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Scientific Name:

Balaenoptera musculus

Average Life Span In The Wild:

80 to 90 years

Size relative to a bus:

What is the blue whale?

Blue whales are the largest animals ever known to have lived on Earth. These magnificent marine mammals rule the oceans at up to 100 feet long and upwards of 200 tons. Their tongues alone can weigh as much as an elephant. Their hearts, as much as an automobile.

Diet of krill

Blue whales reach these mind-boggling dimensions on a diet composed nearly exclusively of tiny shrimplike animals called krill. During certain times of the year, a single adult blue whale consumes about 4 tons of krill a day.

Blue whales are baleen whales, which means they have fringed plates of fingernail-like material, called baleen, attached to their upper jaws. The giant animals feed by first gulping an enormous mouthful of water, expanding the pleated skin on their throat and belly to take it in. Then the whale's massive tongue forces the water out through the thin, overlapping baleen plates. Thousands of krill are left behind-and then swallowed.

Coloring and appearance

Blue whales look true blue underwater, but on the surface their coloring is more a mottled blue-gray. Their underbellies take on a yellowish hue from the millions of microorganisms that take up residence in their skin. The blue whale has a broad, flat head and a long, tapered body that ends in wide, triangular flukes.

Vocalization and behavior

Blue whales live in all the world's oceans, except the Arctic, occasionally swimming in small groups but usually alone or in pairs. They often spend summers feeding in polar waters and undertake lengthy migrations towards the Equator as winter arrives.

These graceful swimmers cruise the ocean at more than five miles an hour, but accelerate to more than 20 miles an hour when they are agitated. Blue whales are among the loudest animals on the planet. They emit a series of pulses, groans, and moans, and it's thought that, in good conditions, blue whales can hear each other up to 1,000 miles away. Scientists think they use these vocalizations not only to communicate, but, along with their excellent hearing, to sonar-navigate the lightless ocean depths.

Blue whale calves

Calves enter the world already ranking among the planet's largest creatures. After about a year inside its mother's womb, a baby blue whale emerges weighing up to 3 tons and stretching to 25 feet. It gorges on nothing but mother's milk and gains about 200 pounds every day for its first year.

Longevity

Blue whales are among Earth's longest-lived animals. Scientists have discovered that by counting the layers of a deceased whale's waxlike earplugs, they can get a close estimate of the animal's age. The oldest blue whale found using this method was determined to be around 110 years old. Average lifespan is estimated at around 80 to 90 years.

Conservation

Aggressive hunting in the 1900s by whalers seeking whale oil drove them to the brink of extinction. Between 1900 and the mid-1960s, some 360,000 blue whales were slaughtered. They finally came under protection with the 1966 International Whaling Commission, but they've managed only a minor recovery since then.

Blue whales have few predators but are known to fall victim to attacks by sharks and killer whales, and many are injured or die each year from impacts with large ships.

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Scientific Name: Balaenoptera musculus Average Life Span In The Wild: 80 to 90 years Size relative to a bus: Blue whales are the largest animals ever known to have lived on Earth. These magnificent marine mammals rule the oceans at up to 100 feet long and upwards of 200 tons.

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Details to help with your research

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The blue whale (scientifically referred to as balaenoptera musculus) is a large marine mammal that is part of the baleen whale (mysticeti) suborder and is the largest animal alive growing to lengths of up to 100 ft. long and weighing as much as 150 tons or more.

In addition to the blue whales massive size it is also one of the loudest animals in existence.

In fact a blue whales calls can be heard several miles away and far below the oceans surface.

Despite being the largest animal on earth the blue whales primary diet consists of krill, a small aquatic life form that resembles tiny shrimp.

Due to their large size these marine mammals are rarely ever attacked.

Other than humans that hunted blue whales during the whaling era the only known predator to the blue whale is a pack of hungry killer whale, however these attacks appear to be rare and rarely successful.

In cases where the blue whale is attacked the killer whales tend to go after a young defenseless whale rather than an adult blue whale.

Because the blue whale is able to travel through the ocean without worrying about being hunted themselves they are known as apex predators, which means they are predators that do not have any predators of their own.

Physical Characteristics and Appearance

Although the blue whale is referred to as having a deep blue color when they are at the surface of the water the blue whale actually appears to be a grayish blue.

When they dive back under the water the color of the water and the light from the sun make these marine mammals look a deeper blue than they really are.

As stated earlier when they are fully matured the blue whale can grow to be over 100 ft. long (average is around 70 - 80 ft.) and weigh more than 150 tons.

Even though they are massive animals their body is relatively slim and streamlined for speed and long distance travel allowing them to swim up to 25 miles per hour or more when the feel threatened (average speed is closer to 5 mph).

From an overhead position the blue whales oval shaped body resembles that of a submarine, but with with flippers and flukes.

The blue whale has a very small triangular dorsal fin as compared to the larger dorsal fin of many other whale species and the flippers which are used for steering are relatively short when compared to the rest of its body.

In fact the blue whales flippers only measure about 12% of the whales entire length.

Because the blue whale is a baleen whale it does not have any teeth, but instead relies on its baleen plates to capture its prey.

The baleen plates have bristles attached to them that act like a fence or net which allows the blue whale to capture its prey while also allowing water to freely move in and out of its mouth.

Diet and Hunting Methods

When it comes to their diet the blue whale is known to primarily consume krill, although other small ocean creatures such as copepods may also be ingested.

In order to maintain their steady diet the blue whale is almost always found in area's with high concentrations of krill, such as in the Arctic ocean.

Because the blue whale does not have teeth they are unable to grab their prey or chew their food so they use a method known as " filter feeding " in order to obtain their prey.

Just as the name implies filter feeding involves filtering swarms or groups of krill from the water so that they can easily be consumed.

Filter feeding can be though of like using sifter that removes sand or water, but prevents larger objects from passing through the small holes.

The blue whale filter feeds works by opening its mouth while it swims towards a large swarm of krill in order to capture as many krill as possible in its mouth.

The blue whale then pushes the excess water out with its tongue while the krill stays trapped in the bristles.

Once all of the water is removed the whale swallows its prey whole.

Despite being such a huge animal the blue whale can only consume small prey due to the fact that its esophagus is too small to consume larger sources of food and it is unable to chew its food and break it down into smaller pieces.

In fact the blue whales esophagus is so small that it would not be able to swallow an adult human.

Habitat and Migration

In the past the blue whale was a very abundant species throughout the world however their overall populations have declined considerably since the whaling era, which was an extremely popular and lucrative business that unfortunately caused mass deaths among the various whale species between the 17 th - 20 th centuries.

The extent of the whale hunting was so severe in fact that it left the blue whale species nearly extinct.

