koreans, held hostage by the Manchus, suffered great cruelty and privation before they could be ransomed. Many Korean women were never accepted again by their families, because they had been sexually violated and therefore dishonored.

Meanwhile the Manchus went on to overthrow the Ming and found China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. From this time on the Korean kings regarded themselves as "younger brothers" and the Manchu emperors of China as "elder brothers," in the Confucian tradition. The Manchus handled Korea's defense and foreign affairs, but left domestic manners to be handled as the Joseon monarchs saw fit. Vassalage to the Manchus may have been all right for the kings, but it fostered antiforeign sentiments among the Korean people, leading to rebellions and peasant uprisings when the dynasty came under more outside pressure than it could stand.

1333 to 1573

After defeating the Mongols, the Kamakura Shogunate descended rapidly into oblivion. Those two wars, followed by 20 years of alert waiting for a third invasion that never came, drained the economy; furthermore, since they were strictly defensive wars, there was no booty from conquered enemies to be had, and everyone, from the peasants to the shogun, came out poorer. Government resources dropped as great landholders stopped paying taxes, but the Bakufu could not make its other vassals act against them. Then in 1318 a very vigorous emperor, Go Daigo, mounted the throne; he was determined to rule by himself without the pressure of any other family on him. The Hojo regent tried to make Go Daigo abdicate without the use of force, but the emperor outwitted him every time. Finally in 1333, the regent sent an army to Kyoto, but before it got there its general, Ashikaga Takauji, changed sides, declared himself for the emperor, and marched back to Kamakura. Several discontented lords and samurai joined him, and together they destroyed the Bakufu and the military capital. Then Takauji forced Go Daigo off the throne, replaced him with a puppet emperor he could trust, and declared himself the new shogun.
The Ashikaga shogunate was much weaker than the governments before and after it. Not only did it fail to put Go Daigo in his place (he set up a rival court in the mountain town of Yoshino that lasted until 1392), but it made the same mistake as the Taira: the shogun and his retainers moved into Kyoto, discovered "the good life" in the capital, and lost control over the vassals who stayed at home. For nearly 270 years after Takauji's coup the emperors and shoguns were mere shadows, unable to keep order beyond the city limits of Kyoto, while powerful lords called daimyo (dukes) ruled their fiefs like independent nations, making their own laws and launching wars of conquest against their neighbors whenever they felt like it. None of the daimyo paid taxes, forcing the shoguns to live off the incomes their personal estates produced.(16) While theoretically every daimyo was the shogun's vassal, in practice they were more like allies of doubtful allegiance, especially in the fourteenth century when the existence of two rival emperors provided a ready excuse to switch sides when it was in a lord's interest to do so. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were marked by bloody civil wars to determine the shogun's successor, with none of the participants even claiming to be devoted to the current emperor or shogun. In this era of ruthless competition, spies, skill, luck--and treachery!--became more important than loyalty; so many daimyo came to premature ends that their number was reduced from roughly 260 in 1467 to 45 in 1580. When there was peace at home many unemployed soldiers became pirates, plundering the coast of China and Southeast Asia. For these reasons the period of the Ashikaga Shogunate is also called "the Age of War."

The collapse of any semblance of centralized authority was sharply accelerated by the Onin War, which involved 250,000 warriors and raged for a decade (1467-77). Rival heirs to the Ashikaga Shogunate called on the warlord chiefs to support their claims. Samurai flocked to the rival headquarters in different sections of Kyoto, where feuding soon broke into all-out warfare. By the time they were finished, the old imperial capital had been reduced to rubble and weed-choked fields. While the shogunate self-destructed in the capital, the provincial lords continued to amass power and plot new coalitions to destroy their enemies. In place of mud-walled forts, the daimyo erected massive wood and stone castles to dominate the Japanese landscape. To discourage betrayal by their vassals, the daimyo required them to live in the towns that developed around the castles, or at least to leave members of their families there as hostages to ensure their good behavior.

The pattern of warfare was also transformed when the daimyo responded to a shortage of warriors by drafting peasants, arming them with pikes, and sending them into battle under the leadership of the mounted samurai who had fought by themselves in the previous era. Now victory depended on the size and organization of a warlord's forces and on how effectively his commanders employed them in the field. The scarcely trained and poorly fed peasant forces became a major source of misery to the common people. As they marched about the countryside to fight the incessant wars of their overlords, they looted and pillaged with impunity. Often in response to the depredations of warlord armies, the peasantry in different areas sporadically rose up in hopeless but ferocious revolts that fed the trend toward brutality and destruction. It is no wonder that contemporary accounts of the era are dominated by a sense of pessimism and foreboding--a conviction that Japan was going back to barbarism.

Those peasants with enough military talent to survive their first battle rose rapidly in rank, becoming officers and gaining grants of land or even samurai status. With this check on social mobility removed, the common man gained an importance that the daimyo could not ignore; a wise lord often responded by ruling his realm more efficiently. Unfortunately, women found their lives more restricted at the same time; they lost their right of inheritance, because in that chaotic age many felt a woman could not keep a firm hand on any land bequeathed to her.(17)

As civil strife intensified, the pace of social and economic change accelerated accordingly. Fine arts such as painting and theater, once found only in the capital, found patrons among the warrior barons and rich merchants. The tea ceremony first appeared during this time and was soon transformed from a way of taking a break into a social ritual of great importance. Trade, both local and with China, continued to increase. Prosperous Zen monasteries sponsored trading expeditions to China and set up a fine system of schools all over the country.

Most of the daimyo recognized that they had to build up their petty states if they were to be strong enough to survive in the long run. Within their domains, attempts were made to stabilize village life by introducing regular tax collection, supporting the construction of irrigation systems and other public works, and building strong rural communities. Incentives were offered to encourage the settlement of unoccupied areas, and new tools, the greater use of draft animals, and new crops like soybeans improved the lives of the peasantry in the better-run domains. Peasants were also encouraged to produce items such as silk, hemp, paper, dyes, and vegetable oils, which were highly marketable and thus potential sources of household income. The net result of all this was that daimyos often doubled or even tripled the income of their estates. They also made a determined effort to attract merchants to their growing castle towns, and a new and quite wealthy commercial class emerged as the purveyors of goods for the military elite. As in Medieval Europe, guild organizations for both craftsmen (carpenters, thatchers, smiths, potters, etc.) and merchants were strong in this era. They helped provide social solidarity and group protection in a time of political breakdown and insecurity.

While Japan was occupied with internal matters, the seafaring countries of Europe went exploring for the lands of fabulous riches that Marco Polo had seen and written about 200 years before. When Christopher Columbus discovered Cuba, he thought it was Japan; he wondered where the gilded castles and silk-robed scholars were, when all he found were Indians! In 1542 three Portuguese merchants, riding on a Chinese junk, arrived at Tanegashima, one of the northern Ryukyu Islands. Their cargo included arquebuses (matchlock muskets), and when they gave the local daimyo a demonstration of what guns can do, the lord bought all the arquebuses and ordered his armorers to make 600 copies of them. Thus, in more ways than one, Japanese-Western relations began with a bang.

Every year after that saw European traders visit the islands in increasing numbers. The traders brought goods produced in India, China, and Southeast Asia and exchanged them for silver, copper, pottery, and lacquerware. More important, the Europeans also brought Western-made goods such as firearms, printing presses, and clocks. Commercial contacts with the Europeans also encouraged the Japanese to venture overseas to trade with nearby Formosa and Korea, and places as distant as the Philippines and Siam.

Even when Portuguese merchants had no European goods to sell, they could turn a profit, by acting as middlemen. China had stopped trading with Japan because of Japanese pirate activity, but the Chinese did not object when the Portuguese bought Chinese silks and then immediately resold them to the Japanese.

To Europeans, Japan was the most pleasant country in the Orient. From their point of view, India and Southeast Asia were too hot, and the customs of their peoples aroused little but contempt. China had a more temperate climate, but the Chinese treated Europeans like a dangerous disease and kept them quarantined to one southern port (Canton). By contrast, Japan had a culture and government the Europeans could understand (feudalism), and the people were friendly. In 1549 the first missionaries arrived, led by the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier. Like the merchants, the missionaries were greeted by a welcoming committee, and made many converts from the start.(18) Thus, when Francis Xavier left in 1551, he reasonably expected great success for those who came after him.

Both the merchants and the missionaries had a problem with the constant fighting between the daimyo, though all factions respected the Europeans enough to leave them alone if they happened to stray near a battlefield. Missionaries often had to pack up and move when an unfriendly daimyo captured the territory they were in (but they always left Japanese Christians behind to continue their work), and the merchants attracted the attention of pirates if they dropped anchor in the same harbor more than once. In 1569, however, the daimyo of northwestern Kyushu became a Christian; he promptly converted all 1,500 of his retainers, burned the local Buddhist temple, and built a church on the temple's site. That daimyo's city, Nagasaki, grew afterwards to become a prominent base for traders and the safest part of the country for Christians.

Japan under the Ashikaga Shogunate may have looked like several feuding nations to European eyes, but the fact that the people on all the islands (except the Ainu) were of one race, one language and one culture meant that it would only be a matter of time before somebody tried reunification. In the late sixteenth century three remarkable leaders arose to pull the country back together: Oda Nobunaga (1534-82), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98), and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616).(19)

Nobunaga got started by inheriting the lands of his father, a minor daimyo, at the age of 17. Some of his relatives were not willing to serve under a teenager, so he had to raise an army of 1,000 and fight the dissidents to make his claim stick. A few years later, in 1560, he was attacked by Imagawa, the most powerful daimyo in central Honshu. Nobunaga's army was outnumbered 8 to 1, but in a daring move he trapped Imagawa and his followers in a ravine and all but annihilated them. Nothing succeeds like success, and Imagawa's surviving vassals, including Tokugawa Ieyasu, beat a path to Nobunaga's door. Then Nobunaga made a revolutionary change in tactics by arming 3,000 of his warriors with muskets. Many samurai wanted to keep on using their cherished swords, and they denounced the muskets, calling them weapons for cowards, but they brought Nobunaga more victories and a flood of followers.

A typical battle in the sixteenth century. Normally soldiers on horseback, like the samurai here, would have an advantage over infantry, but now the footsoldiers (mostly peasants) are armed with muskets, while the samurai stick to traditional weapons like swords and bows.

In 1568 Nobunaga occupied Kyoto and named a puppet shogun; five years later he quietly put an end to the Ashikaga Shogunate when the shogun acted on his own once too often. Now the strongest daimyo in Japan, Nobunaga spent the rest of his life ruthlessly warring against his persistent rivals.

Since Nobunaga never claimed any religious belief, his most ardent opponents came from the Buddhist clergy, who had dominated politics in Kyoto for more than a generation. Therefore he tried to break their power in a merciless campaign of destruction. An interesting by-product of this anti-Buddhist hostility was a friendly attitude toward Christians. Soon the Jesuits got the idea that they were on the verge of winning over Nobunaga, who delighted in wearing Western clothes, encouraged his artists to copy Western paintings of the Virgin Mary and scenes from the life of Christ, and permitted the missionaries to build churches in towns wherever he ruled. The missionaries hoped that Nobunaga's conversion would bring the rest of the Japanese people into the Christian fold. Nobunaga did not convert, but he gave the missionaries everything else they wanted; by the time of his death there were 150,000 Christians in Japan, out of a population of 20 million.

By 1580 Nobunaga had unified a third of Japan (mainly central Honshu) under his command. As his armies drove against the powerful western daimyo in 1582, he was caught off guard by one of his vassal generals and killed when the Kyoto temple where he had taken refuge was burned to the ground. The assassin, however, could not take his lord's job; he was defeated by Nobunaga's leading general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who negotiated a truce with a rival and hurried back to Kyoto as soon as he heard the news. He spent the next two years gaining the submission of Nobunaga's vassals; unlike his predecessor, who believed in using force as a first resort, Hideyoshi preferred negotiations. His favorite strategy was to gain the loyalty of other daimyo by enlarging their tracts of land, even if he had fought them previously. Once that was done, he resumed Nobunaga's war against those daimyo who still did not recognize his authority, conquering Shikoku in 1585 and Kyushu in 1587. The last battle was fought at Odawara (near mt. Fuji) in 1590, when the castle of the once-powerful Hojo family was taken; now for the first time in centuries, Japan was both peaceful and united. Many conservative Japanese must have been shocked by his success, because Hideyoshi came from a peasant family, making his career the most remarkable "rags-to-riches" story in Japanese history.

Unlike Nobunaga, Hideyoshi was suspicious of the power Christianity was gaining, perhaps because Buddhism was no longer a threat. In 1587 his emissary woke up the Jesuit leader in the middle of the night and gave him a list of questions about Christian practices. Why did God allow only one woman per man (Hideyoshi once claimed he would convert if that prohibition was lifted)? How could one justify the gaining of converts by force? Why were Buddhists persecuted and their temples desecrated/destroyed? Why do Christians eat useful animals, such as cattle? Why are merchants permitted to enslave Japanese and carry them off for sale? Before the priest could reply, Hideyoshi ordered all missionaries to leave Japan, but he left them alone after they stopped preaching openly.

Now that Japan possessed far more warriors than it needed, Hideyoshi decided to use them to conquer China and even India, though he knew little about either place; he also considered an invasion of the Spanish Philippines. Since Korea was on the way, 160,000 samurai were sent across Tsushima Strait in 1592. Korea was conquered in only six weeks, but the Korean navy, using a radical new ship design called the "tortoise boat" (a rowboat covered with spikes and bulletproof iron armor), controlled the sea, making it difficult to reinforce the Japanese forces. To make matters worse, China sent armies into Korea, and even after the Chinese were defeated twice they refused to negotiate. The situation in Korea became a stalemate; in 1597 Hideyoshi tried to break it by sending another 150,000 troops, and that campaign was still in progress when he died a year later. After his death the samurai were called home, leaving Japan, China, and Korea all in worse shape than before.

While all these events were happening, Spanish traders began to visit Japan, joining the Portuguese already there. Japan tolerated these aggressive newcomers until 1596, when Spain's Manila Galleon was driven onto the island of Shikoku by a typhoon. Her cargo--a whole year's worth of revenue from the Philippines, intended for the Spanish crown--was claimed by both the local samurai and Hideyoshi's representatives. The Spanish captain reacted by showing a map of the vast Spanish empire and warned that the king of Spain would invade Japan if the cargo was not returned. To add to this monumental error, the captain mentioned that Spanish missionaries are used to pave the way for future conquests. When Hideyoshi heard about this, he crucified six Spanish Franciscans and 20 Japanese Christians. The church was driven underground for the rest of Hideyoshi's life.

Hideyoshi's passing in 1598 left Tokugawa Ieyasu the most powerful man in Japan, possessing an estate even larger than that of Hideyoshi's family. The other daimyo tried to form an alliance against him, but Ieyasu crushed them in the battle of Sekigahara (1600). Three years later the emperor made him shogun, beginning the Tokugawa Shogunate that would rule Japan until 1867.

1. One of the first Japanese monasteries was Horyuji, built near Nara around 680. All of its buildings are wooden and it is because of the care the Japanese have given to them that they are still standing; they are in fact the oldest wooden buildings in the world. The five-story pagoda in the courtyard of the complex has its massive central post loosely attached to the foundation, allowing it to sway during the country's frequent earthquakes. A replica of this pagoda can be seen in the Japan pavilion at Walt Disney World's EPCOT Center.
On the other hand, the old custom of disposable buildings has survived at the Ise Grand Shrine. This is the most important Shinto holy place, a complex of 125 shrines in and near the city of Ise. Reportedly founded in 4 B.C., the Ise shrines are torn down and replaced every twenty years, so that the structures will always be new and old at the same time. The next "urban renewal" is scheduled for 2033. If you make a pilgrimage there, don't expect to get too close. Only Shinto priests/priestesses and members of the imperial family are allowed inside the two main shrines; most visitors stop at the gates.
2. The Buddhists were forbidden to build monasteries in the new capital. To get around this restriction, the monks established monasteries in the surrounding hills, and in the next era they regained some of their previous power by becoming royal advisors.

3. Heian-kyo literally means "peace & tranquility," a very appropriate name when one considers that Japan was at peace in the 9th-11th centuries. Today it is called Kyoto.

4. A few Korean scholars, like Ch'oe Ch'i-won, did so well in their studies of the classics that they were even admitted into the Chinese bureaucracy.

5. In practice, however, the property could often be kept within an aristocrat's family, simply by making sure a son received the same position as his father.

6. Today there are so many archaeological and historical sites in Gyeongju that it is often called "the museum without walls," and is one of South Korea's most popular tourist attractions as a result.

7. There was a nasty spell of anti-Buddhist persecution in China during the ninth century, which saw the burning down of many pagodas. Because of this the best surviving examples of ninth-century Chinese art & architecture are in Korea and Japan.

8. One Fujiwara patriarch, Fujiwara Michinaga (966-1027), was the brother of two empresses and the father of four, the uncle of two emperors, the grandfather of two more, and the great-grandfather of another!

9. These blocks are now filed on shelves like library books at Haein Temple in South Korea.

10. Beaten or disgraced warriors committed ritual suicide, which they called seppuku (disembowelment), but which is commonly known in the West by the more vulgar hari-kiri (belly-slitting), to prove their courage and restore the family honor.

11. The Taira carried red flags, while the Minamoto identified themselves with white flags. Once the Minamoto pulled off a successful ambush by marching up to a Taira army with red flags, and when the Taira had their guard down, thinking this was a friendly unit, the Minamoto switched to white flags and attacked. After the civil war, in a show of unity, red and white were made the national colors, and all Japanese flags have been red and white ever since.

12. A complete suit of armor weighed 25 pounds, only half as much as the steel plate armor that European knights wore in the late Middle Ages, but it was just as effective. This was proved in 1180, when a Taira samurai survived a battle unhurt with 63 arrows sticking out of his armor. He must have looked like a pincushion!

A samurai suit in the Gusoku style, from the eighteenth century. Lose the antlers, have the wearer do a James Earl Jones impersonation, and he could pass for Darth Vader. By Wikipedia Loves Art participant "Team_A" [ CC BY-SA 2.5], via Wikimedia Commons.
13. They never agreed on how many times that phrase had to be repeated. Some said that once in a lifetime was enough to do it; on the other extreme were those who claimed it had to be repeated almost every waking moment of every day!

14. Yi Sun Sin's ironclad was known as the Geobukseon or "Tortoise Boat" because it had an oval shape, so it looked like a turtle when seen from above. With oars and spikes sticking out all over, plus cannon to top it off, it looked like it was part cactus, too. Note that this was more than two and a half centuries before the United States built the Monitor & the Merrimac/Virginia. The first picture came from Ripleys.com; the second picture is a foot-long model made of gold, seen in the office of a Korean-owned company in my home city.

However, Yi Sun Sin's greatest victory, the battle of Myeongnyang (1597), used conventional wooden ships. A badly planned attack on the Japanese naval base at Busan resulted in the battle of Chilchonryang, where most of the Korean navy was wiped out; its commander was killed and only twelve ships and a hundred sailors escaped. Admiral Yi persuaded King Seonjo to put him in charge of those ships. Then he managed to scrounge up one more ship and a hundred sailors, and decided to make his stand against the Japanese armada at Myeongnyang, a narrow strait with cliffs on each side and a strong tidal current. It must have looked hopeless; the Koreans had only thirteen warships, with 200 men between them, while the Japanese had 333 warships and 200 support vessels. Still, the Japanese had to pass that point to sail from Busan to Seoul. When the Japanese entered the strait, the current slowed them down so badly that they could make almost no headway at all, giving the Koreans plenty of time to fire their guns at barely moving targets. What's more, the Korean ships were flat-bottomed, making them more stable in the choppy water than the keeled Japanese ships, so the Korean cannon fire was more accurate. Finally, when the Japnese tried to send the whole fleet into the strait, it only resulted in confusion and collisions between ships, like what happened to the Persian navy at Salamis. In the middle of the battle the body of the Japanese admiral was found floating in the water; Admiral Yi had the head cut off and posted on his flagship, a real de-motivator for the Japanese. By the time the Japanese withdrew, 31 of their ships had been sunk, 91 more were damaged beyond repair, and at least 8,000 sailors were killed. On the Korean side, only two men were killed and three were wounded.
15. Another emotional scar was left by the Japanese occupation of Korea in the early twentieth century; for example, the Koreans complain that Japan has never properly apologized for the exploitation of Korean women by Japanese soldiers during World War II. Not until 1996 could a samurai movie be shown in South Korean theaters, and even that generated protests, though it was a US-made picture. It was hailed as a diplomatic triumph when Japan and South Korea co-hosted the 2002 World Cup soccer games.

16. The emperors were even worse off; cut off from all official income, one was forced to write and sell poems to make ends meet. Another could not bury his predecessor for six weeks until he gathered enough money for the funeral, and delayed his own coronation 20 years because of the lack of funds.

17. The restrictions and loss of status felt by women at this time led to the custom of not using actresses in theatrical performances; traditionally their roles have been played by men specially trained to impersonate women.

18. Francis Xavier called the Japanese the "best people [the Europeans had] yet discovered," but he and other missionaries had an awful time with the Japanese language. The problem was that the grammar is very complicated, using different forms which depend on whether the user is speaking to a social equal, inferior, or superior; they decided that the devil invented the language just to make their job more difficult! The priests ended up using native interpreters, so we do not know for sure if their Japanese converts understood what they were joining. They may have thought Christianity was a new and interesting Buddhist sect.

19. A fable summarizes the personalities of these figures. Supposedly all three of them sat down one day to listen to a cuckoo bird's song. Nobunaga said, "If it doesn't sing, I'll kill it." Hideyoshi said, "If it doesn't sing, I'll make it sing." Ieyasu said, "If it doesn't sing, I'll wait 'till it does."

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This chapter covers the following topics: 668 to 926 Though the period after the Three Kingdoms is usually called the age of unified Silla, you may also hear it called the North-South States Period because there were really two kingdoms, Silla in the central and southern thirds of Korea, and Balhae in northern Korea and Manchuria.

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Middle Ages

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This month Prussian Mapping released this map of the history of Korea, starting in ancient times, which includes the many states that could be found in the country during the first millennium CE.

The Dragon Historian has also created this video that focuses on the Three Kingdoms period of Korea, between 562 and 676, which deals with the struggle between the Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje states.

You can also watch several other good videos about medieval Korea. The first is from Epimetheus, who created this look at the country's history:

and finally: The Daily Life of the King through the Chosun Dynasty Annals
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How the borders of Korea changed in the Middle Ages

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This month Prussian Mapping released this map of the history of Korea, starting in ancient times, which includes the many states that could be found in the country during the first millennium CE. The Dragon Historian has also created this video that focuses on the Three Kingdoms period of Korea, between 562 and 676, which deals with the struggle between the Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje states.

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Japan, an archipelago consisting of four principal islands situated off the east coast of the Asian mainland, was a relative latecomer in terms of both receiving from the outside and nurturing at home a rich and sophisticated material culture. Whereas ample archaeological evidence exists in China of extant garments, ceramic sculptures, and tomb paintings, giving a credible view of Chinese costume history across several centuries before the advent of the Common Era, a verifiable history of Japanese dress does not begin until the eighth century C.E.

Speculative Early History of Japan

Apart from its indigenous peoples, Japan was populated by successive waves of immigrants from China, Korea,

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Southeast Asia, Central and North Asia, and possibly Polynesia. Native textile fibers were processed from the inner bark of trees and plants, and weaving was done on a backstrap loom. Textile technology continually advanced as the result of immigration, with the production of silk presumably established by the third century. Silk remains the fiber of choice for traditional Japanese dress.

The archaeological record in Japan yields little in the way of human imagery until the fifth century C.E. Prior to that time representations of stick figures found on pottery shards and bronze bells allow for the hypothesis that a long tunic-like garment, belted at the waist, may have been a common form of dress.

In the fifth and sixth centuries, large quantities of haniwa, terra-cotta tomb sculptures, were produced for important burials. Male figures are often depicted wearing tight, body-hugging, long-waisted jackets flared at the sides with long tubular sleeves and baggy pants secured with ties just above the knees. Such garb is reminiscent of the practical wear of horse-riding, nomadic steppe peoples from the Asian mainland. The horsemen required full mobility of arms and legs to guide their mounts and tightly fit garments for warmth in the cold, wind-swept northern latitudes. Loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, floor-length Chinese robes, the other dominant elite mode of dress on the continent, were the antithesis of this kind of nomadic clothing.

Typical female haniwa figures wear an upper garment resembling the men's jacket and a skirt, rather than trousers. It is important to note that haniwa jackets tend to be fastened in a sequence that places the right front panel over the left panel, after which the ties are secured at the right side of the jacket. This was considered a barbaric practice by the Chinese, whose robes were closed left side over right. Japanese dress was to mimic the Chinese mode in this and in other ways soon thereafter.

It is doubtful that haniwa dress was widespread in Japan during the fifth and sixth centuries. Such dress would not be suitable for Japan's long months of warm and humid weather, and a life on horseback would have been unlikely in mountainous Japan. Judging from the large number of extant haniwa horse figures, a horse-riding elite may well have established itself in Japan during this period, perhaps after an incursion from the Asian mainland, but their way of dressing was not to prevail.

Asuka and Nara Periods

The year 552 is considered the official date for the introduction of Buddhism in Japan and marked the first year of the Asuka period (552-710). Buddhism had its origins more than a thousand years earlier in India, spread to China by the beginning of the Common Era, and finally reached Japan by way of Korea. One of the important cultural advances that arrived with Buddhism was literacy. The Japanese employed the Chinese writing system based on ideograms.

Japan's native religion, Shintoism, coexisted with Buddhism, in keeping with a continuous theme in Japanese history of borrowing from the outside while preserving the most valued native traditions and ultimately transforming foreign ways into something uniquely Japanese.

Another early group of costumes in Japan were used during performances and ceremonies commemorating an enormous bronze Buddha completed in 752, midway through the Nara period (710-794). Dignitaries from various Asian countries came to Nara, then the capital of Japan, to attend. These costumes, along with most of the early kesa, have been preserved in the famous temple storehouse known as the Shôsôin.

The Shôsôin performance wear is mostly left-closing and includes both knee-length sleeveless vests and long-sleeved full-length robes. Collars are either narrow and round or V-neck, with front panels that either abut or overlap. Both figural and geometric decorations, in either woven or dyed patterns, are part of the rich legacy of this diverse group of silk robes. Also included are trousers and accessories such as leggings, socks, shoes, and aprons.

Other costumes in the Shôsôin include robes worn by craftsmen, similar in cut to the full-length robes with the round collars mentioned above, but in hemp rather than silk; robes with wide flaring sleeves; and even archaic, right-closing haniwa-style costumes.

