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Orange Banana Bread Food Recipe Presentation

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The evening gown has seen many a decade, throughout the years it has always been a constant within fashion especially for the upper classes within society. However, over the years gowns have been constantly changing 

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Marks and Spencers Best and Worst Sellers

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Marks and Spencers Best and Worst Sellers

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Before starting my range having conducted lots of research in my trend report to help benefit my range plan, I still wanted to do more from other sources to give me lots of inspiration to be able to create the best range.

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This was more inspiration research that I conducted to see what styles for dresses would be on trend and how I could adapt or use them within my range.

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As well as dresses and trousers, jackets are also another vital part of the range as Marks and Spencers tend to sell a lot of jackets within their ranges. So I continued with the research to have further knowledge of the trends that will be appearing spring summer 2020

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WC 2nd march COMPANY BEST SELLERS - STUDENT (1)

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I think my top strengths are public talking, this is because I am confident when I know what I'm talking about. Another top strength is team working as I work well with others and enjoy others company and helping others. I am also good at staying organised.

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I am a conscientious, hardworking, organised and eager individual who thrives at the chance of learning new skills and developing those I already possess. I am a self-motivated learner who has a mature outlook and is extremely keen to start a career in Fashion. Having successfully passed all my course work I have gained extensive knowledge in trend analyst, range building and cultural change.
Proven ability to work to deadlines with a high attention to detail going through college assignments and working within the industry.

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Olivia Fowler - Keyholder - Calvin Klein | LinkedIn

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I am a conscientious, hardworking, organised and eager individual who thrives at the chance of learning new skills and developing those I already possess. I am a self-motivated learner who has a mature outlook and is extremely keen to start a career in Fashion.

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Exercise 2 COMPANY BEST SELLERS - STUDENT (1)

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Company Baa Jobs - March 2020 | Indeed.co.uk

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Apply to Company Baa jobs now hiring on Indeed.co.uk, the world's largest job site.

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Exercise 1 line print exercise - student name

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I used global data in order to do research behind my brand Marks and Spencers in order to learn more about their strengths and weaknesses as a brand and where they currently stand.

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Viscose fabric is durable and soft to the touch, and it's one of the world's most beloved textiles. But what exactly is viscose fabric, and how is it produced and used?

What Is Viscose?

Viscose, which is also commonly known as rayon when it is made into a fabric, is a type of semi-synthetic fabric. The name of this substance comes from the process that's used to make it; at one stage, rayon is a viscous, honey-like liquid that later settles into a solid form.

The primary ingredient of rayon is wood pulp, but this organic ingredient goes through a lengthy production process before it becomes a wearable fabric. Because of these attributes, it's hard to determine whether rayon is a synthetic or natural fabric; while its source material is organic, the process this organic material is subjected to is so strenuous that the result is essentially a synthetic substance.

How Is Viscose Fabric Made?

Other types of rayon-like fabric require lignin-free cellulose as a starting material, but this type of fabric can be made with cellulose from wood pulp. This method of manufacturing rayon is much cheaper than many alternatives, and rayon made with this process can be manufactured on a large scale.

1. Cellulose extraction: The rayon production process begins with the creation of wood pulp cellulose. To create quality fabric, the cellulose used should be at least 90 percent pure.

2. Alkali cellulose conversion: This cellulose is then dissolved in caustic soda, which produces a chemical reaction that converts cellulose to alkali cellulose. This process removes impurities from the cellulose and prepares it for the next step of the manufacturing process.

3. Pressing: The alkali cellulose is then pressed between two rollers, which removes excess liquid. These pressed sheets are then shredded and crumbled into a substance called "white crumb."

4. Aging and xanthation: The white crumb is then aged via exposure to pure oxygen, and next, it is exposed to carbon disulphide to make a new substance called "yellow crumb."

5. Ripening: The yellow crumb is then dissolved and allowed to "ripen" for a period of a few hours.

6. Filtering and extruding: After it has ripened, the yellow crumb is filtered, and any gas bubbles are removed. Next, it is extruded through a spinneret, which is a device with many holes like a showerhead.

7. Acid bath and completion: Finally, the resulting substance is immersed in a bath of sulfuric acid, which results in rayon filaments. Thee filaments are then spun, drawn, and washed to produce a fabric that can then be cut to a desired shape and size.

How Is This Fabric Used?