Before the whaling era became extremely popular and lucrative it was estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 blue whales existed in the world's oceans, however since the whaling era ended estimates are closer to 5,000 - 12,000 whales with some researchers claiming possible higher numbers.

While this majestic species can still be seen living in many of the major oceans such as the Antarctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean their populations have become scarce and largely fragmented because of the mass whaling that occurred in the past.

Today these marine mammals tend to be found in colder temperature waters where they can stock up on food in preparation for mating season, however they may also travel to warmer climates during certain times of the year.

These whales migrate towards colder polar waters during feeding season when large abundances of krill inhibit the cool waters and will travel to the warmer tropical waters during mating season where they can reproduce and give birth in steady waters.

During their migration trips the blue whale can travel thousands of miles from one location to the next.

While they migrate most whales will forgo eating food and live primarily off of blubber/body fat and stored calories.

The excessive amounts of food they consume during feeding season helps these marine mammals build up their supply of blubber which they'll rely on for energy during their long trip.

Migration trips can last for up to 4 months depending on where they are traveling from or going to.

In order to minimize their energy expenditure and limit the amount of calories they use these marine mammals travel an average of 3 - 6 miles per hour during their migration, however when they feel threatened or agitated they can reach speeds of over 30 miles per hour for short bursts.

Once the blue whale reaches its mating grounds it will spend the next several months socializing, mating and giving birth to live offspring before beginning its long journey back to its feeding grounds.

During their long journey the older, pregnant and sexually mature whales will typically travel first and furthest due to experience and excess body fat which allows them to deal with colder waters more effectively than younger whales.

Locations

This amazing species can often be found living in deep offshore waters near the upper and lower northern/southern hemispheres in the Arctic and Antarctic regions during their feeding season (which takes places during the summer months).

During this time the blue whale can be seen eating large amounts of various prey to prepare for their long migration trip towards the equator and into places such as the Channel Islands, Farallon Islands and Monterrey Bay where they go to mate and give birth.

The summer is an ideal time for these marine mammals to stock up on food as their prey tends to migrate towards the northern/southern polar hemispheres during this time of year.

As stated earlier the blue whale can often be found in the upper and lower northern/southern hemispheres during feeding season, however when mating season comes around these large marine mammals begin their migration towards the warmer tropical regions of the world such as the Golf of Mexico and Costa Rica.

During mating season the blue whales will move to these warmer temperate waters to find a mating partner or bear offspring.

They will then mate and rest in their new-found home for several months before migrating back towards the Arctic and Antarctic waters they live in during their feeding season.

Although blue whales can be found living near the equator many of the blue whales will limit how close they come to the equator because they can become easily overheated due to their large size and thick layer of blubber.

The average gestation period for the blue whale is around 10 - 12 months, which provides these marine mammals with enough time to mate and bear offspring in the same tropical climate.

Social Structure and Communication

Blue whales are solitary animals often traveling alone or in small groups.

They communicate to one another by using loud low-pitched moans and whines which can be heard many miles away.

During mating periods adult blue whales may be heard performing mating calls which are often referred to as a mating song as they look for other whales to mate with.

These songs can often be heard over long distances and is even observable well below the surface of the water.

Although the exact reason for these songs is unknown it is believed that it may play a role in helping the whales find a mating partner, locate other pod members and even express sorrow when a pod member is sick or dies.

While these marine mammals tend to prefer smaller groups the blue whale can be found traveling in larger pods during periods of feeding, mating and migration.

Reproduction and Lifespan

Little is known about how blue whales reproduce.

The average gestation period for a female blue whale usually lasts 10 - 12 months once the female becomes impregnated.

At the end of the gestation term the female will give birth to a single offspring.

The baby blue whale can measure in at 20 - 25 ft. long when born (1/4 - 1/3 the size of an adult blue whale).

For the first 6 - 9 months the newborn will be fed milk from its mother nipple.

The milk is full of fat and nutrients that will the child develop during its first months of life.

After the child stops being nursed by its mother it will begin to start consuming solid foods and hunting for its own prey.

Once the young whale matures around the ages of 5 - 10 years it can begin mating and reproducing on its own.

As with other baleen whale species when the blue whale reaches adult hood the female whales typically grow to be larger than their male counterparts.

While fertile the female blue whale may give birth every 2-3 years after giving birth to its previous child.

In terms of lifespan it is estimated that a blue whale may live for up to 90 years.

Threats

In the past during the whaling era the blue whale faced frequent threats from whalers and poachers looking to sell their oil so that it could be used to make various products.

Excessive hunting eventually led to huge declines in the blue whale population.

Eventually the act of commercial whaling begin outlawed making it illegal for companies and individuals to continue hunting them.

Today the blue whale is a protected species and anyone caught killing them could face fines and jail time.

While these marine mammals are relatively safe from human interaction they may still be hunted from time to time for their meat.

Aside from occasionally being hunted the blue whale may also face threats from pollution, collisions with boats and ships, global warming and incidents with fishing gear and other aquatic equipment.

As stated earlier these marine mammals do not have any known predators, however smaller less experienced blue whales may be occasionally attacked by a group of killer whales.

For more information about the whaling era read: The history of whaling.

10 Interesting blue whale facts

1. Being able to grow to lengths of over 100 ft. long and weighing up to 180 tons the blue whale is the largest living animal in the world.

2. Although the blue whale is called a "blue" whale it is actually closer to a grayish blue rather than a solid blue. It isn't until the whale dives under the water that it appears to be a solid blue color.

3. A baby blue whale can measure in at around 25 ft. long making it as big as a killer whale, which is the largest marine mammal in the dolphin species.

4. A healthy adult blue whale can live for 70 - 90 years.

5. The blue whale can eat as many as 40 million krill per day or around 8,000 lbs. daily in order to power its massive body.

6. These marine mammals aren't known to have any natural predators, except for occasional attacks on smaller (usually) baby whales by a pack of killer whales, however these attacks appear to be quite rare.

7. When searching for food the blue whale can hold its breath for up to 35 minutes.

8. Depending on where the research has been gathered it is estimated that as much as 95% - 99% of the entire blue whale population was killed during the whaling era.

9. Due to significant hunting during the whaling era these marine mammals are now considered endangered and are listed as a protected species.

10. The blue whale belongs to one of around 80 known species is Cetacea, which includes all species of whale, dolphin and porpoise.

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The blue whale (scientifically referred to as balaenoptera musculus) is a large marine mammal that is part of the baleen whale (mysticeti) suborder and is the largest animal alive growing to lengths of up to 100 ft. long and weighing as much as 150 tons or more.