The Shôsôin costumes are very likely representative of diverse types of Asian dress then in use, and any number of them may well have been made outside of Japan. In later Japanese traditional dress, several of these early modes of clothing were to be reflected in the costumes of the No theater.

According to period documents, dress at Japan's imperial court followed that of China's at this time, with rank indicated by color. Contemporary pictorial representations depict both male and female courtiers in long flowing robes with voluminous sleeves ample enough in length to cover the hands. A characteristic of male dress was a close-fitting, narrow, round collar, while female dress featured wide front panels that overlapped in the left-over-right sequence. Women's court dress also included one or more underrobes that closed in the same manner.

Heian Period

Kyoto became the new imperial capital at the end of the eighth century, marking the beginning of the long and relatively peaceful Heian era (794-1185). Japan's previous periods of intensive cultural absorption from the Asian mainland was followed by the internal development and refinement of foreign ways combined with native sensibilities.

A costume history of this period cannot be based on extant garments, as extremely few examples have survived. Knowledge of Heian dress is largely derived from pictorial representations, wardrobe records, and two of the earliest novels in world literature-the Tale of Genji, by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, and the Pillow Book by Sei Shônagon.

The novels describe the insular world of the imperial court and its daily life full of intrigue, poetry, wit, romance, and a remarkably refined way of dressing. Women wore layer upon layer of silk robes, with only the edges of individual robes being revealed at the sleeve ends, collar, and hem, and the outermost robe setting the overall tone for the color scheme. A woman's taste and sensitivity was displayed by her choice of color combinations in selecting the various robes for the ensemble in accordance with the season, an occasion, or a prevailing mood. Further articles of clothing, such as a jacket, skirt-like pants ( hakama), and an apron worn at the back completed women's court dress.

The robe, presumably worn closest to the body in this ensemble, is considered the precursor to the Edo period (1603-1868) kosode in terms of construction and shape. This innermost garment had an overall T-shape composed of square- or rectangular-shaped sleeves with narrow openings for the hands. These sleeves attached to long, straight lengths of cloth composing the body of the robe. A relatively wide, flat collar and lapels were sewn to the inner edges of the body panels at the front of the garment. This article of clothing conforms to the present-day kimono.

Male dress of the Heian period retained the narrow, round tunic-like collar reflecting the earlier period of influence from the Asian mainland, and men also wore a skirt-like trouser and an underrobe or two. Sleeve shape departed from previous mainland models in that a square or rectangular shape came to dominate, and a single sleeve could be as wide as the entire body of a garment. In the wearing of such a robe, the bottoms of the sleeves, which were unsewn at their extremities, could practically sweep the ground.

It is also during this period that family crests are thought to have first appeared on clothing. Some Heian costume types have persisted to the present day as seen in imperial court wear, religious dress, and costumes of the No theater.

Kamakura Period

During the latter part of the twelfth century, the base of power in Japan shifted away from the increasingly decadent, self-absorbed imperial court in Kyoto to provincial military clans who chose the town of Kamakura as their headquarters. There are few extant garments from the Kamakura era (1185-1333), and the period literature is not very rich on the subject of costume. However, well-detailed surviving paintings do give an idea of dress at that time.

Women's clothing was less encumbered by exaggerated multilayering, and large-scale dyed patterns appear on some female outer robes. Pattern-dyed designs were to become one of the most important creative expressions in later Japanese dress. Expressions of originality in men's clothing also began to be manifest through the use of outscaled motifs and the splicing together of pieces from two completely different robes in order to create a startling new costume. Buddhist sects (such as Zen), previously unknown in Japan, were introduced from the Asian mainland, which resulted in the importation of kesa made from certain luxurious types of textiles otherwise unavailable to the Japanese. Earlier kesa were, on the whole, more humble in appearance.

Nambokuchô, Muromachi and Momoyama Periods

The imperial city of Kyoto became the capital again with the advent of the Nambokuchô era (1333-1392), a period marked by clashes between rival military clans. Warfare continued during the subsequent Muromachi period (1392-1568). Since the advent of the Kamakura era, the imperial family had ruled in name only; the shogun, as the supreme military power, wielded the real power.

In regard to cultural matters, the imperial court ceased to be in the vanguard. Elite members of the military class and high-ranking Buddhist monks were the leading practitioners of the newly established and extremely aesthetic tea ceremony. The shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) was the first important patron of the No theater.

Costumes of the No theater continued to exist in a wide variety of different types through the early twenty-first century. During the initial centuries of the all-male theatrical form, actors wore garments donated from the wardrobes of their elite patrons. By the Edo period (1603-1868), No costumes were being made specifically for use on the stage; however, for the most part the costume styles did not change and continued to reflect the clothing of earlier periods.

Within the broad category of No robes called ôsode, a term referring to tall and wide sleeves that are left unsewn at their ends, are certain types of robes long since obsolete in Japan, except within the most conservative and traditional spheres of Japanese life, such as imperial court rites and Shinto rituals.

During the Muromachi period, the kosode literally emerged as acceptable outerwear. What had previously been private intimate wear was now permissible outside of domestic interiors. This form of dress became the principal vehicle for the expression of changing fashions and styles.

During the Edo period, most kosode-category costumes still preserved Muromachi and Momoyama period styles. Archaic styles that persisted included the use of heavy, ornate brocade fabric, extensive gilding, the splicing together of two completely different kinds of fabric in one robe, and an empty-center composition that concentrates the design motifs at the shoulders and hem of the robe. Such costumes did, however, change their over-all sleeve shape from oblong to squarish in response to an Edo period trend, and certain No robes with embroidered designs were occasionally influenced by contemporary fashion styles.

Extant No costumes date as far back as the latter part of the Muromachi period. No robes were still being made in the early twenty-first century, and some of the modern producers made use of traditional hand weaving and natural dyeing techniques.

In the 1540s, when the first Europeans reached Japan, the country was in the midst of protracted civil war. This combination of turbulent times and a new wave of foreign influence led to the creation of some astonishing examples of samurai-class dress. Western-style tailoring and the newly imported "exotic" fabrics of European woolen cloth, Indian cotton chintz, and even Persian silk tapestry can be seen in several extant jimbaori (a type of vest worn over armor).

Further creativity in male dress is evident in some short kosode-shaped garments ( dôfuku) associated with the leading military figures of the sixteenth century. These robes exhibit unconventional motifs and surprising color combinations.

Edo Period

Three successive military leaders were to emerge as unifiers of war-torn Japan. An enduring peace was finally established by the last of the three, Ieyasu Tokugawa. A new capital was established in Edo (later known as Tokyo), and all of the subsequent shoguns were supplied by the Tokugawa clan ruling from Edo while the imperial court remained in Kyoto. Japan entered a period of isolation, during which time the new religion of Christianity was suppressed, travel to and from Japan was prohibited, and foreign trade came under strict controls.

Conservative dress became the norm for the samurai class. Men's formal wear consisted of a short vest with winglike shoulders and the traditional hakama, with both garments made from a bast fiber patterned with tiny repeat motifs and invariably dyed blue. The samurai had no more wars to fight, though armor and its associated vest continued to be made. Although creative examples of the vest were still produced, samurai were not encouraged to dress like dandies.

The greatest creativity in dress during the Edo period was manifest in the kosode. Much of the impetus for transforming this garment into such a fashion-conscious form of dress came from the newly rich merchant class, which was, nevertheless, at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Whereas the No theater was the preserve of the upper classes, Kabuki theater was the performance art for the nouveau-riche merchants. Most Kabuki costumes have the standard T-shape of kosode; however, their coloration tends toward the garish and their design motifs can be overwhelming in scale. For example, a giant lobster might cover the entire back of a robe.

Leading Kabuki actors (also an all-male theatrical form) became wildly popular, their faces and dress disseminated in myriad woodblock prints. However, their costumes tended to be too outlandish to influence fashion, other than by popularizing a particular shade of a color or a certain motif. Kabuki costumes of the early twentieth century continued to resemble those of the Edo period.

Buddhist clergy ranked high on the social scale and were given administrative powers and official support under the Tokugawa government, enabling them to share in the general prosperity. The most unusual tendency seen in kesa, the patchwork garment, was a pictorial impulse that resulted in examples being woven, embroidered, or painted with such narrative representational imagery as birds and animals in landscape settings, gatherings of divinities, and even flower arrangements. Two of the methods used to satisfy token adherence to the patchwork tradition involved the stitching of cording or the drawing of lines onto the garment in order to create the impression of a pieced construction. As the kesa is a flat, wide, horizontal-oriented, usually rectangular-shaped garment, an inspiration for this new style in surface design was quite likely to have been the broad painted screens widely in use during the Edo period.

The kesa also reflected fashionable taste in a more indirect way as a result of the custom for lay Buddhists to donate valuable clothing to temples. The garments would be unstitched, cut up, and remade into Buddhist robes. Other kesa were assembled from rich brocades, which were being woven domestically, as the Japanese textile industry had, by this time, absorbed the foreign skills and technology necessary for the weaving of luxury textiles.

Meiji Period

Japan was forced to end its isolation in the 1850s when Western powers with advanced military technology demanded trading concessions. The Tokugawa Shogunate collapsed, and power shifted to the imperial family, which moved the court to Tokyo in 1868 and proclaimed a new era, the Meiji (1868-1912). Once again, the Japanese realized the need to keep pace with more developed nations, and embarked upon a policy of rapid Westernization.

Western dress was adopted, with the emperor and empress helping to set an example for the rest of the country by occasionally wearing Western clothing. Buddhists and elite samurai families sold off quantities of kesa and No costumes, ultimately enriching museum and private collections in Japan and the West. For the more sophisticated urban population, and especially men, traditional Japanese dress ceased to be a part of everyday wear until eventually the use of traditional dress was relegated to Buddhist temples and monasteries; Shinto shrines; No, kyôgen, and Kabuki theater; tea ceremony and other traditional arts such as flower arranging; and the imperial court. Geisha, still an institution in Japan at the start of the twenty-first century, were still expected to entertain in kimono.

In the early 2000s, rites of passage such as children's coming-of-age ceremonies, school graduations, and weddings are occasions for members of the general public to wear traditional dress. A Japanese family also might don kimono when participating in special national and regional festivals or when relaxing after bath time at a traditional inn. It was not uncommon for a Japanese housewife to attend kimono school in order to better understand how to select and properly wear a kimono and its most important accessory, the obi.

During the early Taishō (1912-1926) and late Taishō (1926-1989) periods, the mingei movement was founded by artists and intellectuals for the purpose of preserving and perpetuating the folk crafts of Japan, especially as practiced by farmers and ethnic minorities. Those who championed the idea of mingei can be thought of as the East Asian inheritors of the Arts and Crafts movement, although they did not have to insist on the importance of handicraft, as did their Western predecessors, because in the traditional Japanese distinctions between fine and decorative arts were not emphatic. However, the elevation of handcrafted works made by simple-living country people and minorities on the fringe of Japanese society did not fit with conventional ideas of social hierarchy in Japan.

Examples of costumes collected and studied by mingei enthusiasts include the bast fiber and cotton robes of the indigenous Ainu tribe, specially dyed costumes from Okinawa, heavily stitched farmers' jackets, and fishermen and firemen's garb.

See also Kimono; Japanese Fashion.

Bibliography

Bethe, Monica, and Iwao Nagasaki. Patterns and Poetry: Nô Robes from the Lucy Truman Aldrich Collection at the Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design. Providence: Rhode Island School of Design, 1992.

Bethe, Monica, and Sharon Sadako Takeda. Miracles and Mischief: Noh and Kyôgen Theater in Japan. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2002.

Dalby, Liza Crihfield. Kimono: Fashioning Culture. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993.

Dusenbury, Mary. "Textiles." In Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Vol. 8. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1983, 16-20.

Kennedy, Alan. Japanese Costume: History and Tradition. Paris: Editions Adam Biro, 1990.

Kirihata, Ken. Noh Costumes. Kyoto: Kyoto Shoin, 1993.

Liddell, Jill. The Story of the Kimono. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989.

Matsumoto Kaneo, ed. The Treasures of the Shôsôin: Musical Instruments, Dance Articles, Game Sets. Kyoto: Shikosha, 1991.

Minnich, Helen Benton. Japanese Costume and the Makers of Its Elegant Tradition. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1963.

Noma Seiroku. Japanese Costume and Textile Arts. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1974.

Yamanobe Tomoyuki. Textiles. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1957.

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Japanese Traditional Dress and Adornment | LoveToKnow

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Japan, an archipelago consisting of four principal islands situated off the east coast of the Asian mainland, was a relative latecomer in terms of both receiving from the outside and nurturing at home a rich and sophisticated material culture.

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Fashion in Japan Medieval Lands

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Kimono of the Nara Period

Originally, "kimono" was the Japanese word for clothing. However, in recent years, the word has been used to refer specifically to traditional Japanese clothing. Kimono as we know them today came into the form during the Heian period (794-1185).

From ancient times, and all the way through the Nara period (710-794), Japanese people typically wore either ensembles consisting of separate upper and lower garments (trousers or skirts), or one-piece garments.

Kimono of the Heian Period

In the Heian period (794-1185), a new kimono-making technique was developed. Known as the straight-line-cut method, it involved cutting pieces of fabric in straight lines and sewing them together. With this technique, kimono makers did not have to concern themselves with the shape of the wearer's body.

Straight-line-cut kimono were suitable for all weather: they could be worn in layers to provide warmth in winter, and kimono made of breathable fabric such as linen were comfortable in summer. These advantages helped kimono become a part of Japanese people's everyday lives.

Over time, as the practice of wearing kimono in layers came into fashion, Japanese people began paying attention to how kimono of different colors looked together, and they developed a heightened sensitivity to color. Typically, color combinations represented either seasonal colors or the political class to which one belonged. It was during this time that what we now think of as traditional Japanese color combinations developed.

During this period that spanned the late-Nara period (710-794) and the Heian period (794-1185), the clothes that people wore began to differ depending on their social status as either a member of the nobility or an ordinary citizen. The nobility began to wear clothing that covered their hands and feet and was difficult to move around in, while ordinary people wore clothes that looked more like modern clothing, with straighter, less flowy sleeves and better mobility.

Kimono of the Kamakura Period

During the Kamakura period (1185-1333) and the Muromachi period (1336-1573), both men and women wore brightly colored kimono. As the warrior class grew in power, they would take to the battlefield dressed in gaudy colors that represented their leaders.

Kimono of the Edo Period

During the Edo period (1603-1867), the Tokugawa warrior clan ruled over Japan. The country was divided up into feudal domains ruled by lords. The samurai of each domain wore "samurai uniforms," which consisted of a kimono and a kamishimo worn over the kimono, and were identified by the patterns on the kamishimo.A kamishimo is the combination of an upper sleeveless garment that was made of linen, starched to make the shoulders stand out, and a hakama, a type of skirt-like trousers. As the techniques of making kimono rapidly developed, kimono grew into an art form. Kimono became more valuable, and parents handed them down to their children as family heirlooms.

From the Meiji Period to Today

During the Meiji period (1868-1912), Japan was heavily influenced by foreign cultures. The government encouraged people to adopt Western clothing and habits. Government officials and military personnel were required by law to wear Western clothing for official functions. (That law is no longer in effect today.) Ordinary citizens, on the other hand, were required to wear kimono decorated with their family crests, called kamon, which identified their family backgrounds, on formal occasions. This type of kimono is called mantsuki. Since then, montsuki became formal wear for Japanese people.

Nowadays, Japanese people rarely wear kimono in everyday life, reserving them as haregi (formal clothing) for occasions including wedding ceremonies, funerals, and university graduation ceremonies. They are also worn for tea ceremonies and other special events, such as summer festivals and tanabata.

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The History of Kimono | Kids Web Japan - Web Japan

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Learn about how Japanese kimono became what they are today, and about the history of kimono throughout different eras.

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Khan Academy

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A brief history of the arts of Japan: the Jomon to Heian periods (article) | Khan Academy

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The Met Museum

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The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Overview

The introduction of Buddhism to the Japanese archipelago from China and Korea in the sixth century causes momentous changes amounting to a fundamentally different way of life for the Japanese. Along with the foreign faith, Japan establishes and maintains for 400 years close connections with the Chinese and Korean courts and adopts a more sophisticated culture. This new culture is essentially Chinese and includes literature, philosophy, art, architecture, science, medicine, and statecraft. Most important is the introduction of the Chinese writing system, revolutionizing Japan, which heretofore had no writing system of its own, and ushering in the country's historical period.

During the peaceful and prosperous Heian period, Japanese civilization reaches its maturity, as imported continental influences are absorbed and adapted to native preferences and as interest in maintaining official ties with the mainland wanes. Encouraged by the imperial family and the powerful Fujiwara clan, who reign as imperial regents from the late ninth to the end of the eleventh century, literature, painting, music, and the decorative arts reach a peak of aesthetic and technical sophistication, and a distinctive national style emerges. The poems, illustrated narrative handscrolls, and Buddhist images of the Heian era, which tend to appeal to or express human emotions, are visually rich and decorative, and have a highly refined style.

Key Events

538 (552 according to an alternate tradition)
The king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje, an ardent Buddhist, sends a message to the Japanese emperor Kinmei (r. 532-71) describing the Buddhist faith as "most excellent" and urging him to embrace it. While this is the traditional account of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, in actuality the Japanese court probably learned of the religion earlier from Korean and Chinese traders and immigrants.

mid-6th century
The capital is established in a series of sites in the Asuka valley in the central Yamato plain, power base of the Sun clan, which secures the imperial throne. Until 710, the capital city is usually moved after the death of the reigning emperor. Aversion to the defilement of the deceased is the most frequently cited reason for these moves, although political considerations probably also play an important role.

593
Prince Shōtoku (574-622) becomes regent for his niece, Empress Suiko (r. 593-628). During his regency, which lasts until 622, the prince institutes a number of important political and social reforms meant to centralize government control and strengthen imperial authority. A devout Buddhist, Shōtoku passes an edict promoting the Buddhist faith and gives imperial support to the construction of several important temples. He is also credited with writing insightful commentaries on several sutras (Buddhist texts), including the highly influential Lotus Sutra.

600
Prince Shōtoku sends the first official Japanese mission to China. Seven years later, another embassy carries a letter from Shōtoku to the Chinese emperor, addressing the latter as the ruler of the "land of the setting sun," and signed by the ruler of the "land of the rising sun." This is the first known use of this phrase, which forms the base of the name Japan (the two characters used for Japan literally mean "sun" and "origin" and are pronounced Nihon or Nippon in modern Japanese, and Riben in Mandarin Chinese, source of the English name Japan).

ca. 607
The Buddhist temple Hōryūji is established in the Asuka region. This monastic compound is Japan's earliest extant Buddhist temple and contains the world's oldest surviving wood structure. Housed in the temple are bronze statues of Buddhist deities attributed to the preeminent sculptor Tori Busshi, the first artist known in Japan by name.

646
The Taika Reform is issued by Emperor Kotoku (r. 645-54) to strengthen imperial political and economic authority while weakening the position of aristocratic families. Based on the Chinese system, all agricultural land becomes the property of the emperor and all inhabitants his subjects. A merit-based bureaucracy is established, and expanded in 701 by the Taihō Code, to govern the imperial domain.

701
Following Chinese precedent, the Gagakuryō (Bureau of Court Music) is formed. Numerous types of sacred and secular music and dance are performed at court, including compositions from China, Korea, Central Asia, and Japan.

710
The imperial headquarters are moved from Asuka to Nara, which becomes the country's first permanent capital. Built according to a grid pattern, Nara is modeled on the Tang Chinese capital Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), but without city walls and gates. Efforts to establish Buddhism as the official state religion inspire the construction of many Buddhist temples within city limits.

712
Japan's first history and oldest surviving literary work, the Kojiki (Record of Ancient Times), is completed. This imperially commissioned collection of ancient songs, legends, genealogies, and descriptions of religious rites chronicles Japan's development from its creation to approximately 500 A.D. It is expanded by the Nihon shoki (History of Japan), which is completed in 720.

ca. 728
Emperor Shōmu (r. 724-49) establishes an official scriptorium (Shakyōshi, later called Shakyōjo) within the grounds of the imperial palace. The scribes who work in this bureau, along with supervisors, paper mounters, and assistants, are chosen by means of an arduous examination process, which tests a candidate's knowledge of Chinese characters and ability to write in regular script calligraphy. Like the officially sponsored scriptoria in major temples in Nara, the primary task of the court scriptorium at this time seems to be to provide temples with copies of Buddhist texts.

743
After a smallpox epidemic, Emperor Shōmu (r. 724-49) orders the construction of the Buddhist temple Tōdaiji, the most ambitious religious project of the Nara period. The monumental main hall, which is the largest wooden building in the world, houses a colossal, gilded bronze image of the seated Vairocana Buddha (Jpn. Birushana Butsu). Northeast of the main hall stands the Shōsōin, repository for dozens of Emperor Shōmu's treasures-including paintings, glassware, jewelry, textiles, and musical instruments from China, Persia, Central Asia, and the Middle East.

759
The Man'yōshū (Collection of Myriad Leaves), the oldest surviving anthology of Japanese poetry, is completed and marks the beginning of Japan's written poetic tradition. Human emotions and the natural world are two prominent themes in this collection of more than 4,500 poems. The most important author included in the Man'yōshū is the courtier Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (active ca. 685-705), who is considered one of the greatest poets in Japanese history.

794
The capital moves to Heiankyō (present-day Kyoto), "Capital of Peace and Tranquility," beginning the Heian period. Kyoto remains the imperial seat until 1868. Initially, fearing a revival of the political meddling by the Buddhist clergy that plagued the Nara court, the government allows only two Buddhist temples to be built within the city confines.

804
The Buddhist monk Saichō (posthumous title, Dengyō Daishi, 767-822) is sent to China on an official mission. Upon his return, Saichō introduces the Tendai school, which is centered around the teachings of the Lotus Sutra. After returning from the same mission to China, the monk Kūkai (posthumous title, Kōbō Daishi, 774-835) introduces Shingon, a school of Esoteric Buddhism. Esoteric Buddhism emphasizes the use of elaborate rituals, appeals for help to a large pantheon of deities, and practices secret incantations to achieve enlightenment in one lifetime. It is especially attractive to the Japanese aristocracy and profoundly affects the life and arts of the Early Heian period.

815
According to legend, Emperor Saga (r. 809-23) is the first Japanese sovereign to drink tea, imported from China by monks. The upper classes adopt this beverage for medicinal uses until the twelfth century, when it becomes associated with Zen Buddhist practice.

858
The aristocratic Fujiwara family consolidates their position at court when Fujiwara Yoshifusa (804-872) succeeds in establishing his grandson as Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-76), with himself acting as regent. The practice of marrying their daughters to emperors and serving as regents to the resulting sons, who are frequently enthroned at a young age, forms the basis of Fujiwara influence.

894
The imperial court discontinues official missions to China, beginning a period in which native artistic traditions develop and flourish.

ca. 900
By the middle Heian period, sword making has reached a level of development marking the beginning of a purely Japanese style. These swords have the features and refinements that mark them as distinctly Japanese: curvature, a ridgeline, a temper line, and the jihada (forging) pattern. After this, the traditional art of Japanese sword making continues until the present day.

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Japan, 500-1000 A.D. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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"The introduction of Buddhism to the Japanese archipelago from China and Korea in the sixth century causes momentous changes amounting to a fundamentally different way of life for the Japanese. Along with the foreign faith, Japan establishes and maintains for 400 years close connections with the Chinese and Korean courts and adopts a more sophisticated culture.

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F.F.Y. for Japan Experience

The 6 schools of Japanese Buddhism

Religion in Japan is often a subject of curiosity for other cultures, because of the peaceful coexistence of Shintoism and Buddhism in Japanese society. Indeed, if we observe 75% of Japanese Buddhist practices, 90% of them say they also practice Shintoism, so in reality the vast majority actually practice two religions at the same time.

Buddhism is one of the two main religions in Japan. It was introduced to the archipelago from the fifth century AD, and developed considerably over the centuries, until becoming a major part of Japanese society. Today, it coexists in Japan alongside Shintoism - an animist religion - and has different schools born of various currents over time.

The beginnings of Buddhism in Japan

Buddhism was introduced to Japan by China, through contact between the different territories of the Far East because of the Silk Road. However, its official introduction is dated as 552 AD, when King Seong of Baekje (now South Korea) sent Buddhist missionaries with Buddhist images and sutras to Emperor Kinmei with the purpose of introducing Buddhism to Japan.

Read: A simplified history of Japan

In less than two centuries, during the Asuka and Nara eras, Buddhism developed considerably in Japan, thanks to its adoption by powerful clans: in 627, there were already nearly 50 Buddhist temples in Japan, as well as more than 800 monks and 700 nuns. By the Nara period (710-794), six different schools of Buddhism had already been founded in Japan: rather than separate religious currents, they could be identified as different groups of thought, settled in different temples. It was at this time that the famous Asuka-dera and Todai-ji temples were erected in Nara.

At that time, the Buddhist temples were places of instruction and education, schools really, and much more influential than today. The religion they taught then was a mixture of Buddhist and Taoist practices, with shamanic and indigenous elements. At the end of the Nara era, two new schools were born in Japan, associated with esoteric Buddhism: Shingon and Tendai, introduced respectively by the monks Kukai (better known as Kobo Daishi) and Saicho. While the basic schools of the Nara era have disappeared, giving way to other developments of Buddhist thought, these two schools of esoteric Buddhism are still around today.

Read also : Aoba matsuri, a festival for Kukai

The 6 schools of Japanese Buddhism today

Japanese Buddhism has undergone many changes since the Nara era, and the six schools that originally existed have now disappeared. By chance, the number of schools that survive today is also 6. It was during the Kamakura era (1185-1333) that the other schools of Buddhism that Japan has today developed. They are:

Tendai: founded in 822 by Saicho, it is the oldest school that persists today, and the most widespread. This branch of Buddhism reveres the Lotus Sutra, and is distinguished from its Chinese counterpart (Tien Tai) by its mysticism and esoteric aspects.

Shingon: founded by the monk Kukai in 835, this school is rival of the previous one. The system of Shingon Buddhism is Tantric. It teaches that through the repetition of mantras, meditation and ritual gestures, one can access the power of Buddhas and Boddisatvas.

Jodo, the school of "Pure Land" Buddhism: this school reveres the sutra of the Pure Land and preaches devotion to Buddha Amida. One can only achieve rebirth within the Pure Land this way, that is, the paradise where the Buddha resides. This school has become one of the most widespread forms of Buddhism in Japan.

Jodo-Shinshu, or the True School of the Pure Land: this sect goes further than the previous one, and teaches that humility and faith, in the love of Buddha Amida, are already present in the hearts of believers. In fact, Amida saves souls without pre-requisites. That is to say, the faith and the good deeds accomplished come spontaneously from Buddha Amida, who does not need any other proof to grant salvation.