Rayon is commonly used as a substitute for cotton. This fabric shares many traits with cotton, but in some cases, it may be easier or cheaper to produce. Most consumers can't tell the difference between cotton and rayon by touch, and since this fabric is made from organic materials, it is sometimes seen as superior to fully synthetic fabrics such as polyester.

This fabric is used for most applications for which cotton is used. Whether it's dresses, shirts, or pants, rayon is used to make a wide variety of different articles of clothing, and this fabric may also be used to make household items like towels, washcloths, or tablecloths.

Attractive Viscose Fabric

Rayon is also sometimes used in industrial applications. Some business owners feel that rayon is a cheap and durable alternative to cotton. For instance, rayon has taken the place of cotton fibers in many types of tires and automotive belts. The type of rayon that is used in these applications is significantly stronger and more elastic than the type of rayon that is used for clothing.

In addition, it's important to point out that rayon was originally developed as an alternative to silk. Over the years, consumers have accepted that rayon does not have all of the beneficial qualities of silk, and rayon manufacturers now predominantly produce rayon as a cotton substitute. However, some companies may still produce rayon as a substitute for silk, and it's relatively common to see scarves, shawls, and nightgowns that are made from this light and soft fabric.

Where Is This Fabric Produced?

Rayon is predominantly produced in large-scale factory settings. The rayon production process is too complex to be attempted in a small business setting; to make this fabric, it's necessary to have dozens of different types of chemicals and textile manufacturing machines. In most cases, rayon is made in large factories where other types of textiles are also made.

While most of the world's rayon used to be made in the United States and the United Kingdom, production of this fabric has largely moved overseas. These days, most rayon is made in countries like India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and China.

H&M Viscose Skirt with Tassels

In these developing countries, labor is cheap, and manufacturing regulations are non-existent or not enforced. These factors give rayon manufacturers leeway to generate more profit without having to absorb the high level of overhead that is a necessary aspect of operating in first-world countries.

In many cases, raw rayon is made into a final product in the same facility where it was produced or in a nearby facility. However, some rayon manufacturers may prefer to ship their raw product overseas to have it made into clothing, household textiles, or another type of product.

How Much Does Rayon Cost?

Blouse in woven viscose fabric with a printed pattern

One of the reasons why textile manufacturers produce rayon is that it is somewhat cheaper than cotton. The exact degree to which this fabric is cheaper than cotton depends on the manufacturing processes that are used and where it is made, but enhanced economic viability is one of the driving factors pushing rayon production.

Rayon is certainly cheaper to produce than silk, but it's commonly accepted that rayon is inferior in quality to genuine silk. The raw materials used to make rayon are significantly cheaper than raw cotton or silk fibers, but the process of creating rayon fabric is much more complicated than the process used to create cotton or silk. Therefore, rayon is only cheaper to produce than cotton if it is manufactured in an area where labor costs are incredibly low.

From the consumer perspective, garments and household goods made from rayon are generally equal in price to items made from cotton. Items made from rayon are significantly cheaper for consumers than items made from silk, however.

What Different Types of Rayon Are There?

What Different Types of Rayon Are There

Rayon is made in a variety of different ways, and each production method results in a different type of fabric. In some cases, the original methods of rayon production that were developed at the end of the 19th century are still used, but some manufacturers may have switched to modern modernized methods of rayon production. Here are some examples of the different types of rayon that are available for consumer use:

* Nitrocellulose: The first type of rayon to be produced was called nitrocellulose rayon. This version of rayon fabric was first developed in 1855 under the name "artificial silk," and it went into commercial production in 1891. However, nitrocellulose rayon was highly flammable, and it was more expensive to produce than acetate or cuprammonium rayon. Therefore, production of this type of rayon ceased in the early 1900s, but not before it acquired the colloquial name of "mother-in-law silk."

* Acetate: Rayon and acetate fabrics are chemically different, but acetate was previously referred to as rayon, which has confused things to a degree. While both fabrics are made from cellulose, the process of manufacturing acetate fabric involves creating a reaction between cellulose and acetic anhydride. Since rayon is significantly stronger than acetate, production of acetate fabric ceased decades ago.

* Cuprammonium rayon: In the mid-1800s, it was discovered that cellulose dissolves in tetraaminecopper dihydroxide, and the resulting substance was originally used to produce carbon fibers for light bulbs. In 1899, manufacturers started using cuprammonium rayon for textiles, and by 1904, it was possible to make rayon that felt almost as soft as real silk. With the advent of new rayon production methods, however, manufacture of cuprammonium rayon ceased.