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Use the diagram notes to find out about the Blue Whale

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Used by over 70,000 teachers & 1 million students at home and school. Studyladder is an online english literacy & mathematics learning tool. Kids activity games, worksheets and lesson plans for Primary and Junior High School students in United States.

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Details on the Blue Whale

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The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal and a baleen whale. Reaching a maximum confirmed length of 29.9 meters (98 ft) and weighing up to 199 tonnes (196 long tons; 219 short tons), it is the largest animal known to have ever existed. The blue whale's long and slender body can be of various shades of greyish-blue dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath. Four subspecies are recognized: B. m. musculus in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, B. m. intermedia in the Southern Ocean, B. m. brevicauda (the pygmy blue whale) in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, B. m. indica in the Northern Indian Ocean. There is also a population in the waters off Chile that may constitute a fifth subspecies.

In general, blue whale populations migrate between their summer feeding areas near the poles and their winter breeding grounds near the tropics. There is also evidence of year-round residencies, and partial or age/sex-based migration. Blue whales are filter feeders; their diet consists almost exclusively of krill. They are generally solitary or gather in small groups, and have no well-defined social structure other than mother-calf bonds. The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz and the production of vocalizations may vary by region, season, behavior, and time of day. Orcas are their only natural predators.

The blue whale was once abundant in nearly all the Earth's oceans until the end of the 19th century. It was hunted almost to the point of extinction by whalers until the International Whaling Commission banned all blue whale hunting in 1966. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed blue whales as Endangered as of 2018. It continues to face numerous man-made threats such as ship strikes, pollution, ocean noise and climate change.

Nomenclature

The genus name, Balaenoptera, means winged whale while the species name, musculus, could mean "muscle" or a diminutive form of "mouse", possibly a pun by Carl Linnaeus when he named the species in Systema Naturae. One of the first published descriptions of a blue whale comes from Robert Sibbald's Phalainologia Nova, after Sibbald found a stranded whale in the estuary of the Firth of Forth, Scotland, in 1692. The name "blue whale" was derived from the Norwegian "blåhval", coined by Svend Foyn shortly after he had perfected the harpoon gun. The Norwegian scientist G. O. Sars adopted it as the common name in 1874.

Blue whales were referred to as 'Sibbald's rorqual', after Robert Sibbald, who first described the species. Herman Melville called the blue whale "sulphur bottom" in his novel Moby Dick because of the accumulation of diatoms creating a yellowish appearance on their pale underside.

Blue whales are rorquals in the family Balaenopteridae. A 2018 analysis estimates that the Balaenopteridae family diverged from other families in between 10.48 and 4.98 million years ago during the late Miocene. The earliest discovered anatomically modern blue whale is a partial skull fossil found in southern Italy, dating to the Early Pleistocene, roughly 1.5-1.25 million years ago. The Australian pygmy blue whale diverged during the Last Glacial Maximum. Their more recent divergence has resulted in the subspecies having a relatively low genetic diversity, and New Zealand blue whales have an even lower genetic diversity.

Whole genome sequencing suggests that blue whales are most closely related to sei whales with gray whales as a sister group. This study also found significant gene flow between minke whales and the ancestors of the blue and sei whale. Blue whales also displayed high genetic diversity.

Hybridization

Blue whales are known to interbreed with fin whales. The earliest description of a possible hybrid between a blue and fin whale was a 20-meter (65 ft) anomalous female whale with the features of both the blue and the fin whales taken in the North Pacific. A whale captured off northwestern Spain in 1984, was found to have been the product of a blue whale mother and a fin whale father.

Two live blue-fin whale hybrids have since been documented in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, (Canada), and in the Azores, (Portugal). DNA tests done in Iceland on a blue whale killed in July 2018 by the Icelandic whaling company Hvalur hf, found that the whale was the offspring of a male fin whale and female blue whale; however, the results are pending independent testing and verification of the samples. Because the International Whaling Commission classified blue whales as a "Protection Stock", trading their meat is illegal, and the kill is an infraction that must be reported. Blue-fin hybrids have been detected from genetic analysis of whale meat samples taken from Japanese markets. Blue-fin whale hybrids are capable of being fertile. Molecular tests on a 21-meter (70 ft) pregnant female whale caught off Iceland in 1986 found that it had a blue whale mother and a fin whale father, while its fetus was sired by a blue whale.

There is reference to a humpback-blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.

Subspecies and stocks

At least four subspecies of blue whale are recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or "management units". They have a worldwide distribution, but are mostly absent from the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean, Okhotsk, and Bering Sea.

Northern subspecies (B. m. musculus)

North Atlantic population - This population is mainly documented from New England along eastern Canada to Greenland, particularly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, during summer though some individuals may remain there all year. They also aggregate near Iceland and have increased their presence in the Norwegian Sea. They are reported to migrate south to the West Indies, the Azores and northwest Africa.

Eastern North Pacific population - Whales in this region mostly feed off California from summer to fall and then Oregon, Washington State, the Alaska Gyre and Aleutian Islands later in the fall. During winter and spring, blue whales migrate south to the waters of Mexico, mostly the Gulf of California, and the Costa Rica Dome, where they both feed and breed.

Central/Western Pacific population - This stock is documented around the Kamchatka Peninsula during the summer; some individuals may remain there year-round. They have been recorded wintering in Hawaiian waters, though some can be found in the Gulf of Alaska during fall and early winter.

Northern Indian Ocean subspecies () - This subspecies can be found year-round in the northwestern Indian Ocean, though some individuals have recorded travelling to the Crozet Islands during between summer and fall.

Pygmy blue whale (B. m. brevicauda)

Antarctic subspecies (B. m. intermedia) - This subspecies includes all populations found around the Antarctic. They have been recorded to travel as far north as eastern tropical Pacific, the central Indian Ocean, and the waters of southwestern Australia and northern New Zealand.

Blue whales off the Chilean coast may be a separate subspecies based on geographic separation, genetics, and unique song types. Chilean blue whales may overlap in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with Antarctica blue whales and Eastern North Pacific blue whales. Chilean blue whales are genetically differentiated from Antarctica blue whales and are unlikely to be interbreeding. However, the genetic distinction is less with the Eastern North Pacific blue whale and there may be gene flow between hemispheres.

Description

The blue whale is a slender-bodied cetacean with a broad U-shaped head; thin, elongated flippers; a small 33 centimeters (13 in) sickle-shaped dorsal fin located close to the tail and a large tail stock at the root of the wide and thin flukes. The upper jaw is lined with 70-395 black baleen plates. The throat region has 60-88 grooves which allows the skin to expand during feeding. It has two blowholes that can squirt 9.1-12.2 meters (30-40 ft) up in the air. The skin has a mottled grayish-blue coloration, appearing blue underwater. The mottling patterns near the dorsal fin vary between individuals. The underbelly has lighter pigmentation and can appear yellowish due to diatoms in the water, which historically earned them the nickname "sulphur bottom". The male blue whale has the largest penis in the animal kingdom, at around 3 m (9.8 ft) long and 12 in (30 cm) wide.