Nichiren: Named after its founder, this school reveres the Lotus sutra and teaches that the repetition of this sutra is enough to reach paradise.

Zen: Zen includes different schools, but traditionally it is associated with the Rinzai sect, encouraged by Eisai. It relies on the authority of traditional Buddhist scriptures and the repetition of koan, a form of meditative phrase, as a means of transcending linear terrestrial thinking. The Soto sect also supports the authority and validity of the scriptures, but relies only on silent meditation, not on the koan.

For further reading :

Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines: what's the difference?

Comments Read comments from our travellers

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F.F.Y. for Japan Experience Religion in Japan is often a subject of curiosity for other cultures, because of the peaceful coexistence of Shintoism and Buddhism in Japanese society. Indeed, if we observe 75% of Japanese Buddhist practices, 90% of them say they also practice Shintoism, so in reality the vast majority actually practice two religions at the same time.

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Japan - Founder of Buddhism

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Prince Shōtoku: The Secrets Within—The Life of Shōtoku

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Japan - Prince Shotoku

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Geography and People

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Introduction to Medieval Japan Presentation

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The Geography of Medieval-Feudal Japan by Instructomania

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Amazing India - Why Do The Kings Of Thailand Carry The Title Of Rama? | Amazing India

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9th-13th centuries

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Late in the 8th century the kingdom of Chenla declined politically, perhaps because of dynastic disputes with the rising power of Indonesian kings, who were themselves also descended from the original royal dynasty of Funan. It seems that the Indonesians gave some assistance in establishing a new kingdom in the northern part of what had been the territory of Funan. In 802 a Khmer king, who took the title of Jayavarman II, established his capital near Phnom Kulen, about 20 miles (30 km) from Angkor. It was a rather unsuitable place for an administrative capital, but it was a mountain, and the peoples of Southeast Asia have always believed that gods and spirits dwell on mountaintops. The image of the sacred mountain thereafter remained the inspiration for all the later architecture of the Khmer around Angkor. Jayavarman, who built other temples in the vicinity, seems to have revived the Chenla style. A distinctively Khmer art, however, began to emerge under Indravarman I (877-889), who expanded the boundaries of the Khmer kingdom and finally settled its administration. Most important of all, he developed the initial plan of the colossal city of Angkor, whose mysterious ruins, lost in dense jungle until very recently, have tantalized Western travelers for centuries.

Angkor was not only a city; more important, it was an immense technological achievement, from which the agricultural prosperity of the whole Cambodian plain derived. This plain was well watered naturally, but its rivers were subject to strong seasonal fluctuations. Controlled, they were capable of producing an enormous increase in fertility. Angkor was thus essentially an elaborate system of artificial lakes, canals, and radiating irrigation channels that watered a huge acreage of rice paddy; and it was the basis for the strength and prosperity of the Khmer empire. Since Angkor itself was the technical source of the life-giving agricultural water controlled by the king, it was regarded by the Khmer with religious reverence. Its temples and palaces were an expression of that reverence and at the same time an essential part of its supernatural mechanism. Royal intercession by numerous ceremonies, some of which re-enacted the primal marriage of Hindu divinity and native earth spirit on the pattern of ancient folk cult, ensured the continuing gift of the waters of heaven. The king, an earthly image of his god, was the intermediary who ensured that his kingdom would continue to receive divine benevolence in the form of water in controlled quantities. Courtiers played roles at once religious and administrative for the king, who believed that after his death he would be united with his patron deity. Dedicatory statues were often set up in his chief temple to commemorate his divinization.

© Josef Beck/FPG

In order to conform with mountain mythology, the Khmer kings built themselves a series of artificial mountains on the Cambodian plain at Angkor, each crowned by shrines containing images of gods and of themselves, their family, and their ancestors. The huge platforms of earth on which these buildings were founded probably consist of the soil excavated in forming the lakes, moats, and channels that not only divided up the city but also provided an easy means of transport. The temple mountains, like the city itself, are oriented east to west, the main gates facing east. Each king strove to outdo his predecessor in the height, size, and splendour of his temple mountain. The earlier ones, therefore, are relatively small, though beautiful, while the later ones, such as Angkor Wat and the Bayon, are of stupendous size.

In the basic pattern of the Khmer temple mountain the principal overall enclosure, which is square or rectangular, is at ground level. Within it the artificial mountain rises through a series of terraces and at least one further enclosure wall toward a flat summit. On the summit stands either a single shrine or a group of shrines, often a quincunx-five shrines, one at each corner and one in the middle of a square. Arranged along the terraces or within the enclosures there may be further shrines, whose arched doorway pediments refer to the rainbow bridge between heaven and earth. There may be other long buildings, perhaps used as libraries or administrative offices. A principal staircase runs directly up from the east gate to the summit, and sometimes subsidiary staircases run up from other gates at the cardinal directions.

The architecture of the shrines themselves is relatively simple; it is based upon patterns invented in India, though the ornament of the shrines is often highly developed and characteristically Cambodian. Fundamentally, each shrine consists of a cell whose internal space is cubic and whose external walls are marked by moldings at top and bottom. The shrine is roofed by a pyramidal tower composed of a series of similar but diminishing tiers, each of them a compressed version of the exterior pattern of the main shrine volume. Depending on which Indian pattern is followed, the cell has one main door with an elaborately carved portal or, if the plan is cruciform, four entrances. The earlier shrines were built of brick, most commonly with stucco ornament and figures on the outside. The later shrines were built of stone, with all their ornament and figurative sculpture carved in relief. The moldings on the roofs of the shrines and the decoration of the roofs of many of the subsidiary buildings are extremely elaborate. There are long panels of dense foliate ornament, and the niches in which the sculptured relief figures of celestials are set are framed in flamboyant ogival (contoured like a pointed arch) moldings crowned by no less flamboyant foliate ornament; the smaller architectural features, such as niche pilasters, are elaborately carved and molded. The figures themselves wear gorgeous jewelry and chignons. The massive stone icons that survive in some of the shrines and on the terraces do not have the subtlety or strength of the Funan-Chenla sculptures. Instead, they have an inflated massiveness, intended, no doubt, to make them awe-inspiring. Among the lesser relief figures of celestials, which decorate the walls of the shrines, one finds a more sensuous touch; for many of these celestials represent apsara s, the celestial girls of Indian mythology.

On some of the temple mountains there are also relief panels illustrating various aspects of the royal mythology. Episodic relief sculpture first appears on Banteay Srei (10th century). The relief centres on a series of Indian legends dealing with the cosmic mountain Meru as the source of all creation and with the divine origin of water. The chief artistic achievement of its architecture is the way in which it conceives and coordinates the spaces between the walls of the enclosures, the faces of the terraces, and the volumes of the shrine buildings. A most sophisticated architecture of full and empty space, it seems to have been influenced by that of the Hindu Pallava dynasty in southeastern India.

The earliest more or less complete example of a shrine complex devoted to deifying the ancestors of a king is the Preah Ko at Roluos, near Angkor, completed in 879. The earliest surviving temple mountain at Angkor itself is the Bakong, probably finished in 881. In the central shrine at the summit was a linga, the phallic emblem sacred to Shiva. Around the base of the terraced pyramid stood eight large shrines inside the main enclosure, with a series of moats, causeways, and auxiliary sculptures guarding the approaches to the exterior. The Bakheng, begun in 893, had an enormous series of 108 tower shrines arranged on the terraces around the central pyramid, which was crowned by a quincunx of principal shrines. The whole was intended to illustrate a mystical conception of the cosmos, very much on the lines of the great temple mountain at Borobudur in Java ( see below Indonesia). Pre Rup, dedicated in 961, was probably the first of the temple mountains intended as a permanent shrine for the divine spirit of a king after his death. It, too, has a quincunx of principal shrines, but it is distinguished by the large number of auxiliary pavilions arranged along both sides of the inner enclosure wall.

From roughly the same period is perhaps the most beautiful-and most beautifully preserved-of the early Khmer temples, Banteay Srei. This was actually a private foundation, built some 12 miles from Angkor by a Brahmin of royal descent. Its auxiliary buildings, all of sandstone, are adorned with a profusion of elaborate ornament and relief figure sculpture. The roof gables, in particular, are treated with antefixes of fantastic invention. Its principal icon, a huge sandstone sculpture of the god Shiva, seated with his wife Uma on his left knee, is perhaps the most impressive full-round sculpture from the whole Khmer epoch. It differs from 10th-century Khmer official sculpture, which began to take on a conventional and relatively insensitive massiveness.

Holle Bildarchiv, Baden-Baden

The Baphuon temple mountain (1050-66) is unfortunately almost completely destroyed. It was a vast monument 480 yards (440 metres) long and 140 yards (130 metres) wide, approached by a 200-yard (180-metre) causeway raised on pillars. Its ground plan shows that it was no mere assemblage of buildings but a fully articulated structure. In this it must rank as the immediate prototype for the great Angkor Wat. Built by Suryavarman II in the early 12th century, Angkor Wat is the crowning work of Khmer architecture, the culmination of all the features of earlier styles.

The enormous structure of the Wat is some 1,700 yards (1,550 metres) long by 1,500 yards (1,400 metres) wide. Surrounded by a vast external cloister, it is approached from the west by a magnificent road, which is built on a causeway and lined with colossal balustrades carved in the likeness of the cosmic serpent, associated with the sources of life-giving water. The Wat rises in three concentric enclosures. The western gate complex itself is nearly as large as the complex of central shrines, and both are subdivided into smaller, beautifully decorated courts. Only five of the original nine towers still stand at the summit; although they follow the basic pattern of the Khmer roof tower composed of diminishing imitative stories, the contour of the towers is not rectilinear but curved, so as to suggest that the stories grow one out of another like a sprouting shoot. All the courtyards, with their molded plinths, staircases, porticoes, and eaves moldings, are perfectly articulated enclosed spaces. The symbolic meaning of the Wat is clear. Its central shrine indicates the hub of the universe, while its surroundings-the gate complex, the cloister, the city of Angkor itself, and, finally, the whole visible world-represent the successive outer envelopes of cosmic reality. That it is oriented toward the west-and not to the east, as was customary-indicates that its builder, Suryavarman II, intended it as his own mortuary shrine; for, according to Indochinese mythology, the west is the direction in which the dead depart.

The sculptors who worked at the Wat demonstrate little ability in carving in the full round. Such full-round figures as there are-the guardians on the terraces, for example-lack life. The relief sculpture, however, is magnificent and full of vitality. The open colonnaded gallery on the first story contains over a mile of relief carving six feet (two metres) high. Much of it was originally painted and gilded, which strongly suggests that there must have been a Khmer style of painting of which nothing is known. The subject matter of the carvings is taken principally from the Hindu epics, but there are also many scenes representing Suryavarman's earthly glory. Working in relief only about an inch deep, the sculptors were able to depict an extraordinary complex of scenes of figures in vigorous action, full of complex overlaps to suggest deep space. The solid bodies are created mainly out of groups of convex curves; and everywhere there is the typical regional feeling for decorative spirals. Perhaps the most interesting group of figures are the apsaras, carved in relief, either singly or in groups, on the plain walls of the courtyards. These celestial beauties, whom Indian tradition describes as rewarding with their charms the kings, heroes, and saints who attain heaven, are carved with sinuous sensuality; but the most important part of their charm is their elaborate clothing, jewelry, and hairdressing or ornate, towering, jeweled crowns. Apparently, deep, downward-drooping curves standing far out from the body represented the height of Khmer chic. Skirts, stoles, and the long sidelocks of the hair all follow these curves, laid out flat on the ground of the relief. Symbolizing the erotic joys that are essential attributes of heaven, the apsaras were natural possessions of the king.

In many senses the Wat was the end of the road for Khmer art. The effort demanded of the people in constructing this colossal stone monument, along with its 4 miles (6 km) of stone-lined moat 200 yards (180 metres) wide, appears to have been too great. The irrigation system itself may well have been neglected in favour not only of shifting the building stone-as much in quantity as there is in the Pyramid of Khafre in Egypt-but also of dressing, carving, and ornamenting it. After Suryavarman's death, the Cham, from the neighbouring kingdom of Champa ( see below Vietnam kingdom of Champa), seized and sacked Angkor for the first time in its history (1177), thus shattering the confidence of the Khmer people in the protective powers of their Hindu deities. When Suryavarman's son, Jayavarman VII, came to the throne he inherited a ravaged kingdom. In 1181 he succeeded in driving out the Cham; he invaded their country and seized their capital, thereby making Champa a province of the Khmer. Then, more than 60 years old, he embarked on a series of campaigns that extended the borders of the Khmer empire farther than ever before-into Malaya, Burma, and Annam.

© Getty Images

The ruler of this empire naturally believed himself to be the greatest of the Khmer, and he set about demonstrating the truth of his belief by building his own city, Angkor Thom ( c. 1200), and, at the centre of it, the biggest temple complex of them all-the Bayon ( c. 1200). Breaking with all previous Khmer traditions, he took as his patron deity not one of the Hindu gods but one of the Buddhist bodhisattvas. Although Buddhism had flourished for several centuries in the whole of Indochina, it had not been adopted by the Khmer as an imperial cult. Now that the Hindu gods had been discredited by defeat, Jayavarman placed himself under the patronage of Mahayana Buddhism. The mythology according to which the Bayon was designed was thus another version of the old mythology of the celestial mountain and the divine origin of water. Only the central figure of his mythology, Lokeshvara, Lord of the World, was specifically Buddhist. The colossal masks that look out over the four directions of the world from the towers of the Bayon and from the gates of Angkor Thom are there to demonstrate the compassionate, all-seeing power of Lokeshvara and the king.

Prajnaparamita, the Mother of All Buddhas Photograph by L. Mandle. Honolulu Academy of Arts, purchase, Seldon Washington Bequest, 2003, 12,596.1

When Jayavarman VII set out to create Angkor Thom, he had to raze the fine older work of his predecessors, for the site at Angkor had become choked with nearly four centuries of grandiose temple building. Within Angkor Thom's 10 miles (16 km) of moats he constructed huge complexes of building and made his city the focus of a final system of canals and irrigation, with additional lakes.

Unfortunately, the innumerable new shrines that surround Angkor Thom, the towers that crowd the Bayon, and the vast stone terraces faced with relief that surround the royal palace are in general much inferior in execution to the work of the earlier kings. Thus, today Angkor is dominated by the overwhelming presence of Jayavarman's immense but relatively unrefined architecture. The king's ambition was satisfied by size and quantity rather than artistic quality. Because sculptors were obliged to produce such vast quantities of work so fast, their standards deteriorated, and the huge vistas of narrative relief show signs of haste and slipshod workmanship. The real achievement lay with Jayavarman's scholastic architects, who conceived and laid out a complex of mythical imagery in massive architectural symbols. Their stupendous overall plan illustrates the creation of the world, a cosmos spreading outward from the central mountain tower. The two roads leading from the tower are lined with mile-long rows of gigantic deities who are pulling on the body of the serpent naga. According to Hindu legend, the gods use the magical mountain Meru, symbolized by the mountain tower, as a churning stick and the body of the cosmic serpent as a churning rope to churn the world out of the milk of nothingness. Lake-sized fountains represent the healing waters of the Buddhist paradise, and allegories of salvation are realized in carved architecture. Perhaps the most impressive works of art associated with this last period of Angkor are some stone icons, such as the famous Leper King, in the Angkor Thom complex. Many excellent smaller bronze figures of deities have also been found among the ruins.

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Southeast Asian arts - Kingdom of Khmer: 9th to 13th century

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Southeast Asian arts - Southeast Asian arts - Kingdom of Khmer: 9th to 13th century: Late in the 8th century the kingdom of Chenla declined politically, perhaps because of dynastic disputes with the rising power of Indonesian kings, who were themselves also descended from the original royal dynasty of Funan.

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A Dialogue with the Gods

"The Ramayana will remain in the lips of men, as long as mounts still stand on the ground and rivers flow through the land toward the sea.

Valmiki. Edición de Enrique Gallud Jardiel

The powerful Khmer empire, which settled in the territories of what we now know as the countries of Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Burma and Malaysia, has created a great legacy of immense beauty and artistic footprint for posterity. Khmer art is especially linked to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, although Javanese and Chinese influences are also recognized. The Khmer civilization experienced its highest degree of progress in Cambodia, which took place between the ninth century and the fifteenth century.
ARCHITECTURE
Its structures were lost and forgotten for centuries. The jungle gradually concealed the architectural treasures built by a succession of Khmer kings since the year 802. In 1600, Spanish and Portuguese missionaries described an amazing city, but they were ignored. It was not until the 1860s that French naturalist Henri Mouhot and artist Louis Delaporte unveiled the glory of Khmer art and its Angkorian capital, which were still half buried under the jungle. Some believe that the main structure of the temples embodies Mount Meru, a mythical mountain that was home to the gods in Hindu mythology. Other smaller towers symbolize different sacred mountains of the sky, while their courtyards recreate the mountain ranges and the moat to the cosmic ocean. The causeway establishes a bridge that leads men to the presence of the gods.

The vestiges of the temples that today astonish both locals and foreigners, such as Angkor Wat-the only one that was never abandoned, in addition to Preah Vihear, Sambor Prei Kuk, Samrong Sen, Anlong Phdao, Melou Prei or Laang San-represent only part of this treasure, which still remains hidden or that has disappeared through time or alternate causes. Today we know that the Angkor builders used sandstone as the main construction material, laterite and wood-the latter has disappeared due to decomposition and other unknown events. The element that agglutinated them has not been identified.

"One of these temples (Angkor Wat)-a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo-might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome.

Henri Mouhot.
SCULPTURE AND CARVING
Inside all the constructions, you can find colossal masterpieces that represent mythological, celestial and earthly beings-masterfully carved and sculpted in stone: gods, goddesses, kings, princes, representations of sacred legends and myths such as Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, as well as mythological animals like snakes, dragons, nagas or lions. Throughout the centuries, Buddha statues were added, and the most stunning were carved into 50 towers, with representations of the four faces of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara: the Buddha-one of the images that universally identifies Khmer art and classical architecture. They also used bronze for their fantastic artistic achievements.

As for painting, most of these works were destroyed during the unfortunate Khmer Rouge period. There are Wat murals in the Silver Pagoda of Phnom Penh, Wat Bo Temple in Siem Reap, and Wat Kompong Tralach Leu in the province of Kompong Chhnang.
LANGUAGE
According to the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE) the correct name of this language and culture in Spanish is Jemer, which in Cambodian is pronounced kamae, and which has been translated into French and English as "Khmer." This language, which belongs to the Malay linguistic family, has been related to Sanskrit and Pali. It is in use, along with other dialects, in Vietnam, Thailand, Burma and Laos. The main branch of this language is spoken in Cambodia. It has 72 letters, out of which 32 are vowels. Proper to Asian languages, it contemplates a complex social system of relations, which means that the pronouns in Khmer are not limited to me, you, him or her; it is much broader and depends on the interlocutor's hierarchical position.
DANCING
Classical Khmer dance derives from the Apsarases dance from Hindu mythology. Known as Robam Apsara, it is represented in over one thousand Apsara sculptures found in the temple of Angkor, demonstrating its millenary character that apparently dates back to the time of King Suryavaarman II (1113-1150), who commissioned Angkor Wat. This artistic dance was first performed by royal ancestors; it spread throughout Cambodia and later to Thailand. The hands and the body form, in great harmony, shapes that have a specific meaning. The music that accompanies this dance is performed by the Pinpeat orchestra: their main instruments are drums, gongs, and bamboo xylophones.
SHADOW THEATER
This Khmer artistic expression has been recognized as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The performance features puppets that stand between the light and a large white cloth. The play, which has a deep sacred meaning, represents passages of the Reamker (the Cambodian version of the Ramayana) in nocturnal presentations that are performed outdoors accompanied by an orchestra and the voices of two narrators-exhibitions can last several sessions, and can include around 150 puppets.
MORE OF KHMER ART
Among other Khmer cultural traditions we can mention metalwork and goldsmithing, the carving of wood and stone, murals, ceramics, textiles and silk fabrics dating from the 1st century, puppets and kite-making, which have evolved since ancient times, and that nowadays are vastly appreciated by visitors.

Martial arts are also reflected in the temples' bas-reliefs, and today they include more than 10 different disciplines. Khmer weddings consist on elaborate rituals and ceremonies that last three days and three nights, during which traditional songs are performed. The wedding concludes with the Tea Ceremony, when the newlyweds offer this beverage to the spirits of their ancestors.
Text: Maruchy Behmaras ± Photo: MUSÉE GUIMET ,ART ARCHIVE / cristina cori / Corbis / BP / 12 W / PROBruno Zaffoni / HMKER / IMG5 / THE COBBS / STMEDIA /stc

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"The Ramayana will remain in the lips of men, as long as mounts still stand on the ground and rivers flow through the land toward the sea. Valmiki. Edición de Enrique Gallud Jardiel The powerful Khmer empire, which settled in the territories of what we now know as the countries of Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Burma and Malaysia, has created a great legacy of immense beauty and artistic footprint for posterity.

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The Khmer Empire was a powerful Kingdom in South-East Asia. Its major architectural works (temples and sculptures) are located in present day Cambodia, where the capital of the empire was located. However, during long periods of time the Khmer ruled over parts of present day Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.

Like other major ethnic groups in the history of South-East Asia (the Thais, the Mons, The Chams) the Khmer are thought to have descended in the prehistoric period from the river valleys in Eastern Tibet and Southwest China. The Khmer appear first on the scene (in Chinese records) in the second half of the 6th century A.D. with the Kingdom known as Chenla.

Ascent to Phanom Rung (Buriram Province). Phanom Rung was built on between the 10th and 13th century A.D., but mostly during the reign of King Suriyavarman II (1113-1150 A.D.)

The Angkor era became the central area of settlement from the early 9th century up to the demise of the Khmer Empire in the early 15th century. The Empire itself had its ups and downs, and remained a single authoritarian state for only limited time periods, when strong military leaders where on the throne. Important leaders contributed by building new temple complexes in the Angkor area. Angkor Wat was constructed in the early 12th century under Suryavarman II. Jayavarman VII, considered to be the last great leader of the Khmer, built his new capital at Angkor Thom.

Famous Vishnu Anantasayin lintel at Phanom Rung

During the reign of Suryavarman II the Khmer Empire incorporated most of present day Thailand. The Mon Kingdom of Haripunchai in Northern Thailand (Lamphun) was conquered. After the death of King Suryavarman II the Khmer Empire was somewhat in disarray and suffered military defeats at the hand of the Chams, who briefly incorporated Kambuja into the Champa Kingdom.

Muang Tam (Buriram Province). Muang Tam is located close to Prasat Hin Khao Phanom Rung. Muang Tam dates to the late 10th century A.D. (King Jayavarman V)

Jayavarman VII reasserted the Khmer and carried out many building projects. After Jayavarman VII the Khmer Empire entered into decline. The Thai Kingdom of Sukhothai managed to repel the Khmer. The Empire was threatened by the Mongols (but not annexed) under Kublai Khan in 1283.
The Thais became the persistent enemy of the Khmer in the following few centuries. The Kingdom of Ayutthaya conquered Angkor in 1431. Thereafter the center of the remaining Khmer Kingdom moved south to present day Phnom Penh.

Buddha (with Naga) at Prasat Hin Phimai (Nakhon Ratchasima Province). Prasat Hin Phimai was built around the turn of the first millenium, mainly by King Jayavarman V and King Suriyavarman I.

Since the Khmer reigned for long periods over extended areas of present day Thailand, Thailand has a substantial number of important Khmer monuments on its territory, mainly in its Northeastern Region (such as Phonom Rung and Muang Tam in Buriram Province, Phimai in Nakhon Ratchasima province, Muang Singh in Kanchanaburi province). Any look around the old temples of Sukhothai, Lopburi and Ayutthaya will also reveal strong Khmer architectural influences.

Prasat Muang Singh (Kanchanaburi). Prasat Muang Singh all to the west of present Thailand, was built under the reign of Jayavarman VII (1181-around 1220)

Source for Khmer History (modified and abbreviated) : Wikipedia

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Khmer Heritage in Thailand ; the Khmer (Angkor) Empire

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The Khmer Empire was a powerful Kingdom in South-East Asia. Its major architectural works (temples and sculptures) are located in present day Cambodia, where the capital of the empire was located. However, during long periods of time the Khmer ruled over parts of present day Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.

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As the Tai moved into mainland Southeast Asia, they came in contact with peoples speaking Mon-Khmer languages who had long inhabited the region. Indian traders traveling to China during the early centuries of the 1st millennium ce had carried Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices to some of those peoples, including the Mon, who lived in what is now Myanmar. The Mon were the first people in mainland Southeast Asia to adopt Buddhism. Between the 6th and 9th centuries the Mon established several small Buddhist kingdoms within the area encompassed by present-day southern Myanmar and central Thailand. From what are now the towns of Nakhon Pathom and Lop Buri in central Thailand, they extended their power eastward across the Khorat Plateau, northward as far as Chiang Mai, and northeastward into what is now Laos. Those Mon kingdoms are collectively called Dvaravati. The Dvaravati period is noted for its artwork, particularly its Buddhist sculptures and votive images made of terra-cotta or stucco.

As the Tai moved south into mainland Southeast Asia, they also encountered the Khmer of Cambodia. Between the 9th and the 13th century, Khmer rulers expanded their domains from their capital at Angkor, establishing an empire that, at its height under Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181- c. 1220), extended over approximately half of modern Thailand. Whereas Mon kingdoms were predominantly Buddhist in character, Khmer civilization-which found its supreme expression in the great temple complex at Angkor-was heavily influenced by Hindu ideas and practices. The Tai borrowed from the Khmer many elements of Indianized culture, including royal ceremonies, customs followed at the court, and especially the Indian epic Ramayana, which influenced not only literature but also classical dance. Even in modern Thai culture the legacy of the Indianized culture of Angkor is still evident.

By the beginning of the 13th century, the Tai were starting to place pressure on both the Mon and Khmer empires. The Tai had settled throughout the Chao Phraya basin, and a Tai ruler was established as far south as the principality of Nakhon Si Thammarat, on the Malay Peninsula. Through Nakhon Si Thammarat a dynamic new form of Buddhism, Theravada, had entered mainland Southeast Asia from Sri Lanka. Theravada Buddhism was carried by monks not only to areas under Mon or Khmer rule but also to the new Tai principalities that were beginning to emerge. Sukhothai and Lan Na (Lanna), the first major Tai kingdoms in Thai history, were Theravada Buddhist.

The kingdom of Sukhothai, situated in the upper Chao Phraya basin, was founded in the mid-13th century when a local Tai ruler led a revolt against Khmer rule at an outpost of the Khmer empire. Under its first two rulers, Sukhothai remained only a small local power. However, its third ruler, Ramkhamhaeng (reigned c. 1279-98), extended Sukhothai power to the south as far as Nakhon Si Thammarat, to the west into present-day Myanmar, and to the northeast as far as Luang Prabang in modern Laos. Not all these territories were conquered by force; many became vassal or tributary states to Sukhothai based on kinship ties or personal loyalty, and they were linked to it in a loose confederation.