* Modern method: Most rayon is now made with a modern method that was developed by Charles Frederick Cross in 1894. This method uses carbon disulfide and xanthate to produce rayon fibers, and rayon made with this process became incredibly popular in the United States and the United Kingdom in the first few decades of the 20th century. It is much cheaper to produce rayon with the modern method than it was with any of the methods that came before, which is why this type of rayon became the first version of the textile to enter into mass production. Rayon made with the modern method was the first type of rayon to be used in industrial applications.

* Lyocell: Since it is created by dissolving cellulose in a solvent called N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, lyocell is actually chemically different from rayon. However, since these two substances are nearly identical in both feel and durability, lyocell is commonly considered to be a type of rayon. While lyocell was originally developed in the United States, this fabric is now predominantly produced in China.

* Modal: This type of rayon is significantly stronger and more tensile than normal rayon, and it is often used in combination with cotton and spandex to make household and apparel items like underwear and bedsheets. Most modal rayon is produced with cellulose derived from beech trees, and it is created by spinning reconstituted cellulose. Modal rayon pills less than cotton, and unlike normal rayon, it is safe to tumble dry this fabric.

Viscose Tunic

How Does Rayon Impact the Environment?

Since rayon is made with substances derived from plants, it isn't inherently a pollutant. Cellulose itself is a natural substance that is naturally recycled by automatic processes in the ecosystem. The fact that rayon is considered to be a semi-synthetic fiber has led many consumers and business owners to regard rayon as being equal to cotton in terms of sustainability and environmental impact.

Rayon, however, doesn't simply consist of cellulose. A number of toxic chemicals are used in the rayon production process, and it's hard to dispose of these substances properly once the manufacturing process is complete. In fact, the contaminated water that is produced during rayon production has been a major concern since the development of this type of fiber; these concerns persisted throughout the environmental movement of the 1970s, but they died down after the majority of rayon production moved overseas during the 1990s and 2000s.

Producing cotton is another notoriously dirty process; unless cotton is cultivated and produced organically, a number of chemicals are used to process raw cotton into a textile fiber. However, these chemicals are an optional part of the cotton production process; they can be substituted for non-toxic agents if businesses want to produce cotton sustainably.

The use of toxic chemicals is, however, an integral part of the rayon production process. It is impossible to produce rayon, for instance, without using sodium hydroxide, which pollutes waterways and reduces air quality. Carbon disulfide is another integral part of the rayon production process, and this chemical has been linked to adverse effects in humans such as birth defects, cancer, skin conditions, and heart disease. Furthermore, extracting pulp wastes about 70 percent of a tree, and the remaining chemically-contaminated tree material is usually indiscriminately dumped.

Dark Pink Viscose Dress

Producing rayon requires quite a few more steps than producing cotton, and every pound of rayon fiber produced generates many more pounds of waste material that usually isn't disposed of properly. Since rayon production primarily takes place in third-world countries, most consumers in the developing world have a disconnected viewpoint on the manufacture of this popular textile material.

However, the ecosystems in developing countries are negatively impacted by rayon production. Plant and animal life are harmed by the creation of this fabric, and the human ecosystem is also polluted. In addition, the production of rayon depletes forests at a rapid rate.

Viscose Fabric Certifications Available

Organic certification for viscose is a complicated subject. While it's certainly possible to make this substance with organic sources of cellulose, the process by which viscose is made essentially transforms cellulose into an entirely new material. The resulting material can't be called either organic or synthetic, which makes it hard to consider viscose to be "organic" even if it is made from USDA or EU-certified organic cellulose.

Most manufacturers of viscose don't even try to certify their products as organic. On the other hand, most forms of lyocell, including Lenzing's Tencel, are not chemically modified during the production process, which means that if they are made from organic cellulose, they can be certified organic by third-party or government-run regulatory agencies.

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What is Viscose Fabric: Properties, How its Made and Where

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Viscose fabric is durable and soft to the touch, and it's one of the world's most beloved textiles. But what exactly is viscose fabric, and how is it produced and used? What impact does viscose production have on the environment?

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What Is Nylon Fabric?

Nylon is the name of a family of synthetic polymers that are commonly used to make a variety of different types of apparel and consumer goods. Unlike other organic or semi-synthetic fibers, nylon fibers are entirely synthetic, which means that they have no basis in organic material.