The blue whale is the largest known animal to have ever existed. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) whaling database reports 88 individuals longer than 30 meters (98 ft), including one of 33 meters (108 ft), but problems with how the measurements were taken suggest that any longer than 30.5 meters (100 ft) are suspect. The Discovery Committee reported lengths up to 31 meters (102 ft); however, the longest scientifically measured individual blue whale was 30 meters (98 ft) from rostrum tip to tail notch. Female blue whales are larger than males. Hydrodynamic models suggest a blue whale could not exceed 108 ft (33 m) because of metabolic and energy constraints.

The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is 22.0 meters (72.1 ft) for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, 24 meters (79 ft) for central and western North Pacific blue whales, 21-24 meters (68-78 ft) for North Atlantic blue whales, 25.4-26.3 meters (83.4-86.3 ft) for Antarctic blue whales, 23.5 meters (77.1 ft) for Chilean blue whales, and 21.3 meters (69.9 ft) for pygmy blue whales.

In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average 100 metric tons (220,000 lb) and females 112 metric tons (247,000 lb). Eastern North Pacific blue whale males average 88.5 tonnes (195,000 lb) and females 100 tonnes (220,000 lb). Antarctic males average 112 tonnes (247,000 lb) and females 130 tonnes (290,000 lb). Pygmy blue whale males average 83.5 tonnes (184,000 lb) to 99 tonnes (218,000 lb). The weight measured of the heart from a stranded North Atlantic blue whale was 180 kg (400 lb), the largest known in any animal.

The record-holder blue whale was recorded at 173 tonnes (190 short tons), with estimates of up to 199 tonnes (220 short tons).

Blue whales live around 80-90 years or more. Scientists look at a blue whale's earwax or ear plug to estimate its age. Each year, a light and dark layer of wax is laid corresponding with fasting during migration and feeding time. Each set is thus an indicator of age. The maximum age of a pygmy blue whale determined this way is 73 years. In addition, female blue whales develop scars or corpora albicantia on their ovaries every time they ovulate. In a female pygmy blue whale, one corpus albicans is formed on average every 2.6 years.

The blue whale is usually solitary, but can be found in pairs. When productivity is high enough, blue whales can be seen in gatherings of more than 50 individuals. Populations may go on long migrations, traveling to their summer feeding grounds towards the poles and then heading to their winter breeding grounds in more equatorial waters. The animals appear to use memory to locate the best feeding areas. There is evidence of alternative strategies, such as year-round residency, and partial (where only some individuals migrate) or age/sex-based migration. Some whales have been recorded feeding in breeding grounds. The traveling speed for blue whales ranges 5-30 kilometers per hour (3.1-18.6 mph).

The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was 315 meters (1,033 ft). Their theoretical aerobic dive limit was estimated at 31.2 minutes, however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes. The deepest confirmed dive from a pygmy blue whale was 510 meters (1,660 ft). A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its peak heart rate.

Diet and feeding

The blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill. Blue whales capture krill through lunge feeding, they swim towards them at high speeds as they open their mouths up to 80° They may engulf 220 metric tons (220 long tons; 240 short tons) of water at one time. They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill. Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches.

While pursuing krill patches, blue whales maximize their calorie intake by increasing the number of lunges while selecting the thickest patches. This provides them enough energy for everyday activities while storing additional energy necessary for migration and reproduction. Blue whales have to engulf densities greater than 100 krill/m3 to maintain the cost of lunge feeding. They can consume 34,776-1,912,680 kilojoules (8,312-457,141 kcal) from one mouthful of krill, which can provide up to 240 times more energy than used in a single lunge. It is estimated that an average-sized blue whale must consume 1,120 ± 359 kilograms (2,469 ± 791 lb) of krill a day.

Blue whales appear to avoid directly competing with other baleen whales. Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species. In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them.

Reproduction and birth

Blue whales generally reach sexual maturity at 8-10 years. In the Northern Hemisphere, the length at which they reach maturity is 21-23 meters (69-75 ft) for females and 20-21 meters (66-69 ft) for males. In the Southern Hemisphere, the length of maturity is 23-24 meters (75-79 ft) and 22 meters (72 ft) for females and males respectively. Male pygmy blue whales average 18.7 meters (61.4 ft) at sexual maturity. Female pygmy blue whales are 21.0-21.7 meters (68.9-71.2 ft) in length and roughly 10 years old at the age of sexual maturity. Little is known about mating behavior, or breeding and birthing areas. Blue whales appear to be polygynous, with males competing for females. A male blue whale typically trails a female and will fight off potential rivals. The species mates from fall to winter.

Pregnant females eat roughly four percent of their body weight daily, amounting to 60% of their overall body weight throughout summer foraging periods. Gestation may last 10-12 months with calves being 6-7 meters (20-23 ft) long and weighing 2-3 metric tons (2.0-3.0 long tons; 2.2-3.3 short tons) at birth. Estimates suggest that because calves require 2-4 kilograms (4.4-8.8 lb) milk per kg of mass gain, blue whales likely produce 220 kilograms (490 lb) of milk per day (ranging from 110 to 320 kilograms (240 to 710 lb) of milk per day). The first video of a calf thought to be nursing was filmed in New Zealand in 2016. Calves may be weaned when they reach 6-8 months old at a length of 16 meters (53 ft). They gain roughly 37,500 pounds (17,000 kg) during the weaning period. Interbirth periods last two to three years, they average 2.6 years in pygmy blue whales.

Vocalizations

Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom, and their inner ears appear well adapted for detecting low-frequency sounds. The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz. Blue whale songs vary between populations.

Vocalizations produced by the Eastern North Pacific population have been well studied. This population produces pulsed calls ("A") and tonal calls ("B"), upswept tones that precede type B calls ("C") and separate downswept tones ("D"). A and B calls are often produced in repeated co-occurring sequences and sung only by males, suggesting a reproductive function. D calls may have multiple functions. They are produced by both sexes during social interactions while feeding. and by males when competing for mates.