Buddhist sanctuary, Sukhothai Hermann Schlenker/Photo Researchers

Ramkhamhaeng is renowned not only for extending the territory under Sukhothai control but also for leaving a remarkable stone inscription, considered by most scholars to contain the earliest example of writing in any Tai language. Written in 1292 and utilizing Khmer script adapted to the sounds and tones of Tai speech, it pictures the Sukhothai kingdom as prosperous, active in trade, and benevolently governed by a paternal monarch. According to the inscription, the state taxed its citizens modestly, treated all subjects (including non-Tai) equally, and provided justice for all.

The Sukhothai period, from the mid-13th to the mid-15th century, is noted for its sculpture and pottery. Graceful bronze sculptures of the Buddha, especially those showing him in the walking position, are typical of the period. The celadon ware made at Sukhothai and nearby Sawankhalok was exported throughout Southeast Asia.

Sukhothai was not the only Tai state in Southeast Asia during this period. In the mid-13th century in what is today northern Thailand, a Tai ruler, Mangrai (reigned c. 1259-1317; from 1292 to 1317 in Chiang Mai), conquered the ancient Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya and built a new capital at Chiang Mai. Under Mangrai and his successors, Lan Na -with Chiang Mai as its capital-became not only powerful but also a centre for the spread of Theravada Buddhism to Tai peoples in what are now northeastern Myanmar, southern China, and northern Laos. Under Tilokaracha (reigned 1441-87), Lan Na became famous for its Buddhist scholarship and literature. During the 16th century Lan Na was conquered by the Burmese and incorporated into the Burman empire, where it would remain until the late 18th century.

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Thailand - Thailand - Mon-Khmer civilizations: As the Tai moved into mainland Southeast Asia, they came in contact with peoples speaking Mon-Khmer languages who had long inhabited the region. Indian traders traveling to China during the early centuries of the 1st millennium ce had carried Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices to some of those peoples, including the Mon, who lived in what is now Myanmar.

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Thai history begins as a story of migrants heading into a frontier land claimed by distant empires for trade, forced labour and patronage. Eventually the country fused a national identity around language, religion and monarchy. The kings resist colonisation from the expansionist Western powers on its border only to cede their absolute grip on the country when challenged from forces within. Since the transition to a constitutional monarchy in 1932, the country has been predominantly ruled by the military with a few democratic interludes.

Ancient History

Little evidence remains of the cultures that existed in Thailand before the middle of the 1st millennium CE. Homo erectus fossils in Thailand's northern province of Lampang date back at least 500,000 years, and the country's most important archaeological site is Ban Chiang, outside Udon Thani, which provides evidence of one of the world's oldest agrarian societies. It is believed that the Mekong River Valley and Khorat Plateau were inhabited as far back as 10,000 years ago by farmers and bronze-workers. Cave paintings in Pha Taem National Park near Ubon Ratchathani date back some 3000 years.

Early Empires

Starting around the 10th century, the 'Tai' people, considered to be the ancestors of the contemporary Thais, began migrating from southern China into present-day Southeast Asia. These immigrants spoke Tai-Kadai, said to be the most significant ethno-linguistic group in Southeast Asia. Some settled in the river valleys of modern-day Thailand, while others chose parts of modern-day Laos and the Shan state of Myanmar.

They settled in villages as farmers, hunters and traders and organised themselves into administrative units known as meu·ang, under the rule of a lord, that became the building blocks of the Tai state. Over time, the Tai expanded from the northern mountain valleys into the central plains and northeastern plateau, where there existed several important trading centres ruled by various indigenous and 'foreign' empires, including the Mon-Dvaravati, Khmer (Cambodia) and Srivijaya (Malay).

Dvaravati

The Mon dominated parts of Burma (present-day Myanmar), western Thailand and the central plains. In the 6th to 9th centuries, the Dvaravati culture emerged as a distinct Buddhist culture associated with the Mon people. Little is known about this period but it is believed that Nakhon Pathom might have been the centre, and that overland trade routes extended to Burma, Cambodia, Chiang Mai and Laos, as evidenced by findings of distinctive Dvaravati Buddha images, temples and stone inscriptions in the Mon language.

The Dvaravati was one of many Indian-influenced cultures that established themselves in Southeast Asia, but scholars single out the Dvaravati because of its artistic legacy and the trade routes that might have provided an early framework for what would become the core of the modern-day Thai state.

Khmer

The Khmers were Southeast Asia's equivalent of the Roman Empire. This kingdom became famous for its extravagant sculpture and architecture and had a profound effect on the art and religion of the region. Established in the 9th century, the Khmer kingdom built its capital in Angkor (modern-day Cambodia) and expanded westward across present-day central and northeastern Thailand. Administrative centres anchored by Angkor-style temples were built in Lopburi (then known as Lavo), Sukhothai and Phimai (near Nakhon Ratchasima) and linked by road to the capital.

The Khmer's large-scale construction projects were a symbol of imperial power in its frontier lands and examples of the day's most advanced technologies. Khmer elements - Hinduism, Brahmanism, Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism - mark this period in Thailand.

Srivijaya

While mainland Thailand was influenced by forces from the north and west, the Malay peninsula was economically and culturally fused to cultures further south. Between the 8th and 13th centuries, the Malay peninsula was under the sway of the confederation of the Srivijaya, which controlled maritime trade between the South China Sea and Indian Ocean. The Srivijaya capital is believed to have been in Palembang on Sumatra.

Of the series of Srivijaya city-states along the Malay peninsula, Tambralinga established its capital near present-day Nakhon Si Thammarat and adopted Buddhism in the 13th century, while the states further south adopted Islam, creating a religious boundary which persists to this day. Remains of Srivijaya culture can be seen around Chaiya and Nakhon Si Thammarat. Many art forms of the Srivijaya kingdom - such as năng đà·lung (shadow theatre) and lá·kon (classical dance-drama) - also persist today.

Emerging Tai Kingdoms

In the 13th century, the regional empires started to decline and prosperous Tai city-states emerged with localised power and military might. The competing city-states were ultimately united into various kingdoms that began to establish a Thai identity. Scholars recognise Lanna, Sukhothai and Ayuthaya as the unifying kingdoms of the period.

Lanna

The Lanna kingdom, based in northern Thailand, dates its formation to the Upper Mekong River town of Chiang Saen in the middle of the 13th century by King Mengrai. He migrated south to Chiang Mai (meaning 'New City') in 1292, and four years later made it his capital. The king was a skilled diplomat and forged important alliances with potential rivals, such as King Ngam Muang of Phayao and King Ramkhamhaeng of Sukhothai; a bronze statue commemorating this confederation stands in Chiang Mai today. King Mengrai is also credited with successfully repulsing the Mongol invasions in the early 14th century.

The Lanna kingdom is recognised for its royal patronage of the Sinhalese tradition of Theravada Buddhism, now widely practised in Thailand, and of the distinctive northern Thai culture of the region. The Lanna kingdom didn't experience an extensive expansion period, as it was plagued by dynastic intrigues and wars with rival powers.

Sukhothai

During the 13th century, several principalities in the central plains united and wrested control from the dying Khmer empire, making their new capital at Sukhothai (meaning 'Rising of Happiness'). Thais consider Sukhothai the first true Thai kingdom and the period is recognised as an artistic and cultural awakening.

The most revered of the Sukhothai kings was Ramkhamhaeng, who is credited with developing the modern Thai writing system, which is based on Indian, Mon and Khmer scripts. He also established Theravada Buddhism as the official religion.

In its prime, the Sukhothai kingdom extended as far as Nakhon Si Thammarat in the south, the upper Mekong River Valley in Laos, and Bago (Pegu) in southern Burma. For a short period (1448-86) the Sukhothai capital was moved to Phitsanulok, but by that time another star was rising in Thailand, the kingdom of Ayuthaya.

Feature: Ramkhamhaeng's Stone Inscription

In an inscription of 1292, King Ramkhamhaeng gives a picture of his kingdom as idyllic and free of constraints, and of himself as a benevolent patriarch:

This land of Sukhothai is thriving. There are fish in the water and rice in the fields...if any commoner in the land has a grievance...King Ramkhamhaeng...hears the call; he goes and questions the man, examines the case, and decides it justly for him.

Translation by AB Griswold and Prasert Na Nagara, Journal of the Siam Society (July 1971)

Ayuthaya

In the mid-14th century, the Ayuthaya kingdom began to dominate Mae Nam Chao Phraya basin during the twilight of the Khmer period. It survived for 416 years, defining itself as Siam's most important kingdom with an expansive sphere of influence (including much of the former Khmer empire) and a fundamental role in organising the modern Thai state and social structure.

With a strategic island location formed by encircling rivers, Ayuthaya grew wealthy through international trade during the 17th century's age of commerce and fortified itself with superior Portuguese-supplied firearms and mercenaries. The river system connected to the Gulf of Thailand and to the hinterlands as well.

This is the period when Western traders 'discovered' Southeast Asia, and Ayuthaya hosted many foreign settlements. Accounts by foreign visitors mention Ayuthaya's cosmopolitan markets and court. In 1690 Londoner Engelbert Campfer proclaimed, 'Among the Asian nations, the kingdom of Siam is the greatest'.

Ayuthaya adopted Khmer court customs, honorific language and ideas of kingship. The monarch styled himself as a Khmer devaraja (divine king) rather than Sukhothai's dhammaraja (righteous king); and Ayuthaya continued to pay tribute to the Chinese emperor, who rewarded this ritualistic submission with generous gifts and commercial privileges.

The kingdom functioned according to a strict and complex hierarchy, much of which was defined by King Trailok (r 1448-88). Elaborate lists of official posts with specific titles and ranks were established. Individual social status was measured in numerical units of how much land one possessed. Fines and punishments were proportional to the person's rank. Ayuthaya society consisted of royalty, nobility and commoners. Commoners were further divided into freemen and slaves. Freemen were assigned to a royal or noble overseer. For six months of each year they owed labour to the ruling elite, doing personal errands, public works or military service. Despite the clear social hierarchy, social mobility was possible, depending on personal skills, connections (including marriage) and royal favour. These societal divisions are reflected in the feudal elements that persist in Thai society today.

The glories of Ayuthaya were interrupted by the expansionist Burmese. In 1569 the city fell to the great Burmese king, Bayinnaung, but it regained independence under the leadership of King Naresuan. Then, in 1765, Burma's ambitious and newly established Kongbaung dynasty pushed eastward to eliminate Ayuthaya as a political and commercial rival. Burmese troops laid siege to the capital for a year before destroying it in 1767. The city was devastated, its buildings and people wiped out. The surrounding areas were deserted. So chilling was this historic sacking and razing of Ayuthaya that the perception of the Burmese as ruthless aggressors still persists in the minds of many Thais to this day.

Feature: The International King

In the 1680s many foreign emissaries were invited to Ayuthaya by King Narai, who was keen to acquire and consume foreign material, culture and ideas. His court placed orders for spyglasses, hourglasses, paper, walnut trees, cheese, wine and marble fountains. He joined the French Jesuits to observe the eclipse at his palace in Lopburi and received a gift of a globe from France's King Louis XIV.

Narai's openness to foreign influence was tested as his health failed and rival factions competed for succession. One of his trusted advisers was the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon, who was later accused of conspiring to overthrow the ailing king. Instead, the accusers led a coup, executed Constantine and closed off Siam to the Europeans.

The Bangkok Era

With Ayuthaya in ruins, the line of succession of the kings was broken and chaos ensued. A former general, Taksin, claimed his right to rule, defeated potential rivals and established his new capital in Thonburi, a settlement downriver from Ayuthaya with better access to trade. King Taksin, the son of a Chinese father and Thai mother, strongly promoted trade with China. After 15 years, the king was deposed in 1782 by the military.

One of the coup organisers, Chao Phraya Chakri, assumed the throne as King Yot Fa (Rama I) and established the Chakri dynasty, which still rules today. The new monarch moved the capital across Mae Nam Chao Phraya to modern-day Bangkok. The first century of Bangkok rule focused on rebuilding the cultural, political and military might of Ayuthaya. The new rulers extended their influence in every direction. Destroying the capital cities of both Laos and Cambodia, Siam contained Burmese aggression and made a vassal of Chiang Mai. Defeated populations were resettled and played an important role in increasing Siam's production of rice, much of which was exported to China.

Unlike the Ayuthaya rulers who identified with the Hindu god Vishnu, the Chakri kings positioned themselves as defenders of Buddhism. They undertook compilations and Thai translations of essential Buddhist texts and constructed many royal temples.

In the meantime, a new social order and market economy was taking shape in the mid-19th century. Siam turned to the West for modern scientific and technological ideas and reforms in education, infrastructure and legal systems. One of the great modernisers, King Mongkut (Rama IV; r 1851-68) never expected to be king. Before his ascension he had spent 27 years in the monastery, founding the Thammayut sect based on the strict disciplines of the Mon monks.

During his reign, Siam concluded treaties with Western powers that integrated the kingdom into the world market system, ceded royal monopolies and granted extraterritorial rights to British subjects.

Mongkut's son, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who ruled between 1868 and 1910, was to take much greater steps in replacing the old political order with the model of the nation-state. He abolished slavery and the corvée system (state labour), which had lingered on ineffectively since the Ayuthaya period. Chulalongkorn's reign oversaw the creation of a salaried bureaucracy, a police force and a standing army. His reforms brought uniformity to the legal code, law courts and revenue offices. Siam's agricultural output was improved by advances in irrigation techniques and increasing peasant populations. Schools were established along European lines.

Chulalongkorn relied greatly on foreign advisers, mostly British. Within the royal court, much of the centuries-old protocol was abandoned and replaced by Western forms. The architecture and visual art of state, like the new throne halls, were designed by Italian artists.

Like his father, Chulalongkorn was regarded as a skilful diplomat and is credited for successfully playing European powers off one another to avoid colonisation. In exchange for independence, Thailand ceded territory to French Indochina (Laos in 1893, Cambodia in 1907) and British Burma (three Malayan states in 1909). In 1902, the former Patani kingdom was ceded to the British, who were then in control of Malaysia, but control reverted back to Thailand five years later. Many residents of the Deep South continue to regard Thailand as a colonial power occupying their land.

Defying old traditions, Chulalongkorn followed in his father's footsteps in allowing himself to be seen in public, photographed in peasant garb, and consented to his image being reproduced on coins, stamps and postcards. He was also well travelled and visited Europe, Singapore, Java, Malaya, Burma and India. He collected art and inspiration from these travels and built fanciful palaces as architectural scrapbooks.

Siam was becoming a geographically defined country in a modern sense. By 1902, the country no longer called itself Siam but Prathet Thai (the country of the Thai) or Ratcha-anachak Thai (the kingdom of the Thai). By 1913, all those living within its borders were defined as 'Thai'.

Democracy vs Military

In 1932 a group of young military officers and bureaucrats calling themselves Khana Ratsadon (People's Party) mounted a successful, bloodless coup which marked the end of absolute monarchy and introduced a constitutional monarchy. The leaders of the group were inspired by the democratic ideology they had encountered during their studies in Europe.

In the years after the coup, rival factions (royalists, military, civilians) struggled for the upper hand in the new power regime. Even the People's Party was not unified in its vision of a democratic Thailand, and before general elections were held the military wing of the party seized control of the government. The leader of the civilian wing of the People's Party, Pridi Phanomyong, a French-educated lawyer, was forced into exile in 1933 after introducing a socialist-leaning economic plan that angered the military generals. Thailand's first popular election was held in 1937 for half of the seats in the People's Assembly, the newly instated legislative body. General Phibul Songkhram, one of the military leaders, became prime minister, a position he held from 1938 to 1944 and again from 1948 to 1957.

Phibul's regime coincided with WWII and was characterised by strong nationalistic tendencies of 'nation' and 'Thai-ness'. He collaborated with the Japanese and allowed them to use Thailand as a staging ground for its invasion of other Southeast Asian nations. The Phibul government was hoping the allegiance would restore historical territory lost during France's expansion of Indochina. Thailand intended to declare war on the US and Britain during WWII. But Seni Pramoj, the Thai ambassador in Washington and a member of Seri Thai (the Thai Liberation Movement), refused to deliver the formal declaration of war, thus saving Thailand from bearing the consequences of defeated-nation status. Phibul was forced to resign in 1944 and was tried for war crimes.

For a brief period after the war, democracy flourished: full elections for the People's Assembly were held and the 1946 constitution sought to reduce the role of the military and provide more democratic rights. And it all lasted until the death of King Ananda, the pretext the military used to return to power with Phibul at the helm.

Feature: Liberal Counterweight

Pridi Phanomyong (1900-83) was a French-educated lawyer and a civilian leader in the 1932 revolution and People's Party. His work on democratic reforms in Thailand was based on constitutional measures and attempts to restrict by law military involvement in Thai politics. He supported nationalisation of land and labour, state-led industrialisation and labour protection. In 1934, he founded Thammasat University. He also served as the figurehead of Seri Thai (the resistance movement against WWII Japanese occupation of Thailand) and was Thai prime minister (1946).

Though acknowledged as a senior statesman, Pridi Phanomyong was a controversial figure and a major foe of Phibul Songkhram and the military regimes. He was accused of being a communist by his critics and forced out of the country under suspicion of regicide. Since the thawing of the Cold War, his legacy has been re-examined and recognised for its democratic efforts and the counterbalancing effects it had on military interests. He was named one of Unesco's great personalities of the 20th-century world in 2000.

Military Dictatorships

In 1957 Phibul's successor General Sarit Thanarat subjected the country to a true military dictatorship: abolishing the constitution, dissolving the parliament and banning all political parties. In the 1950s, the US partnered with Sarit and subsequent military dictators Thanom Kittikachorn and Praphat Charusathien (who controlled the country from 1964 to 1973), to allow the US military to develop bases in Thailand during the war in Vietnam in exchange for economic incentives.

By 1973, an opposition group of left-wing activists, mainly intellectuals and students, organised political rallies demanding a constitution from the military government. On 14 October that year the military brutally suppressed a large demonstration in Bangkok, killing 77 people and wounding more than 800. The event is commemorated by a monument on Th Ratchadamnoen Klang in Bangkok, near the Democracy Monument. King Bhumibol stepped in and refused to support further bloodshed, forcing Thanom and Praphat to leave Thailand.

In the following years, the left-oriented student movement grew more radical, creating fears among working-class and middle-class Thais of home-grown communism. In 1976 Thanom returned to Thailand (ostensibly to become a monk) and was received warmly by the royal family. In response, protesters organised demonstrations at Thammasat University against the perceived perpetrator of the 14 October massacre. Right-wing, anti-communist civilian groups clashed with the students, resulting in bloody violence. In the aftermath, many students and intellectuals were forced underground, and joined armed communist insurgents - known as the People's Liberation Army of Thailand (PLAT) - based in the jungles of northern and southern Thailand.

Military control of the country continued through the 1980s. The government of the 'political soldier', General Prem Tinsulanonda, enjoyed a period of political and economic stability. Prem dismantled the communist insurgency through military action and amnesty programs. But the country's new economic success presented a challenging rival: prominent business leaders who criticised the military's role in government and their now-dated Cold War mentality. Communists, they maintained, should be business partners, not enemies.

The Business Era

In 1988 Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda was replaced in fair elections by Chatichai Choonhavan, leader of the Chat Thai Party, who created a government dominated by well-connected provincial business people. His government shifted power away from the bureaucrats and set about transforming Thailand into an 'Asian Tiger' economy. But the business of politics was often bought and sold like a commodity and Chatichai was overthrown by the military on grounds of extreme corruption. This coup demarcated an emerging trend in Thai politics: the Bangkok business community and educated classes siding with the military against provincial business-politicians and their money politics.

In 1992, General Suchinda Kraprayoon inserted himself as prime minister. This was met with popular resistance and the ensuing civilian-military clash was dubbed 'Black May'. Led by former Bangkok mayor Chamlong Srimuang, around 200,000 protesters (called the 'mobile phone mob', representing their rising urban affluence) launched a mass demonstration in Bangkok that resulted in three nights of violence with armed soldiers. On the night of 20 May, King Bhumibol called an end to the violence.

After Black May, a new wave of democracy activists advocated for constitutional reforms. For most of the 1990s, the parliament was dominated by the Democrat Party, which represented the urban middle class and business interests. Its major base of support came from the southern Thai population centres, former port towns now dominated by tourism and exports (rubber, tin and fishing). On the other side of the spectrum were the former pro-military politicians based in the central plains and the people of the agrarian northeast in new provincial towns who focused on state-budget distributions. These political lines still exist today.

In 1997, the boom years ended and the Asian economic crisis unfolded. The country's economy was plagued by foreign-debt burdens, a real-estate bubble and a devalued currency. Within months of the crisis, the Thai currency plunged from 25B to 56B per US$1. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) stepped in to impose financial and legal reforms and economic liberalisation programs in exchange for more than US$17 billion to stabilise the Thai currency.

In the aftermath of the crisis, the Democrats returned to power uncontested, but were viewed as ineffective as the economy worsened.

The Thaksin Era

In 2000, the economic slump began to ease. Thaksin Shinawatra, a telecommunications billionaire and former police officer, and his Thai Rak Thai (TRT or 'Thai Loving Thai') party won a majority in the elections of 2001. Self-styled as a CEO-politician, Thaksin swiftly delivered on his campaign promises for rural development, including agrarian debt relief, village capital funds and cheap health care.

Thanks to the 1997 constitutional reforms designed to strengthen the prime minister's position, his was one of Thailand's most stable elected governments. The surging economy and his bold, if strong-arm, leadership won an outright majority in 2005, introducing one-party rule. His popularity among the working class and rural voters was immense.

In 2006 Thaksin was accused of abusing his powers and of conflicts of interest, most notably in his family's sale of their Shin Corporation to the Singaporean government for 73 billion baht (US$1.88 billion), a tax-free gain thanks to legislation he helped craft. Demonstrations in Bangkok called for his ousting and on 19 September 2006, the military staged a bloodless coup that forced Thaksin into exile. General elections were held shortly thereafter, with Thaksin's political allies forming a government led by Samak Sundaravej.

This was an unsatisfactory outcome to the military and the anti-Thaksin group known as People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD), comprised of mainly urban elites nicknamed 'Yellow Shirts' because they wore yellow (the colour associated with the king's birthday). It was popularly believed that Thaksin was consolidating power during his tenure so that he could interrupt royal succession.

In September 2008, Samak Sundaravej was unseated by the Constitutional Court on a technicality: while in office, he hosted a TV cooking show deemed to be a conflict of interest. Concerned that another election would result in a Thaksin win, the Yellow Shirts seized control of Thailand's main airports, Suvarnabhumi and Don Mueang, for a week in November 2008, until the military manoeuvred a silent coup and another favourable court ruling that further weakened Thaksin's political proxies. Through last-minute coalition building, Democrat Abhisit Vejjajiva was elected in a parliamentary vote, becoming Thailand's 27th prime minister.

Thaksin supporters organised their own counter-movement as the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD), better known as the 'Red Shirts'. Supporters hail mostly from the north and northeast, and include anti-coup, pro-democracy activists; anti-royalists; and die-hard Thaksin fans. There is a degree of class struggle, with many working-class Red Shirts expressing bombastic animosity towards the aristocrats.

The Red Shirts' most provocative demonstration came in 2010, when Thailand's Supreme Court ordered the seizure of US$46 billion of Thaksin's assets after finding him guilty of abusing his powers as prime minister. The Red Shirts occupied Bangkok's central shopping district for two months and demanded the dissolution of the government and reinstatement of elections. In May 2010 the military used force to evict the protesters, resulting in bloody clashes where 91 people were killed and shopping centres set ablaze (US$1.5 billion of crackdown-related arson damage was estimated).

Democracy vs Military Again

In 2011, general elections were held and Thaksin's politically allied Puea Thai party won a parliamentary majority, with Thaksin's sister Yingluck Shinawatra elected as prime minister. Yingluck Shinawatra became both the first female prime minister of Thailand and the country's youngest-ever premier. But throughout her time in power, Yingluck faced accusations that she was just the proxy for her older brother Thaksin, who fled the country to avoid corruption charges following the 2006 coup. Accounts of his influence over the Yingluck government circulated in Bangkok, with Thaksin said to be joining cabinet meetings by Skype from his homes in London, Dubai and Hong Kong.

Trouble loomed for her administration due to the so-called rice-pledging scheme. Designed to boost the incomes of small farmers, the government would buy their rice at above market rates, stockpile it - forcing global prices up - and then sell it at a handsome profit. But the scheme went disastrously wrong, as India lifted its ban on rice exports and flooded the world market with grains. Thailand, the world's biggest rice exporter until 2012, could only watch as prices sank. The damage to the economy was huge, while millions of baht were alleged to have disappeared into the hands of the politicians and officials overseeing the policy. In May 2014, Yingluck was indicted on charges relating to the scheme; she was found guilty in 2017, but fled the country before she could be arrested.

Equally contentious was Yingluck's misguided attempt to introduce an amnesty bill that would have pardoned various politicians, including Thaksin. This was widely seen as the prelude to the return of Thaksin to Thailand. Street demonstrations against the government began in October 2013, led by former deputy prime minister Suthep Thaugsuban and his coalition of anti-government groups known as the People's Democratic Reform Committee. The group called for Yingluck and the government to step down and introduced yet another round of protest encampments and confrontations in Bangkok.

With sporadic violence between Yingluck's supporters and opponents breaking out, Yingluck and nine of her ministers were forced to step down by the Constitutional Court on 7 May 2014, followed by a military-led coup, the 13th time since 1932.

Return to Military Dictatorship

On 22 May 2014, the Thai military under General Prayuth Chan-o-cha overthrew the elected government and brought to an end months of political crisis. Prayuth said the coup was necessary to restore stability.

Prayuth's military government was known as the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO). The NCPO set about restoring stability by implementing martial law and silencing critics. All media were under orders to refrain from dissent. Internet providers were ordered to block any content that violated the junta's orders. In March 2015 Prayuth told journalists that he would execute those who did not toe the official line - the domestic media now self-censors their stories.

The crackdown extended into the civilian sphere as well. More than 1000 people - opposition politicians, academics, journalists, bloggers and students - have been detained or tried in military courts. In March 2015, the UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights claimed that the military was using martial law to silence opposition and called for 'freedom of expression to ensure genuine debate'.

In preparation for the inevitable transfer of the crown, the military also increased prosecution of the country's strict lèse-majesté laws. In August 2015, one man received a 30-year prison sentence for insulting the monarchy on his Facebook page after sharing a news article. BBC Thai was investigated for defamation of the new king after a 2016 profile piece aired online.