The use of this type of synthetic polymer in clothing began with a desire to find alternatives to silk and hemp for parachutes in World War II. At the time the war began, cotton was used for more than 80 percent of textile applications in the United States, and almost all other textiles were made from wool. By 1945, however, synthetic fibers like nylon constituted around 25 percent of the textile market share, and once the war ended, manufacturers sought new ways to market this new class of synthetic fabrics.

Directly after the war, there was a shortage of traditional dress materials like cotton and silk, so some individuals made dresses from repurposed nylon parachutes. Thus, the idea to use nylon in women's garments gained popularity, and the production of nylon stockings and lingerie rapidly picked up steam.

At the same time, nylon was finding ever greater popularity in a variety of other consumer and military markets. This substance had originally been developed by the DuPont Corporation in the early 1920s, and it's creation was officially announced at the 1939 World's Fair. At the time, DuPont had no intention of using nylon for scientific and industrial applications, and the main purpose of this new polymer was deemed to be for textiles.

At the time of its unveiling, nylon did not have its current name; upon recognizing this polymer's potential for use in fabrics, DuPont originally planned to market it under the name "no-run" due to its perceived ability to resist "runs" when used in fabric, which are forms of damage to tights that cause these garments to become aesthetically displeasing. However, it was soon discovered that nylon was, in fact, subject to runs, so the name was changed to "nuron." This name was also unsatisfactory, however, so it was changed to "nilon," and the "i" was replaced with a "y" to clarify pronunciation.

During the early days of nylon fabric, consumers noted a variety of issues with nylon fabric. Despite early marketing efforts that described nylon as "stronger than steel," nylon was found to be highly susceptible to runs and tears, and this fabric's lack of moisture-wicking properties also became a subject of concern. In extreme cases, nylon stockings would revert to coal and water.

Nylon would have been considered to be a failed experiment if producers of this material hadn't started mixing it with other textiles. It was found that when nylon fabric was mixed with polyester, spandex, or cotton, the desirable attributes of this fabric were retained, but many of the undesirable aspects of this fabric were eliminated. These days, most nylon garments consist of a blend of various fabrics.

This fabric remained popular throughout the 1940s and 1950s, but nylon and other synthetic textiles have experienced a steady drop in popularity since the 1970s. Over time, the novelty of nylon started to wear off, and consumers also became concerned about the environmental impact of this fabric. The main ingredient of nylon fabric is petroleum oil, and this textile is not biodegradable. As of 2008, however, around 12 percent of the world's synthetic fiber production consists of nylon fabric .

Even though nylon fabric for consumer garments has declined in popularity, this polymer family has become increasingly popular for industrial and scientific purposes. For instance, nylon can be made into a plastic that is highly durable and versatile, and nylon resins are commonly used in hair combs, machine screws, gun parts, food packaging, toothbrushes, and hundreds of other applications.

Buy high-quality, low nylon priced fabric here. If you are UK based, you can buy it here.

How Is Nylon Fabric Made?

Nylon fabric is a polymer, which means that it is composed of a long chain of carbon-based molecules called monomers. There are quite a few different types of nylon, but most of them are derived from polyamide monomers that are extracted from crude oil, which is also known as petroleum.

In most cases, a monomer called hexamethylenediamine is used in the production of nylon, and this substance is sometimes called diamine acid for short. This monomer is extracted from crude oil, and the remaining components of this oil are sometimes used for other purposes, but they may be discarded.

To make the polymer known as nylon, diamine acid is forced to enter into a reaction with adipic acid. This type of polymer is commonly known as PA 6,6, and it was the first type of polymer to be used for nylon fabric. PA 6,6 is a type of substance called a nylon salt, and this crystallized substance is then heated to form a molten substance.

This substance is then extruded through a spinneret, which is a device that looks similar to a showerhead that has dozens of tiny holes. Upon extrusion through the spinneret, nylon immediately hardens, and the resulting fibers are then ready to be loaded onto bobbins.

These fibers are then stretched to increase their strength and elasticity, and they are then wound onto another spool in a process called "drawing." This process causes the polymer molecules to arrange in a parallel structure, and after the drawing process is completed, the resulting fibers are ready to be spun into garments or other forms of fibers.

In some cases, nylon may be spun into fabrics on its own, but it is usually combined with other fabrics to create mixed textiles. It is then dyed to produce the color that is desired for the end product.

Shop a wide variety of nylon fabrics here for US and rest of world here and here if you are UK based.

How Is Nylon Fabric Used?

Nylon fabric was originally marketed as an alternative to silk stockings. Until the advent of this fabric, silk was the only viable material for the types of sheer stockings that were then popular with women in the developed world, but silk lacks durability, and it is notoriously expensive.