Blue whale calls recorded off Sri Lanka have a three‐unit phrase. The first unit is a 19.8 to 43.5 Hz pulsive call, and is normally 17.9 ± 5.2 seconds long. The second unit is a 55.9 to 72.4 Hz FM upsweep that is 13.8 ± 1.1 seconds long. The final unit is 28.5 ± 1.6 seconds long with a tone of 108 to 104.7 Hz. A blue whale call recorded off Madagascar, a two‐unit phrase, consists of 5-7 pulses with a center frequency of 35.1 ± 0.7 Hz lasting 4.4 ± 0.5 seconds proceeding a 35 ± 0 Hz tone that is 10.9 ± 1.1 seconds long. In the Southern Ocean, blue whales produce 18-second vocals which start with a 9-second-long, 27 Hz tone, and then a 1-second downsweep to 19 Hz, followed by a downsweep further to 18 Hz. Other vocalizations include 1-4 second long, frequency-modulated calls with a frequency of 80 and 38 Hz.

There is evidence that some blue whale songs have temporally declined in tonal frequency. The vocalization of blue whales in the Eastern North Pacific decreased in tonal frequency by 31% from the early 1960s to the early 21st century. The frequency of pygmy blue whales in the Antarctic has decreased by a few tenths of a hertz every year starting in 2002. It is possible that as blue whale populations recover from whaling, there is increasing sexual selection pressure (i.e., a lower frequency indicates a larger body size).

Predators and parasites

The only known natural predator to blue whales is the orca, although the rate of fatal attacks by orcas is unknown. Photograph-identification studies of blue whales have estimated that a high proportion of the individuals in the Gulf of California have rake-like scars, indicative of encounters with orcas. Off southeastern Australia, 3.7% of blue whales photographed had rake marks and 42.1% of photographed pygmy blue whales off Western Australia had rake marks. Documented predation by orcas has been rare. A blue whale mother and calf were first observed being chased at high speeds by orcas off southeastern Australia. The first documented attack occurred in 1977 off southwestern Baja California, Mexico, but the injured whale escaped after five hours. Four more blue whales were documented as being chased by a group of orcas between 1982 and 2003. The first documented predation event by orcas occurred in September 2003, when a group of orcas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific was encountered feeding on a recently killed blue whale calf. In March 2014, a commercial whale watch boat operator recorded an incident involving a group of orcas harassing a blue whale in Monterey Bay. The blue whale defended itself by slapping its tail. A similar incident was recorded by a drone in Monterey Bay in May 2017. The first direct observations of orca predation occurred off the south coast of Western Australia, two in 2019 and one more in 2021. The first victim was estimated to be 18-22 meters (59-72 ft).

In Antarctic waters, blue whales accumulate diatoms of the species Cocconeis ceticola and the genera , which are normally removed when the whales enter warmer waters. Other external parasites include barnacles such as Coronula diadema, Coronula reginae and Cryptolepas rhachianecti, which latch on their skin deep enough to leave behind a pit if removed. Whale lice species make their home in cracks of the skin and are relatively harmless. The copepod species Pennella balaenopterae digs in and attaches itself to the blubber to feed on. Intestinal parasites include the trematode genera Ogmogaster and Lecithodesmus, the tapeworm genera Priapocephalus, Phyllobotrium, Tetrabothrius, Diphyllobotrium and Diplogonoporus and the thorny-headed worm genus . In the North Atlantic, blue whales also contain the protozoans , and Balantidium.

Conservation

The global blue whale population is estimated to be 5,000-15,000 mature individuals and 10,000-25,000 total as of 2018. By comparison, there were at least 140,000 mature whales in 1926. There are an estimated total of 1,000-3,000 whales in the North Atlantic, 3,000-5,000 in the North Pacific and 5,000-8,000 in the Antarctic. There are possibly 1,000-3,000 whales in the eastern South Pacific while the pygmy blue whale may number 2,000-5,000 individuals. Blue whales have been protected in areas of the Southern Hemisphere since 1939. In 1955 they were given complete protection in the North Atlantic under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling; this protection was extended to the Antarctic in 1965 and the North Pacific in 1966. The protected status of North Atlantic blue whales was not recognized by Iceland until 1960. In the US, the species is protected under the Endangered Species Act.

Blue whales are formally classified as endangered under both the US Endangered Species Act and the IUCN Red List. They are also listed on Appendix I under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Although for some populations there is not enough information on current abundance trends (e.g., pygmy blue whales), others are critically endangered (e.g., Antarctic blue whales).

Blue whales were initially difficult to hunt because of their size and speed. This began to change in the mid-19th century with the development of harpoons that can be shot as projectiles. Blue whale whaling peaked between 1930 and 1931 with 30,000 animals taken. Harvesting of the species was particularly high in the Antarctic, with 350,000-360,000 whales taken in the first half of the 20th century. In addition, 11,000 North Atlantic whales (mostly around Iceland) and 9,500 North Pacific whales were killed during the same period. The International Whaling Commission banned all hunting of blue whales in 1966 and gave them worldwide protection. However, the Soviet Union continued to illegally hunt blue whales and other species through to the 1970s.

Ship strikes are a significant mortality factor for blue whales, especially off the U.S. West Coast, A total of 17 blue whales were killed or suspected to have been killed by ships between 1998 and 2019 off the US West Coast. Five deaths in 2007 off California were considered an unusual mortality event, as defined under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Lethal ship strikes are also a problem in Sri Lankan waters, where their habitat intersects with one of the world's most active shipping routes. Here, strikes caused the deaths of eleven blue whales in 2010 and 2012, and at least two in 2014. Ship strike mortality claimed the lives of two blue whales off southern Chile in the 2010s. Possible measures for reducing future ship strikes include better predictive models of whale distribution, changes in shipping lanes, vessel speed reductions, and seasonal and dynamic management of shipping lanes. Few cases of blue whale entanglement in commercial fishing gear have been documented. The first report in the U.S. occurred off California in 2015, reportedly some type of deep-water trap/pot fishery. Three more entanglement cases were reported in 2016. In Sri Lanka, a blue whale was documented with a net wrapped through its mouth, along the sides of its body, and wound around its tail.

Increasing man-made underwater noise impacts blue whales. They may be exposed to noise from commercial shipping and seismic surveys as a part of oil and gas exploration. Blue whales in the Southern California Bight decreased calling in the presence of mid-frequency active (MFA) sonar. Exposure to simulated MFA sonar was found to interrupt blue whale deep-dive feeding but no changes in behavior were observed in individuals feeding at shallower depths. The responses also depended on the animal's behavioral state, its (horizontal) distance from the sound source and the availability of prey.

The potential impacts of pollutants on blue whales is unknown. However, because blue whales feed low on the food chain, there is a lesser chance for bioaccumulation of organic chemical contaminants. Analysis of the earwax of a male blue whale killed by a collision with a ship off the coast of California showed contaminants like pesticides, flame retardants, and mercury. Reconstructed persistent organic pollutant (POP) profiles suggested that a substantial maternal transfer occurred during gestation and/or lactation. Male blue whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada were found to have higher concentrations of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), metabolites, and several other organochlorine compounds relative to females, reflecting maternal transfer of these persistent contaminants from females into young.