While the NCPO was busy silencing critics, it failed to address Thailand's slumping economy. Foreign investment, exports and GDP all contracted after the coup. In 2016 a much-needed infrastructure investment plan was announced to help bolster the economy. Tourism continued to be the economic bright spot, but by 2019 economic growth was at its lowest point since the coup.

AN EU for Southeast Asia

By the end of 2015, the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) united the association's 10 Southeast Asian countries in a liberalised marketplace where goods, services, capital and labour are shared across borders with little or no country-specific impediments. In theory, the AEC will make it easier to buy and sell goods, hire non-nationals and invest within the ASEAN region. Implementation of the AEC goals has been slow due to the disparities between and political interests of each member nation.

Back to Political Deadlock

In March 2019, after five years of delays which saw the constitution amended once again, Thailand held its first general election since the 2014 coup. The junta and its leader, former general Prayuth Chan-o cha, campaigned under the guise of the Palang Pracharath party.

Despite attempts to restrict the media coverage of the other parties - and allegations of voting irregularities - Palang Pracharath failed to win a parliamentary majority. Instead, the Pheu Thai party associated with the Shinawatra clan captured the most seats, while the new Future Forward party came third. Under the latest constitution, though, the unelected, 250-member senate (the upper house of parliament) also votes on the appointment of the prime minister, and Prayuth was duly chosen to head a coalition government in June 2019.

Opposing the coalition are Pheu Thai, Future Forward and a number of other anti-military parties. The coalition has struggled to hold together and has only a small parliamentary majority, leaving Thailand once more politically deadlocked.

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Thai history begins as a story of migrants heading into a frontier land claimed by distant empires for trade, forced labour and patronage. Eventually the country fused a national identity around language, religion and monarchy. The kings resist colonisation from the expansionist Western powers on its border only to cede their absolute grip on the country when challenged from forces within.

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Prehistory The earliest known inhabitation of present-day Thailand dates to the Paleolithic period, about 20,000 years ago. Archaeology has revealed evidence in the Khorat Plateau in the northeast of prehistoric inhabitants who may have forged bronze implements as early as 3000 B.C. and cultivated rice during the fourth millennium B.C.

Early History In the ninth century B.C., Mon and Khmer people established kingdoms that included large areas of what is now Thailand. Much of what these people absorbed from contacts with South Asian peoples-religious, social, political, and cultural ideas and institutions-later influenced the development of Thailand's culture and national identity. In the second century B.C., the Hindu-led state of Funan in present-day Cambodia and central Thailand had close commercial contact with India and was a base for Hindu merchant-missionaries. In the southern Isthmus of Kra, Malay city-states controlled routes used by traders and travelers journeying between India and Indochina (present-day Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam).

Nanchao Period (650-1250) Located on the southwestern border of China's Tang empire (A.D. 618-907), Nanchao served as a buffer for and later rival to China. The Tai, a people who originally lived in Nanchao, migrated into mainland Southeast Asia over a period of many centuries during the first millennium A.D.

Sukhothai Period (1238-1438) In 1238 a Tai chieftain, Sri Intraditya, declared his independence from Khmer overlords and established a kingdom at Sukhothai in the Chao Phraya Valley in central Thailand. The people of the central plain took the name Thai, which means "free," to distinguish themselves from other Tai people still under foreign rule. The Kingdom of Sukhothai conquered the Isthmus of Kra in the thirteenth century and financed itself with war booty and tribute from vassal states in Burma (today Myanmar), Laos, and the Malay Peninsula. During the reign of Ramkhamhaeng (Rama the Great, r. 1279-98), Sukhothai established diplomatic relations with the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) in China and acknowledged China's emperor as its nominal overlord. After Ramkhamhaeng's death, the vassal states gradually broke away; a politically weakened Sukhothai was forced to submit in 1378 to the rising new Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya and was completely absorbed by 1438.
During and following the Sukhothai period, the Thai-speaking Kingdom of Lan Na flourished in the north near the border with Burma. With its capital at Chiang Mai, the name also sometimes given to this kingdom, Lan Na emerged as an independent city-state in 1296. Later, from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, Lan Na came under the control of Burma.

Ayutthaya Period (1350-1767) The city-state of Ayutthaya was founded in 1350 and established its capital in 1351 on the Chao Phraya River in central Thailand, calling it Ayutthaya, after Ayodhaya, the Indian city of the hero Rama in the Hindu epic Ramayana. In 1360 Ramathibodi (r. 1351-69) declared Theravada Buddhism as the official religion and compiled a legal code based on Hindu legal texts and Thai custom that remained in effect until the late nineteenth century. Ayutthaya became the region's most powerful kingdom, eventually capturing Angkor and forcing the Khmer to submit to Thai suzerainty. Rather than a unified kingdom, Ayutthaya was a patchwork of self-governing principalities and tributary provinces ruled by members of the royal family who owed allegiance to the king. The king, however, was an absolute monarch who took on god-like aspects. This belief in a divine kingship continued until the eighteenth century. The kingdom became increasingly sophisticated as new social, political, and economic developments took place.
In 1511 Ayutthaya received its first diplomatic mission from the Portuguese, who earlier that year had conquered the state of Malacca to the south. Ayutthaya concluded trade treaties with Portugal in 1516 and with the Netherlands in 1592 and established commercial ties with Japan and England in the seventeenth century. Thai diplomatic missions also went to Paris and The Hague. When the Dutch used force to extract extraterritorial rights and freer trade access in 1664, Ayutthaya turned to France for assistance in building fortifications. In addition to construction engineers, French missionaries and the first printing press soon arrived. Fear of the threat of foreign religion to Buddhism and the arrival of English warships provoked anti- European reactions in the late seventeenth century and ushered in a 150-year period of conscious isolation from contacts with the West.
After a bloody dynastic struggle in the 1690s, Ayutthaya entered what some historians have called its golden age-a relatively peaceful period in the second quarter of the eighteenth century when art, literature, and learning flourished. The rising power of Burma led to a Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya and the destruction of its capital and culture in 1767. Only a Chinese attack on Burma kept the chaotic Thai polity from Burmese subjugation.

Thon Buri Period (1767-82) The Thai made a quick recovery under the leadership of a half- Chinese military commander, Phraya Taksin. Taksin had escaped from the besieged Ayutthaya and organized resistance to the Burmese invaders, eventually driving them out. Taksin declared himself king and established a new capital at Thon Buri, a fortress town across the river from modern Bangkok. By 1774 Taksin had annexed Lan Na and reunited Ayutthaya in 1776. He was deposed and executed in 1782, however, by his ministers, who invoked interests of the state over Taksin's claim to divinity.

Early Chakri Period (1782-1868) Another general, Chakri, assumed the throne and took the name Yot Fa (Rama I, r. 1782-1809). Yot Fa established the ruling house that continues to the present. The court moved across the river to the village of Bangkok, the kingdom's economy revived, and what remained of the artistic heritage of Ayutthaya was restored. The Kingdom of Bangkok consolidated claims to territory in Cambodia and the Malayan state of Kedah while Britain annexed territory in an area that had been contested by the Thai and the Burmese for centuries. Subsequent treaties-in 1826 with Britain and in 1833 with the United States- granted foreign trade concessions in Bangkok. The kingdom's expansion was halted in all directions by 1851.

The reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV, r. 1851-68) marked a new opening to the Western nations. To avoid the humiliations suffered by China and Burma in their wars with Britain and the resulting unequal treaties, Bangkok negotiated and signed treaties with Britain, the United States, France, and other European countries between 1855 and 1870. As a result, commerce with the West increased and, in turn, revolutionized the Thai economy and connected it to the world monetary system. Foreign demands for extraterritoriality convinced Mongkut that legal and administrative reforms were needed if Siam (as the Thai kingdom was officially known from 1855 to 1939 and from 1946 to 1949; prior to then, the Thai traditionally named their country after the capital city) were to be treated as an equal by the Western powers. Monkut's death in 1868 postponed further reforms, however.

Reign of Chulalongkorn, Reforms, and War (1868-1932) Real reform occurred during the reign of Chulalongkorn (Rama V, r. 1868-1910). After his formal enthronement in 1873, he announced reforms of the judiciary, state finance, and the political structure. An antireform revolt was suppressed in 1874, after which Chulalongkorn embarked on less radical approaches. In time, he ordered the gradual elimination of slavery and corvée labor. He introduced currency- based taxes and a conscription-based regular army. In 1893 a centralized state administration replaced the semifeudal provincial administration. The regime established European-style schools for children of the royal family and sent government officials, promising civil servants, and military officers to Europe for further education. The first railroad line was opened between Bangkok and Ayutthaya in 1897 and extended farther north in 1901 and 1909. To the south, rail connections were made in 1903, linking with British rail lines in Malaya.
During this time, British and French colonial advances in Southeast Asia posed serious threats to Siam's independence and forced Siam to relinquish its claims in Cambodia, Laos, and the northern Malay states. Although much diminished in territory by the 1910s, Siam preserved its independence, and the kingdom served as a buffer state between the British and French colonies. During this time, anti-Chinese sentiments came to the fore. About 10 percent of the population was Chinese, and ethnic Chinese largely controlled many government positions, the rice trade, and other enterprises, much to the resentment of the native Thai.
Siam joined the Allies in declaring war against Germany during World War I (1914-18) and sent a small expeditionary force to the European western front. These actions won Siam favorable amendments to its treaties with France and Britain at the end of the war. Siam also gained, as spoils of war, impounded German ships for use in its merchant marine. Siam took part in the Versailles peace conference in 1919 and was a founding member of the League of Nations.

The Emergence of Constitutional Rule (1932-41) A bloodless coup d'état in 1932, engineered by a group of Western-oriented and nationalist-minded government officials and army officers, ended the absolute monarchy and ushered in a constitutional regime. The first parliamentary elections were held in November 1933, confirming Minister of Finance Pridi Phanomyong's popularity, but Luang Plack Phibunsongkhram (Phibun) used his considerable power as minister of defense to assert the superior efficiency of the military administration over the civilian bureaucracy. In 1938 Phibun succeeded as prime minister, with Pridi continuing with the finance portfolio. The Phibun administration promoted nationalism and in 1939 officially changed the nation's name from Siam to Muang Thai (Land of the Free), or Thailand. Foreign- owned businesses (mostly Chinese-owned) were heavily taxed, and state subsidies were offered to Thai-owned enterprises. The people were encouraged to emulate European-style fashions. Betel chewing was prohibited, and opium addicts were prosecuted. Irridentist claims for lost territories in Cambodia and Laos were revived amidst new anti-French sentiment. Phibun cultivated closer relations with Japan as a model for modernization and a challenge to European power.

Thailand During World War II (1941-44) After World War II broke out in Europe (1939- 45), Japan used its influence with the Vichy regime in France to obtain territorial concessions for Thailand in Laos and Cambodia. The war for Thailand began in earnest on December 8, 1941, when Thai and Japanese troops clashed on the Isthmus of Kra. Bangkok acceded to Japan's demands that its troops be permitted to cross the isthmus to invade Burma and Malaya. In January 1942, Phibun signed a mutual defense pact with Japan and declared war against Britain and the United States. Seni Pramoj, the anti-Japanese Thai ambassador to Washington, refused his government's orders to deliver the declaration of war, and the United States refrained from declaring war on Thailand. Seni organized a Free Thai movement, and, with U.S. government support, Thai personnel were trained for anti-Japanese underground activities. In Thailand, Pridi ran a clandestine movement that, by the end of the war, with Allied aid had armed more than 50,000 Thai to resist the Japanese. During the early war years, Phibun was rewarded for his cooperation with Tokyo with the return of further territory that had once been under Thai control. Japan stationed some 150,000 troops in Thailand and built the infamous "death railway" across the River Kwai and through Thailand using Allied prisoners of war. The Allies bombed Bangkok during the war, and public opinion and the civilian political leaders forced Phibun out of office in June 1944.

Civilian Government (1945-47) Shortly after the war, Seni Pramoj briefly served as prime minister. In May 1946, a new constitution was promulgated. It called for a bicameral legislature with a popularly elected lower house and an upper house elected by the lower house. The name Siam was officially restored. The 1946 elections set the stage for Pridi's accession to the prime minstership. However, two weeks after the election Pridi was accused of being implicated in the untimely death of King Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII, r. 1935-46), and he resigned and left the country. The new king, Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX, r. 1946- ), who was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1927, had spent the war in Switzerland and returned there after a brief first visit to Thailand in 1945. He did not return to Bangkok to take up his kingly duties until 1951, following a government-engineered coup.

Return to Military Rule (1947-73) The civilian government's failure eventually led to the restoration of the Phibun military faction. Phibun had been arrested in 1945 as a war criminal but was released soon afterward. A coup in November 1947 ousted the civilian leaders, and Phibun took over as prime minister in April 1948. During his second government (1948-57), Phibun restored the use of the name Thailand, reintroduced legislation to make Thai social behavior conform to Western standards, improved secondary education, and increased military appropriations. Phibun's traditional anticommunist position led to Thailand's continued recognition of Taiwan, and he supported the French in their actions against communist insurgents in Indochina. Thailand also provided ground, naval, and air units to the United Nations (UN) forces fighting during the Korean War (1950-53; Thai forces continued to serve in South Korea until 1972). Phibun brought Thailand into the new Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954. In 1955 SEATO's headquarters was established in Bangkok, and Thailand offered the United States the use of Thai military bases. In an attempt to generate popular support for himself, Phibun articulated a policy of democracy, but he was deposed in a bloodless coup in September 1957.
Military-controlled government continued between 1957 and 1967. There was talk under Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat of a "restoration" of the king, and a strong popular affection for the monarchy arose. The regime emphasized the kingdom's Buddhist heritage in an effort to gain support from monks for government programs. Anticommunism continued to influence Thailand's foreign affairs, and in 1961 Thailand, the Philippines, and newly independent Malaya (since 1963, Malaysia) formed the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA). In 1967 Thailand became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a broader regional cooperative organization that replaced the ASA. At the same time, Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn decided to shorten the timetable for the country's transition from the military-dominated leadership structure to a popularly elected government.
In June 1968, a new constitution was proclaimed, but martial law, which had been imposed in 1958, remained in effect. Party politics resumed in 1968, and Thanom's United Thai People's Party carried the February 1969 National Assembly elections. The new government, however, had to respond to numerous issues: a Muslim insurgency in southern Thailand, communist guerrillas operating in jungle areas north of the Thai-Malaysian border, the successes of communist forces in Vietnam and Laos, and other regional unrest and protests against the government. In November 1971, Thanom carried out a coup against his own government, thereby ending the three-year experiment in parliamentary democracy. The constitution was suspended, political parties were banned, and the military took full charge in suppressing opposition.

Transition to Democratic Rule (1973-76) The stern moves by the Thanom regime led to popular dissatisfaction among university students and organized labor, accompanied by growing anti-U.S. sentiments. Some feared Thanom would even overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. In a demonstration on October 13, 1973, some 250,000 people pressed their grievances against the government. The following day, troops fired on the demonstrators, killing 75 of them. King Bhumibol took a rare direct role, forcing the cabinet's resignation; Thanom and his close colleagues were allowed to leave the country secretly. Thammasak University president Sanya Dharmasakti was appointed interim prime minister, and it was he who fully credited the student movement with bringing down the military dictatorship. A new constitution went into effect in October 1974, providing for a popularly elected House of Representatives. The elections were inconclusive, and conservative Seni Pramoj eventually formed a government that lasted less than a month. His brother, Kukrit Pramoj, then put together a more acceptable centrist coalition that lasted until January 1976. Seni returned as prime minister but only until October 1976, when violent student demonstrations were suppressed by security forces, and Seni was ousted. A military junta took control of the government, declared martial law, annulled the constitution, banned political parties, and strictly censored the media.

Military Rule and Limited Parliamentary Government (1976-92) The new government, led by Prime Minister Thanin Kraivichien, a strident anticommunist, was more repressive in many ways than the earlier military regimes. Strict censorship continued, and the regime tightly controlled labor unions and purged suspected communists from the civil service and educational institutions. As a result, many students joined the communist insurgency. Thanin was replaced in 1977 by General Kriangsak Chomanand. He promulgated a new constitution in December 1978 with a popularly elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate, but the military controlled cabinet and Senate appointments. Economic instability, however, brought down the Kriangsak government in March 1980. The new prime minster, who was the commander in chief of the army and minister of defense, General Prem Tinsulanonda, came to power by consensus among key politicians. He gave civilians a greater role in government by appointing civilians to his cabinet. A coup attempt in 1981 weakened Prem's government, and there was continual dissension among the civilian members of the government. Despite student and farmer demonstrations, Prem was reappointed as prime minister in April 1983. He survived a coup attempt in September 1985 and elections in July 1986. Prem was succeeded as prime minister following elections in July 1988 by General Chatichai Choonhavan, the leader of a multiparty coalition. The following years saw a series of military-led governments, efforts to reform, coups, new elections, and coalition party politics. Reforms were introduced in the business sector, the government allowed increased foreign investment, and relations with Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam improved. Charges of corruption and abuse of power abounded, however, and Chatichai was removed from power in a bloodless coup in February 1991.

Multiparty Democracy (1992-2006) In March 1992, with a new constitution in force and new elections held, General Suchinda Kraprayoon, one of the February 1991 coup leaders, became prime minister and leader of a five-party coalition. When those parties withdrew their support, Suchinda resigned in May 1992, and Anand Panyarachun, a civilian who had served as acting prime minister between March 1991 and March 1992, was named prime minister. Anand embarked on new reform measures, but he was replaced after the September 1992 elections by Democratic Party (Phak Prachatipat) leader Chuan Leekpai, the head of a four-party coalition. Chuan's government pushed through constitutional amendments that provided for more wide- ranging democratic practices, enlarged the House of Representatives, reduced the size of the appointed Senate, lowered the voting age from 20 to 18 years of age, guaranteed equality for women, and established an administrative court. In January 1985, the Thai Nation Party (Phak Chat Thai) won the largest number of House seats, and its leader, Banharn Silapa-Archa, headed the new coalition government. In March 1996, Banharn appointed the members of the new Senate; unlike earlier Senates, most members were civilians instead of military officers. The failure of his coalition, however, led to new elections and a new six-party coalition government in November 1996 led by General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh, head of the Phak Khwam Wang Mai (New Aspiration Party).
Chavalit made key economic portfolio appointments to his cabinet, but he failed to implement the austere fiscal policies needed to revive a weak economy. In mid-1997 a major financial crisis ensued, the baht-Thailand's currency-was devalued, the Central Bank governor resigned, and widespread protests took place. The government announced austerity measures, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) intervened, but the economy continued to deteriorate. Despite a new constitution promulgated in October 1997, confidence in Chavalit continued to slide, and elections in November returned Chuan Leekpai to the prime ministership as head of a seven-party coalition. This transfer of power without military intervention, from one elected leader to another, represented a major breakthrough in the development of democratic processes in Thailand. The baht continued to devalue, however, and social unrest recurred. By the summer of 1998, the economy had become more stable, although investigations into banking practices continued to uncover mismanagement and irregularities. With assistance from the IMF, Thailand gradually regained macroeconomic stability.
The first-ever elections to the Senate were held in 2000, and, in January 2001 one party-the Phak Thai Rak Thai (Thai Loves Thai Party)-won an absolute majority in the House of Representatives. Because of widespread allegations of illegal election practices, new polling took place in February in some constituencies. The Thai Rak Thai, having merged with another party since the January election, still won the absolute majority of seats, but a coalition government- with the New Aspiration Party and Chat Thai-was established. Police Lieutenant Colonel Thaksin Chinnawat became prime minister. The Thai Rak Thai was further strengthened in 2002 when it absorbed many members of the New Aspiration Party.
Thaksin set out to stabilize several problematic areas. One was to launch a major antidrug campaign. Some 2,275 people were killed in a three-month period ending in April 2003, and the government claimed to have eradicated 90 percent of Thailand's drug problem. In October 2004, the government launched a second antidrug campaign. Another problem confronting the kingdom was terrorist violence, primarily in the south. In 2002 several police officers were killed, bombs were detonated when the minister of interior toured the violence-prone area, and five schools suffered damage from arsonists. The Thai military attributed these actions to a group thought to be an al Qaeda affiliate and arrested suspected members of Jemaah Islamiah (Community of Islam) in June 2003. They confessed to plotting attacks on embassies in Bangkok and tourist sites. Further arsons and bombings occurred, and attacks on police and army bases in 2004 heightened the terrorist threat. In 2004 alone, more than 500 people died as a result of insurgent and terrorist violence in the south. This loss of life was exacerbated when a massive tsunami hit the Andaman coast on December 26, 2004, killing more than 5,300 Thai and foreigners and leaving another 2,900 reported missing.
In February 2005, the Thai Rak Thai won a 75 percent majority in the House of Representatives elections, and, for the first time, a single-party government was formed. The following year, however, there were mass protests calling for Thaksin's resignation over corruption issues. He called for early parliamentary elections in April 2006 that were boycotted by the major opposition parties and declared unconstitutional in May. Amidst growing protests, Thaksin continued as prime minister until September 19, 2006, when military forces staged a successful coup and set up a military-controlled regime.

Source: Library of Congress

Mural painting in a temple in Chiang Mai.
Photo © nationsonline.org

Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), King of Thailand and Head of State is venerated by most of all Thais, images of him are omnipresent throughout the country, even on screens of ATMs you can see his portrait.
Photo © 2009 nationsonline.org

Modern Bangkok at night.
Photo © 2009 nationsonline.org

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Prehistory The earliest known inhabitation of present-day Thailand dates to the Paleolithic period, about 20,000 years ago. Archaeology has revealed evidence in the Khorat Plateau in the northeast of prehistoric inhabitants who may have forged bronze implements as early as 3000 B.C. and cultivated rice during the fourth millennium B.C.

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China

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Tang Dynasty: The Education and the Examination Systems

Education during the Tang Dynasty usually began when a child, most often a male, was six years old, and continued until they were nineteen. Literate families found it beneficial to educate their daughters as well. The fathers, or male relatives, were most often the teachers. Peasants and farmers were taught only orally. Artisans learned through apprenticeship and on-the-job training like in Europe. There were few public schools, and they tended to be in county and provincial capitals. Tutors were hired by the wealthy and for young men who wanted to take the imperial examinations.

The "capping" of boys occurred when they were 19 years old. This ritual was held at an ancestral shrine and marked the beginning of manhood. The new man often received a new name. The "pinning" of girls happened when they were 14 years old. At this time the girls would begin to pin, or tie up, their hair on top of their heads. This signaled that they were now eligible for marriage.

Formal education was for the most part a religious affair, as all clergy, whether Daoist, Buddhist, or Confucian, were literate. Most temples also had libraries. By 618 AD, emperor Gaozu recreated three universities in the capital city of Chang'an. The three universities were called The College For the Sons of the State, which accepted the sons of fathers who were ranked in the top three levels within the imperial bureaucracy. The second was The College For Grand Learning, which was for sons whose fathers were in the fourth and fifth ranks. The third university was The College of Four Gates, which enrolled sons of fathers in ranks six and seven. In the year 733, its was expanded to include ranks eight and nine, and for some talented commoners. Boys attended these universities from the ages of 14 to 19, and ages 18-25 for the commoners. The state paid for tuition, room and board.

In the year 738, emperor Xuanzong ordered that schools be established throughout the country. In the census of 754, the country had two capitals, one in Chang'an and the other in Luoyang, 321 prefectures, 1,538 counties, and 16,829 villages. The overall population was 48.9 million people, with 130,000 students attending university (0.26%).
The public school curriculum included the Daoist and Confucian classics. Lectures and memorization was the norm. Calligraphy and composition were also a part of the student's studies. In the capital only, students could also learn medicine, law, math, astronomy, and the rituals.

The Examination System:

The purpose for taking one or several of the imperial examinations was to secure a government position, either civilian or military. Candidates assembled in the capital city of Chang'an on the eleventh lunar moon, usually in our month of December. Before the exams, which were administered after the Chinese New Year in our January or February, the examinees tried to influence the examiners by submitting their poems, and essays of flattery. These had to be passed along by third parties, and not given directly. They could submit up to three scrolls. If successful, the candidates would be given a personal interview with one of the examiners.

Three of the most important exams were the Classical Masters, Advanced Scholars, and the Elevated Warriors. Classical Masters had 65 fill-in questions covering eight of the literary and philosophical classics. Ten questions asked the examinees to interpret these classics. Three essays had to be written on contemporary issues. And finally there was an oral component.

After the year 681, the Advanced Scholars exam was the most popular and carried with it the most prestige. It consisted of ten fill-in questions and a commentary on one of the major classics. Five essays, and the composition of lyric and prose poems were also required.

The Elevated Warriors exam was added in 702 by Empress Wu. An examinee had to shoot his arrows at a target from 105 paces away, display his archery talents while both walking and riding his horse, and his martial art skills in lance manipulation. He also had to pass the weight lifting, physique and discourse standards.

Successful candidates often met his examiner after the exam and became friends and colleagues for life. Parties, celebrations, and proposals of marriage were abundant in the capital following the exams.

Merchants and artisans were not eligible to take the exams. They also could not be landowners. Government office holders had to retire by the age of 69. At the age of 59, peasant farmers had to give up ownership of their land in order to pass it down to the younger farmers.

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Tang Dynasty: The Education and Examination Systems

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Education during the Tang Dynasty usually began when a child, most often a male, was six years old, and continued until they were nineteen. Literate families found it beneficial to educate their daughters as well. The fathers, or male relatives, were most often the teachers. Peasants and farmers were taught only orally.

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China

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China Ancient Education, History of Education in China

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China ancient education include: history of education in China, classification of ancient Chinese education, Civil Service Examination System and Historical Relics.

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Thanks Poj!

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Home | History | In Depth | Officials

Imperial Examinations
One of China's most important exports was the respect for scholarship and learning. China was the first nation to appoint on basis of academic merit. Strict Imperial examinations were set up two thousand years ago and were the passport to a quieter life with a steady income. Read more...
Testimonial

Unsolicited comment from a genuine Chinasage visitor.
For thousands of years China has had an advanced, professional civil administration, long before any other nation on earth. To become an official was the dream of many Chinese as it was the one sure route to esteem and a quiet, wealthy and cushy life. When the European missionaries first came to China they were greatly impressed by this meritocracy, back home the corrupt system of personal patronage was the only way to acquire a position of power.

To be appointed to a government post in the Imperial civil service a candidate had to show proficiency in the public examinations. We have a whole section dedicated to the details of the examination system. The open and fair examination and administration system impressed the Europeans so much that soon enough these ideas began to be copied back home.