While the performance of nylon fabric didn't quite live up to the hype that DuPont gave it at the inception of this textile, it remained a favorite stocking material among professional and domestic women for the majority of the latter half of the 20th century. To this day, women's stockings remain one of the major applications of this type of fabric, and it is also used in tights, yoga pants, and other types of form-fitting bottoms for women.

This type of fabric is also commonly used in sportswear, but it is inferior to other organic or semi-synthetic fibers in this application. Since its inception, consumers have noted the pronounced inability of this fabric to wick moisture, which makes it a poor choice for use during strenuous physical activity.

However, some aspects of this fabric, such as its elasticity, are desired in sportswear. Even if they are mainly composed of other fabrics, some sportswear manufacturers include nylon fabric in their textile blends for enhanced elasticity and lightness.

Where Is Nylon Fabric Produced?

This type of fabric was originally developed in the United States by the DuPont Corporation, and production of nylon fabric remained localized to the U.S. until the latter half of the 20th century. As the benefits of this type of fabric became more recognized around the world, other developed nations started to produce nylon fabric, but the United States remained the primary producer of this fabric until the 1980s.

A restructuring of the global economy in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s saw many international corporations pivot toward China as a manufacturing base. Therefore, many nylon fabric production operations moved to this East Asian country, and production of this fabric has since picked up steam in other regional nations such as India, Pakistan, and Indonesia.

To some degree, nylon fabric is still produced in the United States, but the majority of this fabric's production occurs overseas. Despite the contemporary revival of the manufacturing industry in the USA, it's unlikely that production of nylon fabric will return to this country; for the last few decades, production of this fabric has been on the decline, and even China has consistently been producing less and less of this polymer textile.

How Much Does Nylon Fabric Cost?

One of the primary benefits of nylon fabric is its relatively low cost of manufacture. While this fabric was more expensive than silk when it was first developed, it rapidly dropped in price, and it is especially inexpensive when mixed with other fabrics.

What Different Types of Nylon Fabric Are There?

There are quite a few chemically different polymer substances that are all called "nylon." Some examples of these types of fabrics include:

Nylon 6,6: This polymer was one of the first fully synthetic fabrics, and it is formed by combining hexamethylenediamine and a for of dicarboxylic acid. The resulting salt can be melted to form fibers or crystallized for purification purposes.

Nylon 6: This polymer is sometimes used to make nylon fabrics, but it is less popular for this application than nylon 6,6.

Nylon 46: This type of polymer is only produced by the international corporation DSM, and it is marketed under the name Stanyl. While this polymer isn't commonly used in fabrics, it is known for its resistance to inhospitable environments, and it is commonly found in engine components such as transmissions, brakes, and air cooling systems.

Nylon 510: This polymer was also originally developed by DuPont, and it was intended to be an alternative to nylon 6,6. However, production costs ultimately prohibited the mass production of this polymer for fabric purposes, and it is now primarily used in industrial and scientific applications.

Nylon 1,6: This polymer is made by mixing adiponitrile, formaldehyde, and water, but it is not commonly used in fabrics.

How Does Nylon Fabric Impact the Environment?

The production of nylon fabric is generally considered to have a negative environmental impact. One of the primary causes of the detrimental environmental effects of producing this fabric is the raw material that is used in its production; while it's possible to make nylon fabric with other substances, most producers use crude oil as their source of hexamethylenediamine, which is the main constituent of most types of nylon fabric.

It's well-established that both the acquisition and use of fossil fuels are harmful to the environment. Drilling, fracking, and other methods of petroleum harvesting are harmful to ecosystems around the world, and since petroleum is not a sustainable resource, it is necessary to constantly expand the global oil industry.

A great deal of energy is also required to make nylon fabric, and a number of waste materials are also produced during the manufacturing process. Large quantities of water are used to cool nylon fabric fibers, and this water often carries pollutants into the hydrosphere surrounding manufacturing locations. In the production of adipic acid, which is the secondary constituent part of most types of nylon fabric, nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere, and this has is considered to be 300 times worse for the environment than CO2 .

Since nylon fabric is entirely synthetic, this substance is not biodegradable; while other fabrics, such as cotton, may biodegrade within a matter of decades, polymer fabrics will remain in the environment for hundreds of years. Thankfully, some forms of this fabric are recyclable, but not all waste management services recycle this substance.