References

Further reading

External links

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The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus ) is a marine mammal and a baleen whale. Reaching a maximum confirmed length of 29.9 meters (98 ft) and weighing up to 199 tonnes (196 long tons; 219 short tons), it is the largest animal known to have ever existed.

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Wow! Some of these are

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CC BY 2.0 filckker photosFlickr

The blue whale, is the largest animal ever known to have lived on the planet. Here's what you need to know about the majestic marine mammal.
Picture in your mind a 10-story-tall animal walking down the street and you probably start channeling images of Godzilla or King Kong. But if you imagine it as a marine mammal and place it on its side, swimming ... now you've got a blue whale.

Balaenoptera musculus, the blue whale, is the largest animal ever known to have lived on the planet - larger than dinosaurs, and movie monsters aside. Even at birth it is one of the world's biggest animals!.The planet is covered with amazing, fascinating creatures, but the blue whale ranks among one of the most superlative. Consider the following.

1. How big is a blue whale?

They are gigantic. Generally ranging in length from 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 meters), the longest one ever recorded was a magnificent 108 feet long.

2. How much does a blue whale weigh?

These gentle giants weigh up to 200 tonnes, or around 441,000 pounds.

3. They've got big hearts

The blue whale's heart is huge! It is about 5 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet tall and weighs around 400 pounds; its beat can be detected from two miles away.

4. ...and tongues

A blue whale's tongue alone weighs as much as an elephant.

5. How big are blue whale babies?

Blue whale calves are the biggest babies on Earth, easily, and at birth already rank amongst the largest full-grown animals. They pop out at around 8,800 pounds with a length of some 26 feet. They gain 200 pounds a day! Their growth rate is likely one of the fastest in the animal world, with a several billion-fold increase in tissue in the 18 months from conception to weaning.

6. They're loud ... and make long-distance calls for free

Blue whales, in fact, are the loudest animals on the planet. A jet engine registers at 140 decibels, the call of a blue whale reaches 188. Their language of pulses, groans, and moans can be heard by others up to 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) away.

7. What do blue whales eat?

Blue whales feast on krill; their stomachs can hold 2,200 pounds of the tiny crustaceans at a time. They require almost 9,000 pounds of the little guys a day; and around 40 million krill daily during the summer feeding season.

8. Are blue whales fast?

They travel a lot, spending summers feeding in polar regions and making the long trip to the Equator as winter comes along. While they have a cruising speed of 5 MPH, they can accelerate up to 20 MPH when needed.

9. They've got long lives

While not nearly as old as the Earth's oldest trees, blue whales are among the planet's longest-lived animals. Kind of like counting tree rings, scientists count layers of wax in the ears and can determine a ballpark age. The oldest they've discovered this way was calculated to be around 100 years old, though the average life is thought to be around 80 to 90 years.

10. They were once numerous

Before whalers discovered the treasure trove of oil that a blue whale could provide, the numbers were generous. But with the advent of 20th century whaling fleets, nearly every last one of them was killed before receiving worldwide protection in 1967. According to WWF, from 1904 to 1967, more than 350,000 were killed in the Southern Hemisphere. In 1931, during the heyday of whaling, an astounding 29,000 blue whales were killed in a single season.

11. Their future is unclear

While commercial whaling is no longer a threat, recovery has been slow and new threats plague blue whales, like ship strikes and the impact of climate change. There is one population of around 2,000 blue whales off the coast of California - but all told there are only around 10,000 to 25,000 individuals left. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List rates them as Endangered. Hopefully with time, the planet's giantest gentle giants will again roam the seas aplenty.

Sources: WWF, Natoinal Geographic
This updated article was originally published in 2017.
The blue whale, is the largest animal ever known to have lived on the planet. Here's what you need to know about the majestic marine mammal.

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11 facts about blue whales, the largest animals ever on Earth

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The blue whale, is the largest animal ever known to have lived on the planet. Here's what you need to know about the majestic marine mammal. Picture in your mind a 10-story-tall animal walking down the street and you probably start channeling images of Godzilla or King Kong.

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National Geographic for Kids Blue Whale Facts

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National Geographic for Kids Blue Whale Facts

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Interesting Extra Facts

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Brace yourselves for a big ocean adventure, gang, with our brilliant blue whale facts. And by 'big', we in fact mean absolutely ginormous!

Fast blue whale facts

Scientific name: Balaenoptera musculus
Phylum: Chordata
Family: Balaenopteridae
Classification: Mammal
IUCN status: Endangered
Lifespan (in wild): 80-90 years
Weight: More than 130,000kg
Body size: 30m long
Diet: Carnivore
Habitat: Ocean
Range:

1) The largest animals to have ever lived on Earth, blue whales can grow to over 30m long and weigh more than 130,000kg - that's longer than three buses and heavier than three lorries!

2) Pretty much everything about the blue whale is massive. It's tongue weighs as much as an elephant, its heart is the size of a car and its blood vessels are so wide you could swim through them!

3) These blue-grey giants have a long, stream-lined body, a wide head, huge flippers, a powerful tail and a small dorsal fin. Some individuals have a yellowy-coloured underside, giving rise to the nickname ' sulphur bottom ' whales.

4) Blue whales can be found in all of our planet's oceans, except the Arctic, usually swimming alone or in groups of two to four. But in areas where there's lots of food available, as many as 60 whales may come together.

5) Despite their humongous size, blue whales eat tiny shrimp-like crustaceans called krill. But they shift a fair few of these seafood snacks - up to 40 million each day, in fact!

6) These marine marvels are a species of ' baleen' whale. Instead of teeth, they have baleen, a fibrous material used to filter their food. When eating, the whale lets a huge volume of water and krill into its mouth. It then pushes the water through its 300-400 baleen plates, which trap the tasty grub to be swallowed. Gulp!

7) To communicate with each other, blue whales make a series of super-loud vocal sounds. Their calls are the loudest of any creature on the planet, in fact, and can be heard underwater for hundreds of kilometres.

8) These awesome aquatic animals follow a seasonal migration pattern. During the feeding season, they fill up on krill in cold polar waters. They then travel to warmer, tropical waters to mate and give birth.

9) At birth, blue whale calves measure around 8m long and weigh a massive 4,000kg! They grow quickly, too - for seven to eight months, these bulky babies suckle on their mother's rich, fatty milk, and gain around 90kg each day!