Jiangxi Opera performance. Actors in the costumes of Imperial officials Copyright © Dreamstime see image license

Intensive education

Boys, perhaps as young as eight years old would learn by heart the basics of the written language from such books as the Three Character Classic. Already they were set apart from the mass of illiterate people. Their education then took in mathematics with numerical problems to solve. Even a bright student would need to study up to the age of 30 to prepare for the top level of examination. However the examinations selected not just on knowledge but also on acceptance of the philosophic orthodoxy. Novel interpretations of the Classics rarely won favor and so the system stultified intellectual inquiry and development. Schools and academies passed on knowledge to the next generation of officials.

Having an official in the family was a distinct advantage as they could give guidance on questions likely to come up and which answers were expected. Working in the house of an official was also a good way to learn all about how to become an official and so a job working there was a prized opportunity. Officials were supposed to be recruited on merit through the Imperial examination system but many did receive appointment due to family connections and bribery. Someone from a humble background of an unknown family was very unlikely to pass the three stages of examination without the backing of a powerful patron.
Mandarin' for a high official and the official Chinese language from the Portuguese word 'mandar' meaning to command.

Kowtowing before the magistrate. Official session at a Chinese Yamen, Guangzhou, pre-1889. Image available under a Creative Commons license ➚

Appointments

Once they passed the examinations they would join a pool of courtiers awaiting an appointment and undertake menial duties. Once appointed they entered a probationary period. A report appraising junior officials was written so that their performance could be assessed. Their grade determined their stipend and they were paid in grain, coin and silk depending on circumstances.

Officials aspired to jobs in central government and may be even run one of the nine ministries of state. Most official appointments were for three years, this was important as it did not allow enough time for the appointed official to set up a local web of corruption.

Han dynasty civil service

In Han dynasty times there began an initiative for appointments to be on merit rather than patronage. Twenty orders of seniority were created and only the top 'marquis' grade was hereditary. Twelve of the grades were intended for scholar-officials not the aristocracy. If an official committed a crime they lost their post and became an ordinary member of the public again - their immediate family could be used as slaves. At this time about 1% of population lived as 'property' of an owner, although a slave owner had limited rights over their slaves there was no mechanism to become a freeman.

Statue on the way of souls towards the Ming tombs near Beijing. This is one of a pair of facing statues representing an official waiting to deliver his reports to the emperor. The reports would be in the form of vertical ideogramic script brushed onto a number of wood or ivory tablets. Available under a Creative Commons License ➚

Tang dynasty civil service

By the Tang dynasty the last vestiges of the old feudal system had gone. The aristocracy consisted of the large imperial family who ruled over vast estates. It had nine levels of nobility with the top three reserved for the royal family (1st class prince or king (王 wáng); 2nd class prince or king and 1st class duke). The salary for each grade was fixed to the tax due for a number of families (10,000 families for the top grade; 300 for the lowest). The Emperor could appoint ordinary people to the bottom six grades as a reward for service.

Book: Symbols of China
A lavishly illustrated book covering all aspects of China not just 'symbols': traditions, scenic sights, festivals, arts, legends and famous figures. The text descriptions are a little short but it does give a very good general overall coverage and the photographs and illustrations are very good.
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The nine levels of nobility were mirrored by nine levels of civil administration (九 品 jiǔ pǐn), appointed on merit. The founding Tang Emperor Taizong set up a re-invigorated examination system to root out patronage and nepotism. Both the aristocracy and senior officials were exempt from taxation - a useful benefit. Officials had little local power and independence, it was a very centralized system and is aptly described as numerous villages ruled by the Emperor - a very flat power pyramid. Some emperors took it upon themselves to select candidates for even junior positions.

The Emperor met with a Council of State every day to discuss matters of the day. There was also a Cabinet or Inner Chancery. Beneath these two bodies were six ministries (civil service, revenue, rites, defense, justice and public works).

Five ranks of nobles were instituted. The Chinese had a novel system of hereditary, a son inherited a grade one level lower than his father. This prevented the system accumulating more and more people at the top. It gave the incentive for the son to serve the emperor well in the hope he would soon be promoted to his father's grade. However the family of Confucius was exempt from this rule and maintained the highest rank. The ranks were Duke 公爵 gōng jué; Marquis 侯爵 hóu jué; Earl 伯爵 bó jué; Viscount 子爵 zǐ jué and Baron 男爵 nán jué. There was also the position of Viceroy 总督 zǒng dū who had full civil and military control over a province or group of provinces. Each province would also have a treasurer; a grain superintendent; a salt superintendent (salt was a government monopoly and useful source of tax) and a chief judge.

The administration was divided into ministries that covered the whole nation: finance; rites; defense and justice. There was no independent judiciary so there was no chance for an individual could raise an official complaint against the government. Six ministries administered the prefectures 州 zhōu (282 in the Qing dynasty) and under them counties 县 xiàn . A group of villages was administered by a magistrate 地保 dì bǎo or 知县 zhī xiàn (1,477 in the Qing dynasty) living in his yamen 衙门 . He was the person responsible for maintaining peace and justice as well as collecting taxes in a district. He would have various deputies to help him and each village would have a headman to represent the populace.

The Qing Imperial Service

However the system over the centuries became corrupt and inefficient. It remained heavily centralized with limited local autonomy. It became so strictly regimented that it had a total of 98 different grades and a board game ➚ 升官图 Shēng guān tú was even played which was similar to 'snakes and ladders' where players rolled dice to try to reach the top grade (状元筹 Zhuàng yuán chóu was another game ➚ named after the top graded official). An official came to be paid barely enough to live on, to maintain a decent standard of living he took bribes and a cut of the taxes within his jurisdiction. The low salary may have discouraged neglect and indolence but it did lead to corruption - particularly by inventing local taxes. This was a significant factor in the downfall of the Qing, the system of control had become too corrupt to properly institute the necessary reforms. The examination system had also become corrupt with rich families buying qualifications for their sons.

In the Qing the Imperial administration (内 务府 nèi wù fǔ department) the Manchu nobles held the top posts became very powerful and corrupt. Their sole source of income was the Imperial budget and hundreds were paid to do the job of one person. The officials understood their predicament and resisted the reforms to reduce the expenditure and the size of the Imperial household. Officials came to expect a sizable proportion of all money that passed through their hands. Everyone colluded with the system to inflate Imperial costs and take their cut. They acted in self interest rather than the best interests of the Emperor or the country.

The import of cheap, strong British opium had a devastating effect on the Imperial Civil Service, as the officials became hopelessly addicted it had the effect of paralyzing administration. (A hard-hitting satire on the state of late Qing dynasty at this time 'Cat Country' was written by the reformist writer Lao She in 1933).

The ancient art of Chinese Calligraphy
The Chinese language is a treasure trove of history and traditions. This is not all that surprising as the language script has been in use for the past 4,000 years. Fine historic pieces by the great masters continue to achieve as high a price at auction as a great painting. To appreciate Chinese writing it is important to know how the characters are made with the brush. Our page on brush strokes lets you learn how to write in Chinese calligraphy. Read more...

Xinhua Gate is the main ceremonial gate into the Zhongnanhai complex of government buildings, Beijing. The sector is located just to the west of the Imperial centre of government the Forbidden City. Image by Bgabel ➚ available under a Creative Commons license ➚ . The current government of China follows ancient precedent and style.

Women officials

There was also a strict hierarchy of female officials who served at the Imperial Palace. By the Tang dynasty there were 19 grades of women drawn from the large number of concubines and their female servants; this was necessary as only castrated male eunuchs were allowed to reside in the Forbidden City. Their duties can be broadly described as domestic service: beauty preparation, seamstresses and food preparation.

Battling corruption

Such a centralized and hierarchical system of government needed independent oversight. In China the judiciary was not independent so an unjust action made by the state could not be corrected in the courts. From the earliest days of control ( Qin dynasty) a system of censors was introduced to perform this function of independent assessment and investigation. They formed a separate department of state: the 'Court of Censors' who oversaw justice and the operation of other officials and even the Emperor. They were known as 耳 目 官 ěr mù guān 'Ear and eye officials' and wrote 'memorials' that were sent direct to the Emperor.

They would make enemies of the people they exposed as corrupt; often their targets would be the Imperial eunuchs and with their special relationship may be powerful enough to sway the Emperor against the reports by the censors, as in the case of Yang Lien (d. 1625).
th Feb
House plant boom

The effects of the coronavirus continue to dominate the news, with millions of Chinese people choosing or forced to spend all their time at home. One popular new hobby in parts of Shanghai is the growing of plants from seed. Watching the germinated seeds grow into plants is giving the community a sense of a brighter future. Vegetables are a popular choice with the normal shops and markets closed or inaccessible. Other popular indoor activities have led to a surge in online ordering of computer games, books, yoga mats, make-up and rather inevitably condoms. Contrary to the popular impression created in the media, the situation in China is of gradual improvement with the number of infected people falling for the last ten days in a row as more people recover. Unlike the rest of the world there has been success in keeping the cases within Hubei province, it is not spreading to other provinces any more.

Read full story...
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They were often called upon to analyze what went wrong and help formulate future policies. There was a long history of officials trying to conceal calamities and using bribes to stop the true situation reaching the Emperor's attention. However it was often the case that the censor's criticisms came out long after the event and so had little value in quickly putting things right and it was a bold man to censor the actions of the Emperor as although the censor could not be put to death he could be demoted. The head of the censors was the 御史 大 夫 Yù shǐ dà fū or later 都察院 Dōu chá yuàn. An official would only spend a short period of time as a censor and would not be appointed to his local region so he could act independently.

The Life of an Official in China

Once appointed the life of an official was highly constrained. Typically an official would be sent to a series of remote provinces for terms of three years. Both the remote location and limited term were crucial measures to limit corruption. An official would not take his parents with him when taking up the post, as he may have conflicting demands from father and Emperor - a dilemma for anyone following the Confucian philosophy. Officials were often moved between departments and rarely had a career in just one form of administration. An official would not have local contacts to tempt him into making decisions and appointments based on personal patronage, the limited tenure also combated corruption as his successor would likely report any misdemeanors.

Classic Chinese garden in Suzhou of Song dynasty style. An administrator's private garden.

A job as an official offered a rare secure income, respect of the community, exemption from conscription for public work construction projects and military service. On retirement a lump sum bonus was issued or in rare cases a final salary pension continued to be paid.

The work was not arduous with ample time to pursue scholastic hobbies such as calligraphy; poetry; weiqi and music. A guiding principle of officialdom was that if the correct appointments have been made then the whole system should work like clockwork with little need for effort to maintain it. The first Chinese visitors to Europe was surprised by the relentless hard work of officials and politicians which contrasted to the more laid back life in China. Westerners considered that the motto for an official must surely be 'Go Slowly'.

Yamen 衙门 and Magistrates

The magistrate would be housed in the Yamen in a town or city. It contained accommodation for the official and his family, reception rooms, a law court and often prison cells. For a detailed insight into the life of a member of a scholarly family in late Ming dynasty, Jonathan Spence's Return to Dragon Mountain ➚ is an excellent resource. It describes the life of the Ming historian Zhang Dai ➚ . A magistrate was the chief instrument of government in his fiefdom with responsibility for civil and criminal justice as well as taxation. He was 'the' local authority and might be better described as 'judge' rather than 'magistrate'. He was investigator, prosecutor and judge. People would be in great peril if they ignored his commands - they would have to appeal to a far away provincial overseer or the Imperial capital to seek redress. He employed trusted servants only answerable to himself that typically followed him to other appointments - they were not locally recruited. He could pass the death sentence but this would need confirmation from the emperor before it could be carried out.

Magistrates were the lowliest form of local official. They had passed the examinations but not achieved the grade to serve at the capital. They would aspire to be quickly promoted to oversee a number of magistrates at the prefecture level (州 zhōu). If they prospered at the prefecture level they may be promoted to serve at the provincial level and may be become provincial governors.

If an official was censured by the Emperor he would lose his post, and sometimes his life, but quite often the Emperor would commute a death sentence to exile to a remote province such as Xinjiang or Hainan. At the end of the period of exile the Emperor would send him a ring. If it was a complete solid ring, they were forgiven and could restart their career, if, however it was a broken ring then their career was at an end.

Traditions associated with Officials

The etiquette of official life was highly regimented, an official would have a carriage, clothes and seal according to strict rules for his grade.

Meeting in the street

A servant would beat a drum or gong to clear the way for the official who followed him. The number of beats of the drum indicated the seniority of the official ranging from 13 for a viceroy to 7 for a magistrate. This allowed other officials to show due deference. A lower ranking official had to stop and make way for any higher ranking official. To avoid having to get out of his sedan chair and formally greet each other an official might hide his face behind a fan.

Seals

All senior officials had a seal of office including magistrates residing at their yamens. The emperor had a seal made of jade; viceroys and high provincial officials have oblong seals made of silver and used mauve colored wax. Salt commissioners had copper seals and used vermillion colored wax. Lower officials used square wooden seals 戳记 chuō jì. During periods of Imperial mourning all seals changed to use blue wax. They were stamped on all dispatches, deeds and important documents, showing that the document had been approved by the appropriate official. This precious item was often left in the safe-keeping of the official's wife, the loss of a seal was a very serious offense which would often lead to sacking and demotion - because of possible fraudulent use of the seal. The seal became potent enough to be seen as a talisman that would keep evil at bay.

Symbolism

As appointment to a civil service post was such an important goal in life, there are quite a number of symbols that were painted on objects to convey a wish for an appointment as an official.
These include :

Aubergine (end looks like an official's hat) Bee (sounds same as 'appoint to high office'); Bell (sounds like 'high ranking official'); Cinnamon (sounds same as riches); Cockerel (a cock's comb sounds same as 'official'); Crane (sounds same as 'official'); Halberd (sounds same as 'opportunity'); Lute (one of the scholarly accomplishments); Maple (sounds like 'confer'); Peacock (Feathers were a badge of office) and Wave (sounds like 'Imperial court')

Getting by in China
There are many customs and traditions that you should know before traveling to China. Our customs page covers such things as giving gifts, banquets, sealing business deals and how to behave in public. A respect for age old traditions will impress your hosts who will appreciate your efforts to embrace the culture. Learning about 'face', 'guanxi' and general etiquette will make everyone feel more relaxed. Read more...
In pictures an official is often associated with the text 天 官赐福 tiān guān cì fú 'may the high official grant you good fortune'.

Official's dress in Qing times

William Alexander's portrait of the official Qiao Renjie who accompanied the 1794 British embassy.

In the Manchu (Qing) dynasty there was a strict dress code by which the grade of an official could be quickly and easily determined. Knowing the relative seniority allowed the due protocol to be obeyed. The colored button on top of official's hat was a clear clue as well as the color and design of the coat and belt. A 带 dài was in the form of a leather belt with a metal buckle and to the belt were attached the various accoutrements of the scholar or official: a writing brush; a fan and a purse. The toggles used to fasten the cord holding the item to the belt can be highly ornate (similar to the Japanese netsuke ➚ ). It is often made of jade. A 'mandarin square' or bu zi was an embroidered panel that also gave the rank of the official.

The Hierarchy of Chinese officials

1. Transparent red (ruby) or for half-dressed coral

The top button is of fashioned gold, with an oblong bead on top made of red coral. The coat was purple with square plaque on chest and back embroidered with white crane (or qilin for military officials). The belt has four agate pieces with small rubies.

2. Opaque red or full dress flowered coral

The top button is of fashioned gold, with a red coral bead on top of a ruby. Coat has an embroidered golden pheasant (or lion for military officials). The belt has four pieces of gold with small rubies.

3. Transparent blue (sapphire)

The top button of fashioned gold, with clear blue sapphire bead on top. A Peacock plume with one eye. Embroidered panels of a peacock (or tiger, panther for military officials). The belt has four pieces of worked gold.

4. Opaque blue (lapis lazuli)

The top button is of fashioned gold, with lapis lazuri bead on top of clear blue sapphire. Embroidered panels with a goose (or leopard for military officials). The belt has four pieces of fashioned gold with a silver button.

5. Transparent white (crystal)

The top button is of fashioned gold, with clear rock crystal bead on top of rock crystal. Embroidered panels with silver pheasant (or black bear for military officials). The belt has four pieces of fashioned gold with a silver button.

6. Opaque white (stone)

The top button is of white shell, with blue plume. Plaques embroidered with egret (or panther for military officials). The belt has four pieces of tortoiseshell with silver button.

7. Plain gold

The top button is of plain gold, with another gold button on top of a clear crystal. Embroidered panels of mandarin duck (or panther or rhinoceros for military officials). The belt has four round silver plates.

8. Worked gold

The top button is of fashioned gold, with another gold button on top. Embroidered panels of quail (or rhinoceros for military officials). The belt has four pieces of white horn with a silver button.

9. Worked gold or silver

The top button is of fashioned gold, with another gold button of chased gold on top. Embroidered panels of flycatcher (or sea horse for military officials). The belt has four pieces of black horn with a silver button.

Unclassified

Plaques embroidered with oriole. The symbol for longevity (shou) engraved on the button of the higher grade to separate into two upper and lower divisions.

Peacock feathers

Only as late as the 19th century under the Qing there developed a custom of using peacock feathers as a means of distinguishing people of outstanding merit. 花翎 huā líng has one, two or three peacock eyes denoting grade. Whereas a minor military honor was indicated by a blue feather 蓝翎 lán líng from a raven's tail. Honors such as these could be withdrawn at any time.

Yellow Jacket

The Yellow riding jacket 黄 马褂 huáng mǎ guà was another honor bestowed on people of great merit, particularly for military success in late Qing times. Normally only the Imperial family could wear yellow apparel. It was given to high ranking officials and worn in the presence of the Emperor it was made of silk with blue sleeves. It permitted the wearer the honor of riding a horse through the outer Forbidden City. In the Taiping Rebellion it was conferred on Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and the Englishman General Charles Gordon ➚ .

Dragons

The dragon was the Imperial emblem and could only be used by others under strict control. The number of claws of the dragon indicated precedence. Five claws for the Emperor himself, four claws for his close relatives and three claws for high officials. As with the other codes of etiquette, someone breaching them would be dismissed and sometimes executed for impudence.

Stone lions

A high official would have a pair of stone lions guarding the entrance to his mansion. The number of coils of hair in the mane became a guide to seniority, the more curls the higher the rank of seniority.

Finger nails

It was traditional for the well off to let one or more finger nails grow up to two inches in length (both men and women). This advertised to all that they were not engaged in any manual labor and had servants to do everything for them. Special silver guards were used to protect them from damage. This tradition applied to aristocrats as well as officials.

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Home | History | In Depth | Officials One of China's most important exports was the respect for scholarship and learning. China was the first nation to appoint on basis of academic merit. Strict Imperial examinations were set up two thousand years ago and were the passport to a quieter life with a steady income.

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Imperial Harem of China, Serving the Emperor

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Imperial Harem of China, Serving the Emperor

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Thanks Poj!

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In Imperial China, one of the important tasks that the emperor needed to do was to ensure the continuation of the dynasty, which was achieved by the production of a male heir. For this purpose, the emperors of Imperial China kept an enormous harem of women. There was a hierarchy in the emperor's harem, and whilst the exact classes changed over the millennia, it may be said that in general there were three ranks - the empress, consorts, and concubines. In addition, the eunuchs who served these imperial women may be considered to be a part of this harem as well.

Hierarchy in the Harem

At the top of the hierarchy of the Imperial Chinese harem was the empress, who was the Emperor's one 'official wife'. The empress was the most venerated and revered figurehead for women in China, as she was considered to be the 'mother of the world'. In the harem, only the emperor and the mother of the emperor were above the empress, all other individuals had to obey her orders. In addition to empresses, there was also the rank of empress dowager. Empresses who outlived their husbands were promoted to this rank. Some famous empress dowagers include Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty (who later became China's first female emperor) and Cixi of the Qing Dynasty.
Wu Zetian, Empress in the Tang Dynasty Harem ( public domain ) Portrait of a concubine, by Chinese painter Lam Qua, 1864 ( public domain )
Consorts in the Imperial Chinese Harem

Underneath the empress were the consorts. The number and ranks of these consorts differed according to the ruling dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, for example, an imperial harem would have had one Imperial Noble Consort, two Noble Consorts, and four Consorts. Below these consorts were the concubines, and this number varied according to each emperor. According to the Rites of Zhou , an emperor could have up to 9 high ranking concubines, 27 mid ranking ones and 81 low ranking ones. However, during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), there were no limits set for the number of consorts an Emperor could have, and during the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling, there were more than 20,000 women living in the Forbidden City.
Chinese Eunuchs were the only males permitted in the harem ( public domain )
Selection of Concubines

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), there was an official system for selecting concubines to join the emperor's harem. The selection process would take place inside the Forbidden City every three years. Candidates ranged from 14 to 16 years of age and were chosen based on their background, virtues, behavior, character, appearance and body condition.

Eunuchs - The Only Males Allowed in the Harem

To ensure that any child born in the harem was fathered by the emperor, males were not allowed to serve the women of the emperor's harem. The only exceptions to this rule were the eunuchs, men who had been castrated, thus rendering them impotent. Throughout the history of Imperial China, eunuchs have served the imperial family, including as servants in the harem. Far from being mere servants, however, these eunuchs could aspire to positions of power and wealth by involving themselves in the politics of the harem. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), there was an eye-opening 100,000 eunuchs serving the emperor and his harem.

Rivalries in the Harem

With so many women in the harem, it was inevitable that rivalries amongst the emperor's women would arise, as they competed for the emperor's attention. The most coveted position was, of course, that of the empress, and to bear a son for the emperor would certainly be a big bonus to a woman in the harem. At times, ambitious women in the harem who plotted against their rivals would form alliances with eunuchs. If an intrigue was successful, a woman in the harem could rise through the ranks. She, in turn, would reward the eunuchs who supported her by placing them in positions of authority.

Such harem intrigues have happened often in Chinese history. For example, during the Tang Dynasty, one of the Emperor Gaozong's consorts was Wu Zetian. According to popular belief, Wu Zetian had her new born child murdered, and placed the blame on the Empress Wang. As a result of this, the empress was demoted, and Wu Zetian became the new empress. Nevertheless, not all imperial harems were hotbeds of conspiracy. The semi-mythical Huangdi, for example, had four concubines, who were not chosen based on their looks, but on their competence. One of his secondary concubines, for instance, is regarded as the inventor of cooking and of the chopsticks, whilst another is believed to have invented the comb. Together, these concubines assisted Huangdi in ruling the country.

Many concubines met a sad fate when their emperor died. They were sacrificed, often buried alive, to join their master in the afterlife.

References

Anderson, M. M., 1990. Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China. [Online]
Available at: http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/eunuchs1.html

Hays, J., 2013. Eunuchs in China. [Online]
Available at: http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/4sub9/item43.html

Jiang, Y. F., 2013. Concubines and life in the Forbidden City. [Online]
Available at: http://gbtimes.com/life/concubines-and-life-forbidden-city

Lim, S. K., 2008. Chinese Imperial Women. Singapore: Asiapac Books.

Snowybeagle, 2017. The Most Damaging Institutions in Chinese History: Eunuchs and Official Harem. [Online]
Available at: http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=china_eununchs_and_official_harem

Wang, K. H., 2015. Behind the veil of the imperial harem. [Online]
Available at: http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/travel/2015-10/03/content_22072153.htm

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20,000 Women and 100,000 Castrated Men to Serve the Emperor: The Imperial Harem of China

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In Imperial China, one of the important tasks that the emperor needed to do was to ensure the continuation of the dynasty, which was achieved by the production of a male heir. For this purpose, the emperors of Imperial China kept an enormous harem of women.

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Thanks Poj!

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The nobility was officially abolished in china in 1949.

It may be old-fashioned to study Chinese nobility titles when China abandoned monarchy categorically in 1924 and all such minor rights were positively eradicated or ignored by The Chinese Socialist Republic.

Imperial Nobility of China: declination and its eleven exceptions:

Chinese imperial titles of nobility were granted in 12 ranks: Wang (Prince of the 1st and 2nd degree), Beileh (Prince of the 3rd degree), Beitzu (Prince of the 4th degree), Kung (translated as Duke, 5th to 8th degree) and Chiang Chun (translated as Marquess, 9th to 12th degree)

The 13° Generation lost Nobility and only had the personal title of Tsung Ji, which means "person of the imperial family" and is entitled to wear a yellow band (a special kind of yellow called Imperial Yellow can only be worn by the Imperial Family of China.

Nonetheless, the system of nobility titles in China was the basis and model for several honour systems in Asia along the lines of these two principles:

1° The abundant descendants of the Chinese Emperors were acknowledged as such only for several generations until they became commoners and lost nobility: this is a feature that we also can find in the royal families and dynasties of Thailand and Vietnam and is perhaps understandable due to the large number of descendants of the actively polygamous kings and emperors of that age.

2° exceptions to this declining principle were created for important collateral branches and families, such as the descendants of Confucius with the Rank of Perpetual Inheritance where the heirs succeeded to the same ranks as their predecessors. These exceptions can also be found in many important collateral branches of Indian Royal families.

There were 11 exceptions to this declination of titles for the descendants of the younger brothers of Emperors Tien Ming (Nurhaci) and Tien Tsung (Abahai), known as the Iron-capped princes (Tieh Mao Tzu Wang), among which 6 in which the title of Prince of the 1st degree (Ho Jih Chin Wang) was granted without declination to all male descendants: these were the Houses of Li (Head of the Family in 1910: Prince Shih To, Head of the Office of Astronomy or Chin Tien Chien, Head of the Archives of the Imperial Family or Tzong Jên Fu), of Yui (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Kuei Pin), of Yu (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Mao Lin), of Su (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Chan Chi, see below, House of Su), of Cheng (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Chao Siu), of Chuang (Head of the Family in 1910: Pce Tsai Kung). And 3 more where the title of prince of the 2nd degree (To Lo Chun Wang) was granted without declination to all male descendants: these were the Houses of Juen Cheng (Head of the Family in 1910: prince No Lo Ho) and of Ko Kin (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Song Chieh). Another exception was the granting of the title of prince of the 1st degree (Ho Jih Chin Wang) for all the descendants of Prince Yi Hsien, 13th son of Emperor Kang Hsi (Head of the Family in 1910: prince Yu Chi).

As mentioned above, the descendant of Confucius was titled the Holy Duke of Yen (Yen Sheng Kung).

Hereditary titles were also conferred to collaterals of the Imperial Family and to other dignitaries: Kung Duke), Hu (Marquis), Count), Tzu ( Viscount), Nan (Baron) and some more ranks of nobility, heritable for several generations (up to 26) and each divided in 3 inferior ranks in three degrees.

The Tribal Nobility in China: Hereditary Headmen

China is a communist country that has accomplished the end of the landlord system, a legacy of the Kuomintang regime and the end of the feudal system, a legacy of the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, according to the official history: we have therefore to assume that there is no more hereditary political power and this view is strengthened by the collectivisation of all the rural land, made by the Communist Party since 1949.