There is no way to mitigate the detrimental environmental impact caused by polymer fabrics during the manufacturing process; the only way to make these fabrics better for the environment is to dispose of them properly. It's also important to keep in mind that, depending on where and how it is made, some polymer fabrics may still contain trace amounts of toxic ingredients when they are made into apparel and marketed to consumers.

Nylon Fabric Certifications Available

While there are a number of different types of chemical tests that can be performed to determine the quality of nylon, there are no certifications available for this substance. Since this textile is purely synthetic, it is impossible to certify it as natural or organic.

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What is Nylon Fabric: Properties, How its Made and Where

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Nylon is the name of a family of synthetic polymers that are commonly used to make a variety of different types of apparel and consumer goods. Unlike other organic or semi-synthetic fibers, nylon fibers are entirely synthetic, which means that they have no basis in organic material.

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What Is Polyester Fabric?

Polyester is a synthetic fabric that's usually derived from petroleum. This fabric is one of the world's most popular textiles, and it is used in thousands of different consumer and industrial applications.

Chemically, polyester is a polymer primarily composed of compounds within the ester functional group. Most synthetic and some plant-based polyester fibers are made from ethylene, which is a constituent of petroleum that can also be derived from other sources. While some forms of polyester are biodegradable, most of them are not, and polyester production and use contribute to pollution around the world.

In some applications, polyester may be the sole constituent of apparel products, but it's more common for polyester to be blended with cotton or another natural fiber. Use of polyester in apparel reduces production costs, but it also decreases the comfortability of apparel.

When blended with cotton, polyester improves the shrinkage, durability, and wrinkling profile of this widely-produced natural fiber. Polyester fabric is highly resistant to environmental conditions, which makes it ideal for long-term use in outdoor applications.

The fabric we now know as polyester began its climb toward its current critical role in the contemporary economy in 1926 as Terylene, which was first synthesized by W.H. Carothers in the UK. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, British scientists continued to develop better forms of ethylene fabric, and these efforts eventually garnered the interest of American investors and innovators.

Polyester fiber was originally developed for mass consumption by the DuPont Corporation, which also developed other popular synthetic fibers like nylon. During World War II, the Allied powers found themselves in increased need of fibers for parachutes and other war materiel, and after the war, DuPont and other American corporations found a new consumer market for their synthetic materials in the context of the postwar economic boom.

Initially, consumers were enthusiastic about the improved durability profile of polyester compared to natural fibers, and these benefits are still valid today. In recent decades, however, the harmful environmental impact of this synthetic fiber has come to light in great detail, and the consumer stance on polyester has changed significantly.

Nonetheless, polyester remains one of the most widely-produced fabrics in the world, and it's hard to find consumer apparel that doesn't contain at least some percentage of polyester fiber. Apparel that contains polyester, however, will melt in extreme heat, while most natural fibers char. Molten fibers can cause irreversible bodily damage.

Buy high-quality, low-priced polyester fabric here. If you are UK based, you can buy it here.

How Is Polyester Fabric Made?

The production processes used to make polyester may vary depending on the type of polyester is made:

Ethylene Polyester

Ethylene polyester (PET) is the most commonly-produced form of polyester fiber. The primary component of PET is petroleum-derived ethylene, and in the process of creating polyester fiber, ethylene serves as the polymer that interacts with other chemicals to create a stable fibrous compound.

There are four ways to make PET fiber, and the polyester production process varies slightly depending on which method is used:

1.Filament: Polyester filaments are continuous fibers, and these fibers produce smooth and soft fabrics.

2.Staple: Polyester staples resemble the staples used to make cotton yarn, and like cotton staples, polyester staples are usually spun into a yarn-like material.

3.Tow: Polyester tow is like polyester filament, but in polyester tow, the filaments are loosely arranged together.

4.Fiberfill: Fiberfill consists of continuous polyester filaments, but these filaments are produced specifically to have the most possible volume to make bulky products like pillows, outerwear, and stuffing for stuffed animals.

The process of creating polyester fiber begins with reacting ethylene glycol with dimethyl terephthalate at high heat. This reaction results in a monomer, which is then reacted with dimethyl terephthalate again to create a polymer.

This molten polyester polymer is extruded from the reaction chamber in long strips, and these strips are allowed to cool and dry, and then they are broken apart in to small pieces. The resulting chips are then melted again to create a honey-like substance, which is extruded through a spinneret to create fibers.

