# data[].attributes.body
At the end of the 18th century two revolutions took place in Europe: the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in England.

The first one had main consequences in politics; the second in economy and society.

The “long” 19th century -as historians called it- goes from the French Revolution to the outbreak of the First World War. The impact of the powerful forces set in motion made the century very significant in the history of modern civilization.

# data[].attributes.headline
2. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: interpretations

# data[].attributes.subject
2. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: interpretations

# data[].attributes.body
During this period remarkable advances happened in industrial production and transportation. The transformation was called Industrial Revolution.

The historian A. Toynbee (1884) gave wide currency to the term. He pointed out the starting in the second part of the 18th century.

Successively, many historians deal with the matter.

# data[].attributes.body
Some of them assert that the change was less a revolution than a speeding up of technological evolution.

Nevertheless, the “revolutions” of the 13th and the 16th centuries can be seen as partial movements, “false starts” in the industrialization process .

In fact, only the breakthrough of the late 18th century produced a sustained economic growth thereafter.

# data[].attributes.body
With the advent of industrialism, the economic life of Europe was modified drastically.

The second half of the 19th century saw a new surge of technological and industrial development of such magnitude that it sometimes been called the Second Industrial Revolution.

# data[].attributes.body
Between 1870 and 1914 the new industrialism displayed its characteristics.

Invention became systematic rather than accidental.

New sources of energy, particularly electricity.

New materials, including steel, synthetic products, new types of explosives (dynamite Nobel, 1887).

Mass production methods.

New and faster means of transportation.

# data[].attributes.body
The western world entered the age of electricity which ran its factories and lighted homes and city streets.
Incadescent lamp was invented by Edison (1878).
A dynamo was invented (1878) that could produce electricity in any required amount.

Communications were revolutionized by the introduction of electrical devices. Meucci invented telephone (1871); Marconi wireless telegraph (1895). Many scientists invented radio.

# data[].attributes.body
No less than a revolution took place in  transportation. In  the 1880’s a working engine using gasoline as fuel was constructed: successively motorcycles and automobiles used it.

Another form of engine, using cheaper crude oil, was invented by Diesel (1892). Marine pumps, driving locomotives  and  electric generators will use it.

# data[].attributes.body
Other important inventions were also making their appearance.

Phonograph was invented by Edison (1877).

The Lumière brothers perfected the cinematographe and projected film in Paris (1895).

In 1903 the Wright brothers succeeded in keeping their biplane aloft for twelve seconds: man acquired wings!

# data[].attributes.headline
9. MASS PRODUCTION and FINANCE CAPITALISM

# data[].attributes.subject
9. MASS PRODUCTION and FINANCE CAPITALISM

# data[].attributes.body
Mass production methods involved the use of interchangeable parts and the assembly line.
In 1909 Ford began large-scale production of his Model T.

Business consolidation took the form not only of larger corporations but also of alliances (trust, holding, cartels).

Being a result of creating and operating such huge industrial organizations, capitalism passed into a new stage of development. Industrial capitalism was superseded by finance capitalism.