10) Sadly, in the late 19th early 20th century, blue whales were heavily hunted. And despite a global hunting ban in 1966, their population has declined by 70-90 percent in the past 150 years. With only 10,000-25,00 left in the wild, these magnificence marine mammals are today classified as an endangered species.

Credits - Blue whale with head out of water: Anthony Pierce, Alamy. Blue whale with back out of water: Sburel, Dreamstime. Blue whale in dark blue ocean: Brandon Cole Marine Photography, Alamy. Blue whale fluke: Richard Fitzer, Shutterstock. Blue whale in light blue ocean: Wolcott Henry, National Geographic Creative. Group of blue whales: Flip Nicklin.

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Blue whale facts for kids | National Geographic Kids

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Brace yourselves for a big ocean adventure, gang, with our brilliant blue whale facts. And by 'big', we in fact mean absolutely ginormous!

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Fin whale is one of the largest whales on the planet. It belongs to the group of baleen whales. Fin whale can be found in all oceans of the world. There are two subspecies of fin whales: northern (inhabits oceans of the northern hemisphere) and southern (inhabits oceans of the southern hemisphere).

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Over fishing may also causes issues among existing fin whale populations as these marine mammals struggle to maintain their food supply due to fisheries performing extensive fishing hunts on fish and other prey that fin whales consume.

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Fin Facts and Pictures

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Name: Fin Whale ( Balaenoptera physalus) a.k.a. Finback Whale, Razorback Whale, Common Rorqual

Length: 27 metres

Weight: 74 tonnes

Location: Worldwide, except under polar ice caps

Conservation status: Endangered

Diet: Small fish, squid, crustaceans (copepods, krill)

Appearance: Grey, lighter underside

What do Fin Whales eat?

Like other baleen whales, the Fin Whale opens its mouth to swallow huge amounts of water - up to 70 cubic metres in the case of Fins. It then closes its mouth and forces the water back out through its baleens, trapping its prey like a sieve.

The Fin's baleen plates can reach up to 75 cm in length and 30 cm wide, each spraying out into fine hairs. They will dive to depths as far as 200 metres, scooping up as much as 10 kg per gulp of the tiny creatures that are its food source.

Fin Whales spend about 3 hours a day in feeding themselves if food is abundant, consuming up to 1,800 kg.

If hunting schooling fish, they will swim in wide circles around the school, tightening the diameter of the circle with each pass in order to force the fish into a tight ball, which can then be easily scooped up.

Are Fin Whales social?

Outside of breeding season, the Fin Whales' social structure can vary depending on where in the world they are located. This may depend on scarcity of food or age ranges.

Fins have been observed solo, in pairs, and in pods of usually up to 6. However pods of much greater numbers, from 50 up to 300, have also been seen. These larger pods are usually seen during migrations.

How fast can Fin Whales swim?

Fin Whales can sustain speeds of around 35 km per hour. While feeding they swim around 10 km per hour. They can burst up to 45 km an hour.

What are Fin Whale mating rituals like?

Females can reach sexual maturity starting at 6 years old. They give birth every 3 to 4 years.

Actual breeding rituals have not been observed in the wild. The pregnancy lasts close to one full year. The calf is about 6 metres long and weighs between 2 to 3 tons. They will nurse for 6 months, doubling their length.

How long do Fin Whales live?

A Fin Whale in the wild can live to be 90 years old.

How many Fin Whales are there today?

The entire world population of Fin Whales is estimated to be around 100,000.

Do Fin Whales have any natural predators?

Killer Whales can sometimes successfully attack old or very young Fin Whales. However the adult Fins are amongst the fastest of the whale family and are hard to catch when healthy.

7 Fabulous Fin Whale Facts

Fins have a unique colourization feature - their faces are asymmetrical. The right underside of their jaw, right lip, and the right side of their baleen are a yellowish-white, while the left-side correspondents are gray. Some scientists think the odd colouring comes from hunting - the Whales keep the white side towards school of fish while forcing them into a ball, presenting a more threatening aspect.

"Balaenoptera" means "winged whale" while "Physalus" means "bellows."

Because Fins are mostly pelagic (spending most of their time out in deep seas away from coasts) they are hard for scientists to study.

Fin Whales are the second largest living mammals, Blue Whales being the largest.

Fins got the nickname of "Razorback" thanks to a pronounced ridge seen behind their dorsal (top) fin.

Fin Whales tie their cousins the Blue Whales for making the lowest-frequency sounds of any animals.

When Fin Whale sounds were first recorded scientists thought that they were geological sounds (like tectonic plates grinding), a Russian experiment in finding submarines, and even that their own equipment was broken.

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Name: Fin Whale ( Balaenoptera physalus) a.k.a. Finback Whale, Razorback Whale, Common Rorqual Length: 27 metres Weight: 74 tonnes Location: Worldwide, except under polar ice caps Conservation status: Endangered Diet: Small fish, squid, crustaceans (copepods, krill) Appearance: Grey, lighter underside Like other baleen whales, the Fin Whale opens its mouth to swallow huge amounts of water - up to 70 cubic metres in the case of Fins.

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Details and Pictures

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The fin whale ( Balaenoptera physalus), also known as finback whale, razorback whale, common rorqual whale, herring whale, or greyhound whale is a marine mammal belonging to the parvorder of baleen whales. It is the second-largest mammalian on the Earth after the blue whale.

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Details & Pictures

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Like all baleens, Sei Whales open their mouths while swimming to gulp in large amounts of water.

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Facts & Pictures

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Sei is the Norwegian word for pollock, also referred to as coalfish, a close relative of codfish. Sei whales appeared off the coast of Norway at the same time as the pollock, both coming to feed on the abundant plankton. The specific name is the Latin word borealis, meaning northern.

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Sei whales favour temperate, deep offshore waters more so than other species of large whale, being rarely seen inshore. In the summer months, sei whales do not move as far towards the polar waters as other rorqual whales and do not usually enter icy water.

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Fact Sheet - Kids' Times

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Subspecies Subspecies of the Sei Whale are: Northern Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis borealis) Southern Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis schlegelii) Interesting Facts Sei Whales are also known as: Rudolphi's Rorqual Pollack Whale Coalfish Whale Sardine Whale Japan Finner The word Sei comes from the Norwegian word sei for pollock.

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Wikipedia

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The North Atlantic right whale ( Eubalaena glacialis, which means "good, or true, whale of the ice") is a baleen whale, one of three right whale species belonging to the genus , all of which were formerly classified as a single species.

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National Geographic

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Find out how right whales got their name. Dive into an ocean of information about this rarest of all large whales.

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Cornell Research

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Quick Facts

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North Atlantic Right Whale | NOAA Fisheries

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The North Atlantic right whale is one of the world’s most endangered large whale species. Learn more about North Atlantic right whales and NOAA Fisheries’ work to protect and conserve the species.