Depending on whether filaments, staple, tow, or fiberfill fibers are desired, the resulting polyester filaments may be cut or reacted with various chemicals to achieve the correct end result. In most applications, polyester fibers are spun into yarn before they are dyed or subjected to other post-production processes.

PCDT Polyester

The process of creating PCDT polyester is similar to the process of creating PET polyester, but this polyester variant has a different chemical structure. While PCDT also consists of ethylene glycol reacted with dimethyl terephthalate, different production processes are used to make these two common polyester variations.

Plant-Based Polyester

Most types of plant-based polyester are also made from ethylene glycol reacted with dimethyl terephthalate. While the source of the ethylene used in PET and PCDT polyester is petroleum, however, producers of plant-based polyester use ethylene sources like cane sugar instead.

Shop a wide variety of polyester fabrics here for US and rest of world here and here if you are UK based.

How Is Polyester Fabric Used?

It's important to recognize that the PET used to make polyester fabric is the same type of petroleum-based plastic used to make many of the synthetic consumer products we use in our daily lives. For instance, this plastic is used to make food containers, water bottles, and a variety of other types of industrial and consumer products.

In its fiber form as polyester fabric, however, PET is used in hundreds of different consumer applications. Traditionally, PET has been used as an alternative to cotton, and in some applications, it may also serve as a reasonable alternative to other natural fibers like wool and silk.

Essentially, anything made from cotton can also be made with polyester. From everyday shirts and pants to glamorous eveningwear, the apparel applications of polyester fabric are endless. Manufacturers use polyester fabric to make suits, jackets, socks, underwear, and pretty much anything that you can wear for casual, business, or formal occasions.

Additionally, manufacturers also use polyester to craft various homewares. In particular, a type of polyester called microfiber has gained prominence in the bath and kitchen homeware categories. Consumers value the softness and absorbency of microfiber in applications like bath towels, face towels, and kitchen towels. Manufacturers may also use polyester to make homewares like blankets, rugs, upholstery, and curtains.

Polyester fabric may be used as cushioning for chairs, sofas, and pillows, and due to the impressive stain-resistance of this material, many parents and pet owners prefer polyester products. Industrial applications of polyester include LCD displays, holographic film, boats, tarps, and bottles.

Where Is Polyester Fabric Produced?

According to a 2006 study, China is the largest producer of polyester fibers. China is also the world's largest polyester market, which makes this nation the hub of the international polyester industry.

Taiwan, Korea, India, Japan, and Indonesia are also major manufacturers of polyester, and some polyester production still occurs in the United States. Once polyester fibers are produced in China and other Asian countries, they mainly remain in Asia to be made into apparel and other polyester-based consumables. From there, these finished pieces of polyester apparel are exported to various nations in the Western world and beyond.

How Much Does Polyester Fabric Cost?

The current price of raw polyester fiber is approximately $1 per pound, but this price rises and falls on a daily bases. Even accounting for minor fluctuations, polyester remains one of the most inexpensive textile products in the world, and this factor contributes greatly to its global popularity.

Once manufacturers have made polyester into fabric, its price rises to approximately $10 per yard. Producers of apparel and other polyester consumables then turn this fabric into final products, and these products are marketed to the consumer.

While the price differences between polyester and other fabrics equalize significantly by the time this fabric reaches the consumer market, low global prices of polyester have traditionally contributed to the overall popularity of this fiber in consumer apparel applications. The continued affordability of polyester keeps apparel prices down, but it also disincentives consumers from trying natural fibers with less harmful environmental impacts.

What Different Types of Polyester Fabric Are There?

To further your knowledge of polyester fabric, it's important to learn more details about the three major types of this textile:

1. Ethylene Polyester

Ethylene polyester, also known as PET, is the most popular type of polyester on the market. In most contexts, the word "polyester" is synonymous with "PET" even though other types of polyester exist.

2. Plant-Based Polyester

The main advantage of plant-based polyester is that this fabric is biodegradable. Plant-based polyester, however, costs more to make, and it may be less durable than its PET or PCDT textile equivalents.

3. PCDT Polyester

While PCDT polyester isn't as popular as PET polyester, it is more elastic, which makes it ideal for certain applications. PCDT polyester is also more durable than PET polyester, so this fabric is frequently preferred for heavy-duty applications like upholstery and curtains.

How Does Polyester Fabric Impact the Environment?

Polyester has a generally negative impact on the environment. From its production to its use to its disposal, this fabric has unfortunate environmental impacts at every stage of its use cycle.