Today, China is providing information, especially on ethnic minorities: since the Chinese political history has always been one of centralization and that this centralization has been done for the benefit of the centralized political elite (the Party elite today and the Mandarins of the dynasties before), the only areas where a natural hereditary power could be found are the ethnic minorities.

The Imperial Household of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) was estimated to number 35,000 in 1547: other estimates of the Ming Imperial Family go up to 90,000. A Ming claimant and Pretendant to the Chinese throne was still living in Peking in 1926.

In the year 1902 there were approximately 7000 members of the Imperial Family of the Manchu or Qing Dynasty (1644-1912).

Some ethnic minorities with considerable hereditary political power before 1949 were: the 35,000 Achang in Yunnan (hereditary chiefs until 1911), the 93,000 Blang in Yunnan (hereditary headmen), the nearly one million Dai or Shan in Yunnan (the national-minority hereditary headmen until 1911), the 21,000 De'ang in Yunnan (hereditary headmen), the 138,000 Jingpo in Yunnan (hereditary administrators until 1911), the 1.2 million Kazak in Xinjiang Uygur (nobility and tribal chiefs), the 3600 Lhoba in Tibet ( Maide noble class until 1949), the 9 million Miao in Yunnan, Hunan, Sichuan and Guangxi (feudal and territorial lords until 1911), the 350,000 Naxi in Yunnan (the Mu hereditary administrator until 1911), the 290,000 Qian in Sichuan (hereditary headmen), the 93,000 Salar in Qinghai (hereditary chief at least until 1644), the 403,000 Shui in Guizhou (hereditary headmen until 1644), the 243,000 Tu in Qinghai (16 hereditary headmen until 1949) and the 7.9 million Yi in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi.

The Dai or Shan include the former States of Chefang, Chiangsoong (Keng Sung), Jinghong (Chianghoong), Luang (Mong Long), Mawla, Mong Hing, Mengla (Mong La) and Mong Na, Mong Oo Tau, Mong Pong, Mong Wen and Ta Law: the Prince of Jinghong (Chianghoong) was or is the Head of the Autonomous Dai Region. In the Shan tradition, the former rulers and their heirs are still titled Prince (Saopha or Saopahlong).

And in Tibet, we have the Dalai Lama (not recognized by China) and the King of Muli, the Karmapa, head of the Karma Kagyu Lineage, and more types of Tibetan Chieftains and clan leaders.

THE HEREDITARY NATURE OF THE CHINESE EMPEROR

The Emperor of China was held by all the countries and nations whose ambassadors came to the Chinese capitals as a highly elevated and theoretically omnipotent monarch. It was not easy for such visitors to perceive the intricacies of the imperial institution in relation to the sources of its authority and the subtle interaction of duties among officials and ruler.

It was enough that at ceremonial convocations of the court, replete with all the pageantry of supreme power and universal dominion, they saw the highest and most powerful nobles and officials -even the leading generals of the world's largest and richest state- prostate themselves before the Son of Heaven, displaying in that way the Chinese emperor's extravagant luxury of imperial power.

Their own tribal societies did not afford them a similar luxury of power. Moreover, the Chinese ruler's succession was securely determined. He enjoyed stability in inherited and transmitted powers and was in addition able to appoint and dismiss at will all of his servitors (actually his associates) in governing. We have seen that the northern societies were more volatile.

Their leaders were forced to demonstrate their capacities for leadership in an unending process of contest and competition. Although it is our sense that the stepped pattern of leadership was far better suited to their tribal governing needs, their leaders did not always see it that way.

It is not surprising that those leaders who had not been successful in building great personal power within their own states looked enviously upon an institution capable of guaranteeing that their leader's (the emperor's) power would pass unopposed to firstborn sons, and which in so many other ways also seemed to make life easier for the Chinese heads of state.
ENQUIRE ABOUT OWNING A TITLE

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The nobility was officially abolished in china in 1949. It may be old-fashioned to study Chinese nobility titles when China abandoned monarchy categorically in 1924 and all such minor rights were positively eradicated or ignored by The Chinese Socialist Republic.

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Thanks Poj!

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Kids learn about the civil service in Ancient Chinese history. Government officials and the exams they had to pass.

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Women in ancient China did not enjoy the status, either social or political, afforded to men. Women were subordinate to first their fathers, then their husbands, and finally, in the case of being left a widow, their sons in a system known as the "three followings" or sancong. Often physically ill-treated, socially segregated, and forced to compete for their husband's affections with concubines, a woman's place was an unenviable one. Still, despite the harsh realities of living in a male-dominated society and being forever under the weight of philosophical and religious norms which were created by men to work for men, some women did break through these barriers. The practical realities of daily life meant many women could and did circumvent conventions, and some rose to live extraordinary lives producing great literature, scholarship, and even ruling the Chinese empire itself.

Theories on Women

At least in theoretical terms, women's contribution, indeed necessity, to society was recognised in the principle of yin and yang. Even here, though, the male ( yang) with its associated qualities is the predominant and has associations subtly considered the superior to the female (ying): hard versus soft, forceful v. submissive, level v. curved, light v. dark, rich v. poor, and so on.

In China everyone knew it was better to be born a male, and even female characters in traditional literature sometimes stated that they had been a man in a previous life but had reappeared as a woman in this one as a punishment for past deeds. Another common introduction to a female character in such stories was the line "unfortunately she was born a woman". A male child would grow up to contribute financially to the family, perform rituals such as those in ancestor worship, and perpetuate the family name. In contrast, a woman could not earn money and one day would leave the family and join her husband's. Consequently, many baby girls were abandoned shortly after birth. Those girls who did survive were given such names as Chastity, Pearl, Thrift, or the names of flowers and birds in the hope that the girl would live up to that name and receive attractive offers of marriage.

Bitter it is to have a woman's shape!

It would be hard to name a thing more base.

If it's a son born to the hearth and home

He comes to earth as if he's heaven sent,

Heroic heart and will, like the Four Seas,

To face ten thousand leagues of wind and dust!

To breed a girl is something no one wants,

She's not a treasure to her family.

(3rd century CE poem by Fu Hsuan, in Dawson, 272)

Women were expected to excel in four areas: fidelity, cautious speech, industriousness, and graceful manners. A woman's virtue was a particularly valued attribute in Chinese society. Women deemed especially virtuous such as chaste widows were sometimes given the honour of a shrine, monument, or commemorative tablet after death or had their names published in honorific obituaries. This practice was especially popular following the work of the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi in the 12th century CE.

Marriage

Marriages in ancient China were usually arranged by both sets of parents. Not love but economic and social considerations were upmost in everybody's minds. There were even professional matchmakers to find suitable pairings who also considered astrology in guiding their selections. Neither did some parents wait until their children were of age as many marriages had been arranged when the couple were still young children or even babies. The typical marrying age was the early twenties for men and late teens for women, although child brides were not unknown despite the practice being forbidden by law. If a marriage had been arranged but the groom died close to the ceremony, the wedding might go ahead anyway and the bride joined her new family as a widow.

The bride went to live with the groom in his house or that of his parents, keeping her family surname. Her transferal of abode became a great procession when she was carried on a red bridal chair and her feet never touched the ground between the homes in order to ward off evil spirits. On arrival she met her husband, often it was the couple's first meeting. A marriage feast was held and the ancestral tablets were "informed" of the new arrival. The historian R. Dawson continues the story:

The marriage was not registered with the civil authority, nor did the bride's family take any part in the ceremony or jollification, although the couple did go a few days later to pay a formal visit to the bride's home. The rites of marriage symbolised the fact that the bride's body, fertility, domestic service, and loyalty had been handed over by one family to another. They also provided an opportunity for the groom's family to display its affluence and glory in its prestige in the community. The splendour of these occasions was a severe burden on a family's resources...An additional expense was the gifts to the bride's family, the betrothal presents, which were a thinly disguised price for the person of the daughter-in-law and a clear indication of her total subservience to her new family. (143)

That a wife was not much more than a physical piece of her husband's property is further illustrated in the ancient practice of foot-binding. Girls from aged three upwards had their feet crushed in bindings for years in the belief that the resulting small feet would appeal to her future husband.

In Chinese law, a man could divorce his wife but she had no such right except if the husband particularly mistreated his wife's family.

In Chinese law, a man could divorce his wife but she had no such right except if the husband particularly mistreated his wife's family. The accepted grounds for divorce were failure to bear a son, evidence of being unfaithful, lack of filial piety to the husband's parents, theft, suffering a virulent or infectious disease, jealousy, and talking too much. Some of these seem quite superficial to modern eyes, but it should be remembered that in Chinese society divorce was a serious action with negative social repercussions for both parties. Further, a wife could not be divorced if she had no family to return to or if she had gone through the three-year mourning period for her husband's dead parents. Consequently, in practice, divorce was not as common as these grounds might suggest.

Another social convention was that widows should not remarry. Many did anyway amongst the lower classes, but the idea that the Fates and astrological charts had ordained that a particular couple should live together in matrimony was a difficult hurdle to get over in the case of a second marriage. An even greater barrier was a financial one as a widow did not inherit the property of her dead husband and so she had nothing to offer a new husband in that department.

Family & Working Life

Marriage and children were the expected normal course for all adults, and only those men who could not afford a wife did not marry. During the Han Dynasty, for example, unmarried women brought a special tax on their family and women with babies were given a three-year exemption from tax and their husband a one-year exemption. Regarding the sex of children, sons were much more desired than daughters. As the old proverb went: "A boy is born facing in; a girl is born facing out", meaning that eventually a girl would ultimately leave the family and pay homage to the ancestors of another family. Having a son, then, greatly helped the wife to become accepted in her adopted family.

For upper-class women, their lives were perhaps more strictly controlled than at any other social level. Expected to remain within the inner chambers of the family home, they had only a very limited freedom of movement. Within the home, women did have significant responsibilities which included management of the household finances and the education of her children, but this did not mean they were the head of the family home.

Women of lower status, such as farmer's wives, were expected to work in the fields - especially in regions where rice was cultivated. As many farmers did not own their own land but worked it as tenants, their wives were, on occasion, subject to abuse from landowners. Many women were forced into prostitution in times of drought or crop failure. Women worked in the home weaving silk and caring for the silkworms that produced it. Some were called upon, like men, to perform the labour service which acted as a form of taxation in many periods of ancient China, but this was only in exceptional circumstances. By the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) women had more freedom and were running inns and acting as midwives amongst other professions.

Concubines & Prostitutes

Although Chinese men usually had only one wife, they did openly make use of courtesans and invite concubines to live permanently in the family home. Prostitution was an open part of town and city life, with officials and merchants frequenting houses where prostitutes plied their trade for the purposes of corporate entertainment. Concubines, meanwhile, apart from the pleasures their charms might bring, often provided a family with the all-important male heir when the wife only produced daughters. They did not have the legal status of the wife as they were classed as servants and nor were the children of a concubine given equal status and inheritance rights as the children of the wife. The number of concubines in the household was only limited by the husband's means. The wife must never show any jealousy to her husband's concubines - it was, as we have seen, grounds for divorce, but also it was thought there was a particularly nasty corner of hell awaiting jealous wives.

Concubines usually came from the lower classes and entered the households of the wealthier families in society. A girl from a richer family would only have been given as a concubine to an even richer family or the royal palace. It was not uncommon, though, for a younger sister to accompany a bride and live in the marital home of her sibling as a concubine. This Eastern Han funeral stele for a concubine presents an interesting record of their duties:

When she entered the household,

She was diligent in care and ordered our familial Way,

Treating all our ancestors as lofty.

She sought good fortune without straying,

her conduct omitting or adding nothing.

Keeping herself frugal, she spun thread,

And planted profitable crops in the orchards and gardens.

She respected the legal wife and instructed the children,

Rejecting arrogance, never boasting of her kindnesses.

The three boys and two girls

Kept quiet within the women's apartments.

She made the girls submissive to rituals,

While giving the boys power.

Her chastity exceeded that of ancient times,

and her guidance was not oppressive.

All our kin were harmonious and close,

Like leaves attached to the tree.

(Lewis, 170-171)

Famous Chinese Women

Despite being restricted by the men and the male-created social conventions of the time, there were cases of Chinese women (both real and fictional) who defied convention to become celebrated poets, artists, calligraphers, historians, and even rulers. Below are some details of two such women, one the paradigm of virtue, the other more ambiguous and controversial.

Ban Zhao (41 - c. 115 CE) was one of the most famous female writers and scholars in early China. She wrote commentaries on Confucian classics, and her most famous work remains her Nuje or "Instructions for Women" which expanded on the four virtues expected of women (speech, virtue, behaviour, and work) first outlined in the classic Liji ritual text. Although Zhao stressed that women should remain subservient to their husbands she did express a belief in the benefits of women educating themselves (to better help their husband's work). The Nuje text was hugely influential, studied by countless generations of women and even recited to those unable to read.

Wu Zetian (aka Wu Zhao) lived from 623 or 625 to 705 CE. The concubine of Tang dynasty emperors Taizong (626-649 CE) and Gaozong (r. 649-683 CE), she was officially made empress by the latter in 655 CE. On the death of Gaozong, she reigned as regent for her son Zhongzong (684 CE) and his successor and elder brother Ruizong (r. 684-690 CE). In 690 CE Wu Zetian went one step further and took the throne by declaring herself emperor, set up her court at Luoyang and declared the beginning of a new dynasty, the Zhou. Her reign, at least in Chinese tradition (which gives yet another insight into attitudes to women), was one of despotic terror punctuated by family assassinations and beset by political intrigues. Nevertheless, her ruthless approach did lead to the expansion of the state bureaucracy, and she was a great patron of Buddhist art, seen notably at the Longmen caves. At the end of her reign, she was forced to reaccept the Tang dynasty line and select Zhongzong as her heir apparent.

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Women in ancient China did not enjoy the status, either social or political, afforded to men. Women were subordinate to first their fathers, then their husbands, and finally, in the case of being left a widow, their sons in a system known as the "three followings" or sancong.

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Thank you Poj!

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The ancient Chinese believed in a strict social structure that divided people up by social position.

The positions not only helped to keep jobs and responsibilities in place, but was also confirmed by their philosopher Confucius as a requirement for a disciplined and successful society.

Every person in ancient Chinese society had their particular job and farmers and peasants were the lowliest in the social structure.

Members of nobility included the royal family and all that had been granted special titles, money, and property.

Male Domination

Ancient Chinese society was male dominated, and women were considered to be second class citizens.

They had to obey the demands of the males in the family, were not educated like male children were, and were thought to be of lesser value.

Female children had their feet bound as a sign of attraction. The binding of feet left them crippled and deformed often unable to even walk.

The emperor might have many wives, but once he had selected the child that would take his place, only the mother of that child was called empress.

The empress was one of the few females that had power and could grant favors for her family including land and royal positions.

Order of Society

While older people were respected for their wisdom and knowledge, the main divisions of ancient Chinese society included: the emperor and his family, nobles and officials, peasants, artisans, and merchants.

The Nobles:

Those in ancient China that were considered to be in the Nobles class had a lot of wealth, power, land, privilege, and even military members that fought for them.

Nobility was not a lifetime guarantee because the privilege could be removed at any time by the emperor.

Each time a new emperor came into power, it was fairly common for noble titles to be removed and new ones granted.

Nobles were landowners and some of the wealthiest people in ancient China. They were required to give some of their profit to the emperor so that it helped to guarantee their protection.

Nobles had incredibly extravagant clothing, homes, and jewelry. They hunted wild animals for sport and if they committed any serious crimes, the emperor could pardon them to allow them to choose what they considered to be honorable suicide instead of standard death sentencing.

Small Percentage

Just as in many places in the world today, those that were privileged made up a small portion of the overall population.

In ancient China, these were the emperor and his family, and the nobles, with the balance of the population living in poverty. Life in the country side was mostly made up of farmers and peasants living in poor huts.

Life in the city was very different, with a lot of trade, nicer houses, and even a better diet of fish and rice.

Wealthy nobles and members of the royal family had little in the way of furniture, and instead placed value on their beautiful gardens. City life also brought a higher level of education for male members of the society.

The poor in ancient China typically lived in a 2-room hut with thatched rooftops and only a few wooden benches.

Of all of the workers, merchants were considered to be the lowest of all and, unlike, nobles, weren't allowed to ride in carriages or wear silk.

Warfare among the nobles and in support of the emperor was a high priority and it was due to this fact that the crossbow was invented.

In Chinese mythology, the dragon was considered to be a symbol of good luck and fortune. The dragon was associated with the emperor and their families had dragons as part of their home decorations.

The ancient Chinese associated body odor with barbaric behavior and wealthy noble women would wear scented bags around their waists as well as suck on cloves to get rid of bad breath.

Q&A:
Which ancient Chinese woman was given the title of Empress?
The mother of the chosen next Emperor
Was the title and privilege of a noble for life?
no
What are the six social orders of ancient China?
the emperor and his family, nobles and officials, peasants, artisans, and merchants.
What weapon invention was created to assist both nobles and the Emperor in war?
crossbow
Were both boys and girls sent to school?
no Only boys
Why did nobles wear scented bags around their waste?
to fight body odor

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The ancient Chinese believed in a strict social structure that divided people up by social position. The positions not only helped to keep jobs and responsibilities in place, but was also confirmed by their philosopher Confucius as a requirement for a disciplined and successful society.

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Thank you Poj!

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Women in Imperial Household, Chinese Ming Dynasty

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Women in Imperial Household, Chinese Ming Dynasty

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Thank you Poj!

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Thank you Poj!!!!

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Home | Culture | Customs | Women

Chinese women in history

In this section we look at the changing attitudes to women in China over the centuries.

Early dynasties

During the early period in common with other world cultures the role of women in China was more significant than in later centuries. The tomb of Lady Hao (Fù Hǎo 妇 好 d. 1200BCE) of the Shang dynasty reveals that women in this early dynasty could reach a high position, and it is believed that she led military campaigns. However men soon started to take the principal roles in society. The attitude to women changed as can be seen from one of the early Classics, in the 'Book of Odes' (Shijing), written in the later Zhou dynasty there is the Zhan Yang ➚ admonishment:

哲夫 成 城、哲妇倾城
懿厥哲妇、为枭为鸱
妇 有 长 舌、维 厉 之阶
乱 匪降自 天、生 自 妇 人
匪 教 匪诲、时 维 妇 寺

Clever men build cities; Clever women topple them
Beautiful these clever women may be; But they are owls and kites
Women have long tongues; That lead to ruin
Disorder does not come down from heaven; It is produced by women
Those from whom come no lessons, no instruction; Are women and eunuchs.

To counterbalance this view there is also an old Chinese proverb A man knows, but a woman knows better.

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Han dynasty women

The Han dynasty set many conventions and traditions that lasted for the remaining two thousand years of Imperial rule. The leading doctrine became Confucian which sought to put everyone in their proper relationship and in this regard women were put below men.

A bride serves her husband,
Just as she served her father
Her voice cannot be heard
Nor can her body or shadow be seen
With her husband's father and elder brothers
She has no conversation.

Foot binding
After the Han dynasty the custom of foot binding of girls from a very early age kept them house bound. The tradition lasted from the Sui to the
Proverb

A foolish, self defeating stratagem.

Cutting off your nose to spite your face

All about Chinese proverbs Qing dynasty and was at times inflicted on half of all girls. It was seen as a badge of wealth of a household because it implied that the family was rich enough to not need women to carry out physical work. In poor areas the feet of women were not bound so they had to share the work of husbands in manual labor. Slightly richer families would have girls' feet bound and live out their lives indoors, bringing up the family. Read more...
According to Confucius, women should first be totally subservient to her parents and then to her husband. Women were taught to take the lowliest role and undertake the most menial duties. They were instructed to follow the Three Obediences and Four Virtues 三 从 四 德 Sān cóng sì dé: obedient to father, to husband and to sons as a widow; and the virtues: morality; genteel speech; modest appearance and diligence. Confucius himself divorced his wife after four years of marriage for no apparent good reason. The birth of a girl became a cause of regret that it was not a son. The tone is set in the Han classic by Liu Xiang ➚ 'Biographies of Heroic Women' in which the lives of 125 gallant and unselfish women are described. Another Han classic written by Ban Zhao ➚ ' Admonitions to Girls ➚ ' teaches the proper subservient behavior. Unstinting and long service to men was the aim to be followed by women. She describes how a baby girl on its third day of life would be placed under the bed to emphasize her inferior position in life. However, the inferior position was not universal, Ban Zhao is noted as the first significant female historian. She came from a famous family with General Ban Chou ➚ and historian Ban Gu ➚ as brothers. In general as women were regarded as the inferior gender women were punished more severely for offenses than men. The strict division of sexes according to Confucian precepts is set out in the Liji Qu Li I ➚ 'Rules of propriety':

Male and female should not sit together (in the same apartment), nor have the same stand or rack for their clothes, nor use the same towel or comb, nor let their hands touch in giving and receiving.

The rule forbidding the passing of any object between husband and wife was widely followed, they were not allowed to risk touching hands.

However, another strong Chinese tradition could elevate women's status above men. Subservience to parents was more important than from wife to husband so a man had to do whatever his widowed mother wished, and such mothers were often the dominant force in the household.

Women in later dynasties

Traditionally the ideal woman was slim, delicate and refined. Ideally a woman's mouth and lips should resemble a cherry and the teeth should be white and straight. The face should be egg-shaped not round and the eyes like almonds. The body should be slim, supple and curved with narrow hips and small breasts. Women did not mingle in society and were rarely seen on the streets; they avoiding being seen walking; rich women traveled in sedan chairs with their faces hidden behind veils and curtains. Even doctors (all men) were forbidden contact, a woman had to indicate on a special ivory model as to where she felt pain so the doctor could diagnose without touching. Foreigners reported visiting towns and not seeing a single woman.

Moving on to the Tang dynasty some popular love stories were written promoting love not duty as the bedrock of relationships. The increasing wealth of Song dynasty China enabled women to take a more prominent role: as poets; courtesans; singers; running inns and so although many were confined to home (carrying out child-rearing) they did have some greater freedom. Another crucial role they played was in the careful and lengthy process of matchmaking for their children. Learning to read and write was acceptable for richer women but making a living as a poet was very rare. Women wrote many letters but were effectively blocked out of the scholarly elite with only one or two exceptions.

However the general attitude to education is summarized in this quote "Why should we think? Our husbands are kind to us; we have but one dream, and that to make them happy, and if there were more thinking than that our foreheads would be nothing but wrinkles, and then we would be no longer loved."

Kites
Along with many other things the Chinese lay claim to the invention of the kite. Kite flying remains very popular in China and many can be seen flying in public parks. In the past they have even been used for military purposes. Read more...
Later in the Yuan dynasty Guan Daosheng ➚ was the first female painter to achieve widespread fame; proving that attitudes to women were not universal. In the 18th century ' The Dream of the Red Chamber ➚ ' was a book that championed love and romance in relationships compared to the reality of the traditional arranged marriage. Moves towards the equal treatment of women had to wait a long time. It was one of the principles set out by the Taiping rebels in the mid 19th century although not actually brought widely into effect.

Imperial women

The Empress held great power in the Imperial palace, but most wielded their influence from behind the Emperor's throne. There are three noted women who rose to rule in their own right. The first is Dowager Empress Lu ➚ who took control after death of the first Han Emperor Liu Bang. She was the effective ruler of China for seven years and sought to bring her own family into power. On her death in 180BCE most of her family members were put to death.

On the rise of another strong Imperial dynasty, the Tang, Empress Wu Zetian ruled first through Emperor Gaozong and then as regent for their two infant emperor sons Zhongzong and Ruizong. For a full description of this determined woman and her reign of 15 years please read our section on Empress Wu Zetian. She sought to equalize the role of women in society and briefly women were allowed to sit the Imperial Examinations.

The third great Imperial woman was Dowager Empress Cixi who reigned over the dying embers of the Qing dynasty. As with Empress Lu she ruled as regent over infant emperors but never took supreme power in her own name. Her life is still being reappraised, once blamed for decadence, incompetence and opulence she is now being seen more as a victim of her time, trying to bring order to a fatally flawed system.

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Restrictions ease all over China

While India and the UK step up isolation measures China in now slowly relaxing controls. The only new cases of Covid-19 in the last week have been amongst people coming into the country that have tested positive during the 14 day enforced quarantine.

The most eye-catching relaxation is the opening of the Great Wall at Badaling near Beijing to tourists. Tourists are temperature tested on arrival and tagged by their QR code. They also need to keep their six feet distance from one another. It must be a good time to see the wall as it is usually immensely crowded.

Schools in the island province of Hainan are planning to re-open on April 7th after a long break. In Xinjiang province, that has only ever had 76 cases and no new ones for five weeks bazaars and businesses are starting to re-open. In the province at the center of the Chinese outbreak, Hubei, the very strict lock-down has been ended with no new cases reported for over a week. However people need a 'green' health code pass to be allowed to leave the province.

Many Chinese are attributing their speedy recovery down to the use of traditional herbal remedies. The most popular remedy is blended from over twenty herbs, including ephedra, cinnamon twigs and licorice root. It is drunk as a soup and has won over many skeptics. About 85% of recovering patients are given the soup. and some figures suggest a boost of numbers recovering by 33%.

China has switched to stop possible infection coming into the country rather than containing it within its boundaries. Foreign travel into China remains very restricted with 14 day quarantine isolation before being allowed to move around the country.

The only exception to the improving picture is in Hong Kong where the number of infected people is still increasing and running at 40 new cases per day. Some have blamed this on a distrust of government following months of unrest there.

Chinese paper-cuts
Chinese people have been making decorative objects out of paper for a very long time. Paper-cuts are often seen at traditional festivals and often have a hidden symbolic meaning. Modern artists are now taking the art-form in exciting new directions. Read more...Read full story...
China's only female ruler Empress Wu Zetian of the early Tang
The shrewd and ambitious Wu Zetian [624-705] came to rule China soon after the Tang dynasty had begun. Her legacy is still debated by some historians but it seems the brutality with which she is admonished was quite normal for the time period. For over 40 years she directed China's policies firstly as the Emperor Gaozong's wife and then in her own right. She championed the adoption of Buddhism in China and equal rights for women. Read more...
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Modern times in China

Towards the end of the Qing dynasty, fueled by increasing contact with the west, women began to complain about their plight. Chinese diplomats were astounded by the rights and freedoms of some of the high society women they met. An early fighter for republicanism and the rights of women was Qiu Jin ➚ [1875-1907], she published this piece in 1904:

We, the two hundred million women of China, are the most unfairly treated objects on this earth. If we have a decent father, then we will be all right at the time of our birth; but if he is crude by nature, or an unreasonable man, he will immediately start spewing out phrases like "Oh what an ill-omened day, here's another useless one." If only he could, he would dash us to the ground. He keeps repeating, "She will be in someone else's family later on," and looks at us with cold or disdainful eyes.