To derive the basic materials used in the production of polyester, it's necessary to obtain fossil fuels, which are limited resources that are also used for vital energy and plastics production applications. The process of refining crude oil into petroleum introduces various toxins into the environment, which can harm living things both in the water and on land.

Once refineries have produced petroleum, further refinement processes are required to produce the ethylene that is used to make polyester. These extraction processes are wasteful, and they introduce more toxins into the environment.

The process of transforming ethylene into polyethylene terephthalate fibers produces more harmful synthetic byproducts, and the dyes and treatment processes used by polyester fabric manufacturers may also make their way into the surrounding environment and poison the area's ecosystems.

Furthermore, the manufacture of polyester often has significant social and cultural costs. The vast majority of polyester producers worldwide essentially engage in slave labor, and polyester workers are exposed to toxic chemicals that may cause neurological damage, cancer, or other potentially fatal conditions. Major polyester manufacturing companies are almost always owned by major international corporations, which enrich themselves while exploiting uneducated people in impoverished countries.

The environmentally harmful impacts of polyester continue as this fabric makes its way into the consumer market. According to a groundbreaking 2014 study, washing polyester fabrics by hand or in washing machines releases tiny synthetic microfibers into the water supply.

While acrylic fabric was found to be the worst offender in terms of microfiber pollution, polyester came in as a close second. Microfiber pollution in the water supply harms the health of marine life, and it also contaminates drinking water in locations all over the world.

As they do with all types of apparel, consumers inevitably discard their polyester garments. Unlike biodegradable fibers like wool, cotton, or silk, however, polyester does not naturally degrade in the environment. While it's impossible to know exactly how long polyester will remain in the Earth's ecosystems before it degrades, environmental scientists all agree that synthetic fabrics like polyester may take centuries to fully break down due to natural environmental conditions.

Overall, polyester harms the environment at every stage in its production, and it inevitably accumulates in the world's ecosystems with no viable methods for removing it. The advent of plant-based polyester fiber would seem to be a step toward reversing this unfortunate state of affairs, but it's unclear whether this alternative to petroleum-based PET alternative will gain traction within the textile market significant enough to make an impact on the polluting effects of polyester.

Polyester Fabric Certifications Available

Polyester fabric may be eligible for a variety of certifications, and recycled polyester is eligible for more certifications than new forms of this fabric. For instance, OEKO-TEX provides its Standard 100 certification for certain polyester textiles, and the Global Recycle Standard (GRS) certifies recycled polyester as genuine.

Other organizations, such as Intertek, also certify recycled PET fabric, and consumers may view certified recycled polyester more favorably. Since polyester is a synthetic fabric, however, it is not eligible for organic certification; even plant-based forms of polyester have gone through such significant chemical manufacturing processes that the organic status of the original plant materials is irrelevant.

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What is Polyester Fabric: Properties, How its Made and Where

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Polyester is a synthetic fabric that's usually derived from petroleum. This fabric is one of the world's most popular textiles, and it is used in thousands of different consumer and industrial applications. Chemically, polyester is a polymer primarily composed of compounds within the ester functional group.

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This website article helped shows what kind of ladies inspired women around the country during the 1990's. It also helped me to understand what trends they started and how they inspired people.

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Ahh, the '90s. A time of Sassy and Jane magazines, MTV playing actual music videos, and devastatingly overtweezed eyebrows. We've brought back many of the decade's biggest trends, from Doc Martens and babydoll dresses to chokers and Lisa Frank - we've even rebooted some of the classic shows, like Boy Meets World, Full House, and The X-Files. In addition to the fashion, beauty, and entertainment highlights that have made their way back, there are lots of celebrities who had a huge '90s heyday and are still serving serious style now. Stars like Liv Tyler, Halle Berry, Drew Barrymore, and Winona Ryder have continued to inspire us, just like they did when we idolized them as teenagers.

Yes, we can sing the praises of Beyoncé, Jennifer Lawrence, Gigi Hadid, and Emma Watson all day, but before them came a crop of impossibly cool women who paved the way and showed us that there were so many different ways to be strong and smart and not take any sh*t.

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The '90s It Girls You Wanted (and Still Kind of Want) to Be

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Ahh, the '90s. A time of Sassy and Jane magazines, MTV playing actual music videos, and devastatingly overtweezed eyebrows. We've brought back many of the decade's biggest trends, from Doc Martens and babydoll dresses to chokers and Lisa Frank - we've even rebooted some of the classic shows, like Boy Meets World, Full House, and The X-Files.