Before many years have passed, without anyone's bothering to ask if it's right or wrong, they take out a pair of snow-white bands and bind them around our feet, tightening them with strips of white cotton; even when we go to bed at night we are not allowed to loosen them the least bit, with the result that the flesh peels away and the bones buckle under. The sole purpose of all this is just to ensure that our relatives, friends, and neighbors will all say, "At the so-and-so's the girls have small feet." Not only that, when it comes time to pick a son-in-law, they rely on the advice of a couple of shameless matchmakers, caring only that the man's family have some money or influence; they don't bother to find out if his family background is murky or good, or what his character is like, or whether he's bright or stupid ? they just go along with the arrangement. When it's time to get married and move to the new house, they hire the bride a sedan chair all decked out with multicolored embroidery, but sitting shut up inside it one can barely breathe. And once you get there, whatever your husband is like, as long as he is a family man they will tell you you were blessed in a previous existence and are being rewarded in this one. If he turns out no good, they will tell you it's "retribution for an earlier existence" or "the aura was all wrong".

The real change came with the foundation of the Republic of China when the May Fourth movement founded in 1919 pushed for the equality of women. These changes only helped some women living in the cities, they were not adopted everywhere, universal reform of the age-old marriage traditions had to wait until Mao came to power in 1949. The Marriage law of 1950 removed many of the old rules and brought in a great deal of equality between the sexes. Mao proclaimed in 1952 that 'women hold up half the sky' demolishing the tradition that only men had a link to heaven. Women could now divorce men, and men could not keep concubines. There were no longer dowries or division of estates to favor just their sons. Women were allowed and encouraged to take up jobs that used to be men's preserve including administration; working in heavy industry and in the fields.

A national Women's Day is held on March 8th each year to mark the special contribution of women. It is a half-day holiday for all women and was inaugurated in 1975. The One Child Policy brought in 1980 had a huge impact. When a family are forced to have only one child they have treated girls just the same as boys, there was no potential for preferring a brother. Another more recent pressure has been brought about by the severe gender imbalance, with as many as 125 boys to 100 girls (Henan and Hubei provinces) the scarcity of marriageable girls has improved their status.

However it has to be said that since about 1990 the status of women in China has gradually diminished. All the higher positions in government and commerce go to men and there is huge pressure for women to be attractive to men and the ambition is to marry well rather than have a career. There were two women in the top Standing Committee of the Politburo in the 1980s but none have been elected since then. Currently there is one women - Sun Chunlan ➚ - in the 25 member wider politburo. Sadly all the pressure takes its toll, China is the only country in the world where there are more female suicides than male (150,000 a year). In fact there are more female Chinese suicides than the rest of the world put together. It is now becoming common for the very rich to have one or more mistresses who are given their own houses - in essence a continuation of the system of concubines.

The modern writer, Xinran ➚ has written movingly about the plight of women in modern China. Her book ' The Good Women of China ➚ ' contains reports of interviews with women who have suffered in the not too distant past (1940-2000). Her regular phone-in program at Nanjing 'Words on the Night Breeze' encouraged women to unburden themselves about their secret lives of suffering.

Traditional views about women

Drawing by William Alexander, draughtsman of the Macartney Embassy to China in 1793. Chinese noble woman wears a long robe of silk or satin, accompanied with under-vest and drawers of taffeta. Her hair is smoothed with oil and closely twisted, and fastened with bodkins of gold and silver; across her forehead she wears a band, from which descends a peak of velvet, decorated with a diamond or pearl, and artificial flowers, are arranged on each side of her head. She wears earrings and a string of perfumed beads. The use of cosmetics was well known among the wealthy Chinese ladies, painting the face both white and red, was in common practice; the eyebrows were brought to be very narrow, black, and arched. The small shoes are elegantly wrought, with ankles covered by loose bandage. Her son has queues of hair on each side of the head, as was the fashion. The servant holds a green parasol over the lady. He wears a ring of brass or tutenag. Image taken from The Costume of China, illustrated in forty-eight colored engravings, published in London in 1805. Image by William Alexander (1767-1816) ➚ available under a Creative Commons license ➚ .

The ancient Daoist tradition of yin and yang has had a deep influence on the lives of men and women. The yin is identified with the female: the receptive, the cool and the dark while yang is light, powerful and male. As these properties are opposites, this tradition polarized the position of men and women in society.

Another key tradition that has led to the inferior position of women is that only men could perform the ancestral rites, without these rites the ancestors were expected to bring misfortune on their living descendents for failing in their dutty. It was this belief that required a father to produce a son. The worship of ancestors was a phallic ritual, as it sought the fertility of women and the soil through men.

Buddhist nunneries have proved a refuge at time of troubles for women over the centuries. Due to the Confucian doctrine of superiority of the male, the alternative Daoist and Buddhist religions were attractive to women. The missionary efforts of Christians also recruited many women who could then study to gain skills normally forbidden to them. However this proved counterproductive when the work of Christian missionaries was seen as a foreign and alien doctrine at the time of the Boxer Rebellion.

Cultivation of silkworms was a female dominated occupation, it was labor intensive but not arduous and much of it could be done indoors. As it was considered unseemly to expose skin except for face and hands, working in fields was rare, women were restricted to the house and garden. The gender roles were reinforced by superstitions, for example: women could not work in fields because the potatoes they plant would not sprout and melon seeds planted would be bitter. However the lot of women was not unduly onerous, they lived within the family home with the children and had the companionship of other women in the extended family. It was often the husband's mother who sought to control her son's household and this could cause great upset to his wife. The Confucian doctrine of honoring all wishes of parents means a husband has to go along with his mother's wishes for running the household and this did sometimes lead to. tyrannical rule. There is a traditional saying 'A bitter wife endures all before she becomes a mother-in-law'.

Women in Chinese Characters

The Chinese radical nu (女 nǚ) is used to give a female connotation to all sorts of characters. It gives both positive and negative meanings and is rooted in historic attitudes. There is good 好 hǎo made up of woman and child that is definitely positive. The use in peace 安 ān with a woman under a roof suggests the home as a peaceful haven.

As you might expect the character for marrying a woman 娶 qǔ has a female component, the top section hand and ear represents take, with no evidence of love. A character showing the early high status of women is 姓 xìng surname that suggests that family names in early times were passed from mother to her children. jiāo 娇 has the meaning of tender; lovable; charming. Female relatives often include the female radical; so there is 妈 mā mother 姐 jiě elder sister 妹 mèi younger sister and of course 妇 fù woman ; 她 tā she; her. There are many more characters, some showing the historical attitude: 奴 nú is slave and 奸 jiān is crafty; disloyal; adulterous. The old form of the jian character was 姦 made up of three copies of the 'nu' female radical. The character 嫉 jí is envy; jealousy while 妙 miào ingenious; and finally 妍 yán is beautiful.

On the foundation of the Peoples' Republic in 1949, attitudes and names changed. The traditional term for wife 内 人 nèi rén meaning person indoors became 爱 人 ài rén loved one. The equality was underlined by the universal greeting 同 志 tóng zhì comrade which literally means same purpose instead of 'Mr.' and 'Mrs.' but nowadays comrade has disappeared from normal use .

The Chinese word for marriage is 婚姻 hūnyīn while the wedding ceremony is 婚 礼 hūnlǐ. Both characters contain the woman radical 女 . With regard to marriage the character most associated with it is called 双 喜 shuāngxǐ meaning 喜 喜 will be seen at weddings in the form of paper-cuts and many other representations. double happiness ➚ - very appropriate for a wedding. The two joined characters

Marrying a stranger

There was an ancient rule of always marrying outside the extended family, you could not marry someone with the same surname even though very distantly related. In rural China one large family or clan tended to live together in one village; so this custom required seeking a wife from further afield. Families used to shop around for the best wife at the best cost for their sons. A family with many daughters were in financial trouble as they lose the work and income of the daughter when she marries hence the saying "There is no thief like a family of five daughters". This rule had the repercussion that sons were preferred to daughters because once married, daughters would leave the village and would no longer help with her family's work. A bride lost contact with her own family and looked on the husband's parents as her new parents. Importance was put on the male line, so that even though you could not marry someone with the same family name you could marry a cousin if they had a different family name, this is because the male line was considered dominant. It was common for one family to inter-marry with only a few other families. The wife keeps her own family name on marriage, so there is no 'Mr. and Mrs. Smith' like convention. The children usually take the father's family name but may choose to take their mothers (particularly if it is an illustrious family). The traditional marriage law applied equally to the Imperial family as well, forcing an Emperor to elevate the Empress's family to influence, which proved a cause of intrigue and revolt down the centuries. The Empress had most power when the Emperor died and she operated as Dowager Empress until a young heir came of age. As the Empress's family lost influence on the heir's accession, they would often desperately seek to delay it.

Once a betrothal had been made it was hard to break and the engagement could last for years. Sometimes people were betrothed while still very young even though they would not marry until many years later. In most cases the man would be a couple of years older than the woman. Officially the age for marriage was between 20 and 30 for men and between 15 to 20 for women. Failure to marry was seen as aberrant and officially discouraged.

Traditional Wedding Day

On the wedding day the bridegroom went to the bride's family house, where his access was ritually denied until he had presented gifts. Emblems of the dragon and phoenix were often used on gifts, as they represent conjugal bliss. A feast then took place but the bride remained in her bridal chamber awaiting her new husband who arrived at night. Symbolizing future parenthood a young child would often be in the bridal chamber to greet the bride and groom. The couple traditionally kowtowed at the ancestral altar honoring all the parents. The bride permanently moved away from her own birth family to that of her husband. Red is the lucky color for marriage and many decorations are in red. Lucky money is exchanged in red envelopes and the bride and groom drink wine from two cups linked by a red string. This honors the legend that the God of Marriage links the bride and groom with an invisible red thread from birth. Other items in the bridal chamber was copper vessels (because 铜 tóng 'copper' sounds the same as 同 tóng 'together' and also shoes as shoes stay together as a pair. A salvo of firecrackers are set off as at other festivals. An ax (fu 斧) wrapped in a red cloth is the traditional gift to the bride. It symbolizes the end of virginity but also fu is a homophone for happiness 福 . A gift of chopsticks (kuai zi 筷 子 ) symbolizes the hope for newlyweds to have children quickly because kuaizi sounds the same as 快 子 'fast sons'. it also sounds like 块 kuài which is a colloquial term for money. In places there was a tradition of 'disturbing the new house' where the shyness of the new couple was broken with games and encouragement by the neighbors. There was a great rush to get married should the Emperor become ill. This happened because should the Emperor die there could be no marriages for the period of mourning - sometimes a whole year for those at court, 100 days for ordinary folk. It was also forbidden to marry in the three years of mourning following the death of a parent. All these traditions have pretty much disappeared although some matchmakers still operate.

Infanticide

In modern times we are used to a low infant mortality rate. In China in 2005 the rate was about 2%, but as recently as the 1930s mortality rates were as high as 50% or even higher. To be sure to leave surviving children women had many babies and each birth had a high risk to both mother and child. Child-bearing put a heavy burden on women over many centuries. As the daughter moves away to another family and village when she marries, the family that had invested in her upbringing receive no benefit. So the tradition of favoring sons is based on cold economics rather than any misogyny. Female infanticide and abandonment is much exaggerated, it took place only when families were literally dying of starvation and had no way to support the new baby. Although boys were preferred, girls were still very much prized and loved. Those with a strong belief in Buddhism could justify infanticide on the basis that it was in a child's best interest; as instead of likely starvation there is always hope that the next re-incarnation of the child would be more lucky.

Child brides

Among the poorest there was the tradition of 'child brides' 童养媳 tóng yǎng xí as a way of allowing girls to survive rather than likely starve to death. The girl as a young child was given as a 'bride' to a wealthier family, although sometimes some money was paid. The girl was treated no better than a slave by her new family until eventually becoming a wife of one of the younger sons. The strong gender imbalance resulted in a shortage of women to marry and so the child bride system guaranteed the availability of a wife from an early age.

Divorce

Although divorce in China was illegal, an informal divorce or permanent separation (instigated by the man) was fairly straightforward, it was actually easier to break off a marriage than a betrothal. However if a substantial dowry had been paid this would cause friction between the families. The divorce laws favored the husband but the wife had some grounds for leaving her husband, but re-marriage after a divorce was rare.

Golden Orchid Society

In southern China, in the nineteenth century the Golden Orchid Society of women rejected marriage with men. They vowed to commit suicide rather than enter a forced marriage. Some of the members married as lesbian couples, others abstained from all sex. The authorities saw the Golden Orchid Society ➚ as a threat and took measures to brutally repress it.

Widows

Traditionally when the husband died the widow would not remarry. However in rural communities a childless widow who could not be supported by her in-laws, sometimes remarried a brother or cousin of her dead husband. It was not uncommon for a widow to commit suicide, this was not considered dishonorable as it is in Christian countries. There was no punishment for attempted suicide and Chinese religion does not punish suicides in the afterlife, indeed some famous suicides had honor heaped on them as in the case of Qu Yuan. However far more women than men committed suicide, especially young childless widows. This was partly due to the stigma attached to remarriage. Memorial arches (a form of Paifang 牌坊) used to be built to commemorate pious widows who had refused to remarry. However the situation was not equal between the sexes; it was expected for men to quickly re-marry after the death of his wife.

Concubines

There is a widespread mistaken belief that Chinese tradition supported polygamy (multiple wives), the actual situation was more complex. A man had only one wife but he could also take concubines. A concubine was a lower class of wife who lived at the house and if she bore him children they would be treated equally to his wife's own children. It was expensive for a man to support a wife and concubine(s) and so the tradition was restricted to the better off and inevitably became a badge of pride as to how many concubines he could support. Agencies grew up who would aim to find suitable concubines for their rich patrons - for a fee. The Emperor would have hundreds if not thousands of concubines but there would still be only one Empress. The Emperor divided his concubines according to grade, there were fourteen ranks from 'beauty' to 'brilliant companion' and 'favorite beauty', living in separate halls with exotic names such as 'Residence of Seeking Perfection'. The concubine had a scaled down version of the betrothal ceremony, with money often given to the concubine's parents. The wife could expel a concubine without the husband's consent so the concubines worked as her willing servants and were usually of lower social class. Each concubine would have a separate small dwelling within the home. Men would sometimes take concubines when his wife failed to produce the son that tradition dictated, it was done openly and without the animosity that might be expected. The practice was made illegal under the Republican government, but it was not really until the marriage law of 1950 under the People's Republic that concubinage came to an end.

The most famous example of a concubine reaching high prestige has already been mentioned, it was Dowager Empress Cixi. Because she bore Emperor Xianfeng his only surviving son, even though a concubine, she became the Dowager Empress on Emperor Tongzhi's accession in 1871 and the most important person in China until hear death in 1908.

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Home | Culture | Customs | Women In this section we look at the changing attitudes to women in China over the centuries. During the early period in common with other world cultures the role of women in China was more significant than in later centuries.

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Nice find Kiri!!! Thanks for sharing.

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There are several ways to approach the subject of medieval architecture, including talking about the differences between two popular styles of building during this time period known as "Romanesque" and "Gothic", but first let's focus on what people were living in, rather than jumping to what they eventually built. more...

What about Romanesque and Gothic architecture? How did that play into building? And what were these styles, anyway? These two types of building styles (also known as architectural styles) were very often used for important buildings. Can you think of what might have been quite an important building during this period? A cathedral! The tallest building of any city of the High Middle Ages was also the one into which the most thought and work was put. Cathedrals could take a long, long time to build. Just think about carving all of that stone. more...

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There are several ways to approach the subject of medieval architecture, including talking about the differences between two popular styles of building during this time period known as "Romanesque" and "Gothic", but first let's focus on what people were living in, rather than jumping to what they eventually built. more...

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Which attribute are you demonstrating today?

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Which attribute are you demonstrating today?

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Approaches to Learning

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Target Self Management Skill: ORGANIZATION

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Target Self Management Skill: ORGANIZATION

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What does it mean to be organized?

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Self Management is the most important part of Digital Learning

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Self Management is the most important part of Digital Learning

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Festive Treats and Sweets!

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What did Stuart or medieval Londoners eat at Christmas? Try a tasty biscuit inspired by the Great Fire of London, a horrible one following an authentic Stuart recipe, or a medieval Yule Doll.

Take a quart of honey, put it into a great skillet on the fire and when it begineth to seeth, put thereto a pint of strong ale, & scum it clear, then put soo much grated bread as will make it like unto dow and put thereto halfe a pound of Liquorish, as much Aniseeds, and a quarter of a pound of ginger being finely searced with two ounces of graines, then take it out of your skillet and worke it on a table as you doo flower to dough to make it stiffe, then make it in cakes, put powder of Liquorish and Aniseeds upon your moulds so it cleave not and so lay them upon a board till they be dry, then lay them up in boxes.

Lady Barbara Fleming's Manuscript Receipt Book (1673)

Curator Meriel Jeater writes:
We can take culinary inspiration from even earlier: the medieval period, when people marked the three weeks of Advent with religious fasting. When celebrations began on Christmas Day, one of the treats were Yule Dolls. These were biscuits a bit like gingerbread men, in the shape of people or animals. They were flavoured with honey, nutmeg, saffron, lemon and currants, and had raisin eyes and orange peel mouths.

I read about them in a very fun book, Medieval Holidays and Festivals by Madeleine Cosman, and thought they sounded delicious so I decided to make some. I adapted a modern gingerbread recipe, took out the sugar (not common in England until much later) and replaced it with honey, and substituted the ginger with nutmeg and saffron.

Whether you celebrate the holiday season with brandy snaps and mince pies, or Yule Dolls and fasting, have a very merry Christmas!

Our museums are temporarily closed

Following the recent advice from the government and Public Health England surrounding COVID-19, the Museum of London and the Museum of London Docklands will be closed to the public as of Thursday 19 March.

The health and wellbeing of our visitors, staff and community are of utmost importance to us and this decision is in response to increasing concerns surrounding COVID-19.

Whilst our sites are closed we will continue to have a presence online. To keep up to date with the museum check our website www.museumoflondon.org.uk or follow us @MuseumofLondon.

Our staff will continue to work remotely. Please email [email protected] for any general enquiries. For media enquiries please email [email protected] .

We will continue to closely review the advice from Public Health England and monitor the current situation of COVID-19 to keep people up to date on our plans.

Please check www.museumoflondon.org.uk for updates from the museum.

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Recipes for medieval festive sweets | Museum of London

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What did Stuart or medieval Londoners eat at Christmas? Try a tasty biscuit inspired by the Great Fire of London, a horrible one following an authentic Stuart recipe, or a medieval Yule Doll.

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Museum of London

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Kate Sumnall
& Alwyn Collinson

Curator, Secret Rivers
& Digital Editor

17 April 2019

Our upcoming Secret Rivers exhibition showcases the hidden waterways running beneath London's streets, and the objects excavated from them over the centuries. The most unusual is a remarkable communal toilet seat from the 12th century.

An extraordinary survival, almost 700 years old, this toilet seat was found during archaeological excavations in the 1980s. Made of a single plank of oak, it was originally big enough for three people to share at the same time (presumably, three people who knew each other very well). It was dug out of waterlogged earth, above a cesspit where the now-buried River Fleet flows into the Thames. Despite centuries in the ground, it has rotted very little, providing a fascinating insight into the daily lives of Londoners in a very different city.

Luisa Duarte, the archaeological conservator who prepared the toilet seat for display, said: "We are very lucky in London that we tend to get really great preservation of a lot of things from the river." The wet conditions helped stop oxygen from reaching the wood, preventing it from rotting. "In the case of the metals we have very low corrosion, and in organics we have a very low biological activity. That's why in London we have so much wood and leather - sometimes we have more organic Roman material than in Rome."

Secret Rivers is filled with archaeological objects rescued from the forgotten waterways of London. There are nearly fifty smaller rivers that emptied into the Thames, and for thousands of years Londoners relied on them to provide drinking water and carry away effluent - unfortunately, often at the same time.

Most are now hidden from view, paved over and turned into drains, or dug out into canals. But these phantom tributaries shape the streets of London today - like the River Fleet, which gives its name to Fleet Street, and is the source of our medieval toilet seat.

Kate Sumnall, one of the curators of the Secret Rivers exhibition, explained what we know about the site: "Before the Roman settlement of London, the lower Fleet was a wide, open river with two eyots, or small islands. During the 11th century, the land around the southern eyot was reclaimed and the channel was infilled. This was also the site of a bridge over the Fleet which connected with an east-west road. The archaeological excavations which discovered the toilet seat also revealed a row of buildings that fronted onto this road.

"These buildings were a mix of commercial and residential, in what is now Ludgate Hill. Historic records from the 13th century show that one of the buildings was known as 'Helle' and was owned by John de Flete, a cap-maker, and his wife, Cassandra. The three-seater wooden toilet belonged to this building, meaning that we probably know the names of the people whose bottoms would have sat on it.

"The toilet seat was found over a wicker-lined cesspit, which would have captured the human waste dropped through the holes. The construction of the cesspit would allow liquids to drain out and be filtered by the ground, while the solids would be collected. This means it would fill up and periodically a new pit would have to be dug. This toilet would have been a private facility, probably reserved for the use of the de Flete family and household. There was a common privy, for public use, located nearby.

"There is no surviving evidence about the nature of the structure that would have enclosed the toilet, but it is likely to have been constructed from wattle and daub. The toilet seat itself was constructed from a single plank of oak and the three holes were cut using an axe."

The River Fleet is a very appropriate place to have found this toilet seat: it was known for centuries as one of the smelliest rivers in London. Human, animal and industrial waste all polluted its waters. The Jacobean poet Ben Jonson was so disgusted by the river that he wrote a satirical epic describing the Fleet, where "Arses were heard to croak, instead of frogs".

'...How dare
Your dainty nostrils (in so hot a season,
When every clerk eats artichokes, and peason,
Laxative lettuce, and such windy meat)
'Tempt such a passage? When each privy's seat
Is filled with buttock? And the walls do sweat
Urine, and plasters? When the noise doth beat
Upon your ears, of discords so unsweet?
And outcries of the damned in the Fleet?'

Ben Jonson, 1612

Attempts at dredging the river to keep it clear failed to deal with the smell. By the late 18th century, London authorities decided to pave over the river, hiding it beneath the city streets. It became one of the secret rivers of London - still flowing with human waste, as part of the city's sewer network.

As well as the original, a replica of the full toilet seat will be displayed in the Secret Rivers exhibition. You and your friends can sit side-by-side, just as John and Cassandra de Flete did, six and a half centuries ago. But please, keep your pants on.

Secret Rivers is a free exhibition at the Museum of London Docklands. It opens 24 May 2019.

Our museums are temporarily closed

Following the recent advice from the government and Public Health England surrounding COVID-19, the Museum of London and the Museum of London Docklands will be closed to the public as of Thursday 19 March.

The health and wellbeing of our visitors, staff and community are of utmost importance to us and this decision is in response to increasing concerns surrounding COVID-19.

Whilst our sites are closed we will continue to have a presence online. To keep up to date with the museum check our website www.museumoflondon.org.uk or follow us @MuseumofLondon.

Our staff will continue to work remotely. Please email [email protected] for any general enquiries. For media enquiries please email [email protected] .

We will continue to closely review the advice from Public Health England and monitor the current situation of COVID-19 to keep people up to date on our plans.

Please check www.museumoflondon.org.uk for updates from the museum.

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A medieval three-seated toilet seat | Museum of London

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Kate Sumnall& Alwyn Collinson Curator, Secret Rivers& Digital Editor 17 April 2019 Our upcoming Secret Rivers exhibition showcases the hidden waterways running beneath London's streets, and the objects excavated from them over the centuries. The most unusual is a remarkable communal toilet seat from the 12th century.

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Medieval London

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From the collapse of the Roman city to the accession of Queen Elizabeth I - what was life like in Medieval London?

Medieval London was destroyed by invaders, racked by famine, fire and disease, and torn apart by religious and political controversy. But it grew to become one of the wealthiest and most important cities in Europe.

Discover the story of London in the middle ages through the collections in our Medieval gallery.

Gallery access

The gallery is open during the museum's normal hours:

11.30am - 3.30pm (Mon-Fri) & 10am-6pm (Sat & Sun)

The gallery is on the entrance floor and can be accessed by lift.

Free entry, timed ticket

Medieval London also of interest

Thomas Becket: a life and death in badges

From his birth off Cheapside in 1120 to his dramatic death at the hands of King Henry II's knights fifty years later, Thomas Becket's life was an extraordinary one, deeply intertwined with London's story.

How did medieval Londoners celebrate Christmas?

Curator Meriel Jeater reveals the ways that medieval Londoners celebrated Christmas, some ancestors of current traditions, others very definitely not.

The man in the mud

Who was the mystery medieval Londoner and how did he die in the river Thames?

Update from the Museum of London

The Museum of London and the Museum of London Docklands will continue to be closed to the public for the time being, but we are hoping to reopen on Wednesday 19 May in line with the Government's roadmap for lifting lockdown restrictions.

The health and wellbeing of our visitors, staff and community is of utmost importance to us and we will continue to closely review the advice from the Government and Public Health England around the COVID-19 situation.

While the museum buildings may be closed, we're still open online with loads of content to keep you entertained. Check our website or follow us on Facebook, Instagram or Twitter @MuseumOfLondon for all the latest news on when the museum doors will be open once more.

Thank you for your continued support and we look forward to welcoming you back soon!

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Medieval London - free gallery | Museum of London

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From the collapse of the Roman city to the accession of Queen Elizabeth I - what was life like in Medieval London? Medieval London was destroyed by invaders, racked by famine, fire and disease, and torn apart by religious and political controversy. But it grew to become one of the wealthiest and most important cities in Europe.

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London Museum

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Medieval Europe

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Our museums are temporarily closed

Following the recent advice from the government and Public Health England surrounding COVID-19, the Museum of London and the Museum of London Docklands will be closed to the public as of Thursday 19 March.

The health and wellbeing of our visitors, staff and community are of utmost importance to us and this decision is in response to increasing concerns surrounding COVID-19.

Whilst our sites are closed we will continue to have a presence online. To keep up to date with the museum check our website www.museumoflondon.org.uk or follow us @MuseumofLondon.

Our staff will continue to work remotely. Please email [email protected] for any general enquiries. For media enquiries please email [email protected] .

We will continue to closely review the advice from Public Health England and monitor the current situation of COVID-19 to keep people up to date on our plans.

Please check www.museumoflondon.org.uk for updates from the museum.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Following the recent advice from the government and Public Health England surrounding COVID-19, the Museum of London and the Museum of London Docklands will be closed to the public as of Thursday 19 March. The health and wellbeing of our visitors, staff and community are of utmost importance to us and this decision is in response to increasing concerns surrounding COVID-19.