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Wikipedia

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The sperm whale or cachalot ( Physeter macrocephalus) is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus and one of three extant species in the sperm whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus .

The sperm whale is a pelagic mammal with a worldwide range, and will migrate seasonally for feeding and breeding. Females and young males live together in groups, while mature males (bulls) live solitary lives outside of the mating season. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young. Females give birth every four to twenty years, and care for the calves for more than a decade. A mature sperm whale has few natural predators, although calves and weakened adults are sometimes killed by pods of killer whales (orcas).

Mature males average 16 metres (52 ft) in length but some may reach 20.7 metres (68 ft), with the head representing up to one-third of the animal's length. Plunging to 2,250 metres (7,382 ft), it is the third deepest diving mammal, exceeded only by the southern elephant seal and Cuvier's beaked whale. The sperm whale uses echolocation and vocalization as loud as 230 decibels (re 1 µPa m) underwater. It has the largest brain on Earth, more than five times heavier than a human's. Sperm whales can live 70 years or more.

Spermaceti (sperm oil), from which the whale derives its name, was a prime target of the whaling industry, and was sought after for use in oil lamps, lubricants, and candles. Ambergris, a solid waxy waste product sometimes present in its digestive system, is still highly valued as a fixative in perfumes, among other uses. Beachcombers look out for ambergris as flotsam. Sperm whaling was a major industry in the 19th century, depicted in the novel . The species is protected by the International Whaling Commission moratorium, and is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Taxonomy and naming

The name sperm whale is a truncation of spermaceti whale. Spermaceti, originally mistakenly identified as the whales' semen, is the semi-liquid, waxy substance found within the whale's head ( see below). The sperm whale is also known as the "cachalot", which is thought to derive from the archaic French for "tooth" or "big teeth", as preserved for example incaishau in the Gascon dialect (a word of either Romance or Basque origin). The etymological dictionary of Corominas says the origin is uncertain, but it suggests that it comes from the Vulgar Latin cappula, plural of cappulum, "sword hilt". The word cachalot came to English via French from Spanish or Portuguese cachalote, perhaps from Galician/Portuguese cachola, "big head". The term is retained in the Russian word for the animal, (kashalot), as well as in many other languages.

The scientific genus name Physeter comes from the Greek physētēr (φυσητήρ), meaning "blowpipe, blowhole (of a whale)", or - as a pars pro toto - "whale". The specific name macrocephalus is Latinized from the Greek makrokephalos (μακροκέφαλος, meaning "big-headed"), from makros (μακρός, "large") + kephalē (κεφαλή, "head").

Its synonymous specific name catodon means "down-tooth", from the Greek elements cat(a)- ("below") and odṓn ("tooth"); so named because it has visible teeth only in its lower jaw. (See: Teeth) Another synonym australasianus (" Australasian") was applied to sperm whales in the Southern Hemisphere.

The sperm whale belongs to the order Cetartiodactyla, the order containing all cetaceans and even-toed ungulates. It is a member of the unranked clade Cetacea, with all the whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and further classified into Odontoceti, containing all the toothed whales and dolphins. It is the sole extant species of its genus, , in the family Physeteridae. Two species of the related extant genus , the pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps and the dwarf sperm whale K. sima, are placed either in this family or in the family Kogiidae. In some taxonomic schemes the families Kogiidae and Physeteridae are combined as the superfamily Physeteroidea (see the separate entry on the sperm whale family).

Swedish ichthyologist Peter Artedi described it as Physeter catodon in his 1738 work Genera piscium, from the report of a beached specimen in the Orkneys in 1693 and two beached in the Netherlands in 1598 and 1601. The 1598 specimen was near Berkhey.

The sperm whale is one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. He recognised four species in the genus Physeter. Experts soon realised that just one such species exists, although there has been debate about whether this should be named P. catodon or P. macrocephalus, two of the names used by Linnaeus. Both names are still used, although most recent authors now accept macrocephalus as the valid name, limiting catodon's status to a lesser synonym. Until 1974, the species was generally known as P. catodon. In that year, however, Dutch zoologists Antonius M. Husson and Lipke Holthuis proposed that the correct name should be P. macrocephalus, the second name in the genus Physeter published by Linnaeus concurrently with P. catodon. This proposition was based on the grounds that the names were synonyms published simultaneously, and, therefore, the ICZN Principle of the First Reviser should apply. In this instance, it led to the choice of P. macrocephalus over P. catodon, a view re-stated in Holthuis, 1987. This has been adopted by most subsequent authors, although Schevill (1986 and 1987) argued that macrocephalus was published with an inaccurate description and that therefore only the species catodon was valid, rendering the principle of "First Reviser" inapplicable. The most recent version of ITIS has altered its usage from P. catodon to P. macrocephalus, following L. B. Holthuis and more recent (2008) discussions with relevant experts. Furthermore, The Taxonomy Committee of the Society for Marine Mammalogy, the largest international association of marine mammal scientists in the world, officially uses Physeter macrocephalus when publishing their definitive list of marine mammal species.

External appearance

The sperm whale is the largest toothed whale, with adult males measuring up to 20.7 metres (68 ft) long and weighing up to 80 tonnes (79 long tons; 88 short tons). By contrast, the second largest toothed whale ( Baird's beaked whale) measures 12.8 metres (42 ft) and weighs up to 14 tonnes (15 short tons).

The sperm whale is among the most sexually dimorphic of all cetaceans. At birth both sexes are about the same size, but mature males are typically 30% to 50% longer and three times as massive as females. Newborn sperm whales are usually between 3.7 to 4.3 meters (12 to 14 ft) long in length. Female sperm whales are physically mature at about 10.6 to 11 meters (35 to 36 ft) in length and generally don't grow much larger than about 12 metres (39 ft). Male sperm whales are physically mature at about 16 metres (52 ft) in length and generally reaching a maximum of about 18 to 19 meters (59 to 62 ft).

There are old reports of sperm whales approaching, reaching or exceeding 80 feet (24 m) in length but there is disagreement as to the accuracy of these claims which are often considered exaggerations or as being measured along the curves of the body. The whale that sank the (one of the incidents behind ) was claimed to be 26 metres (85 ft). The Nantucket Whaling Museum has a 5.5 metres (18 ft)-long jawbone; the museum claims that this individual was 24 metres (80 ft) long. A 5 metres (16 ft) long jawbone is held in the British Natural History Museum and a 4.7 metres (15 ft) long jawbone is held in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. In 1853, one sperm whale was reported at 62 feet (19 m) in length with a head measuring 20 feet (6.1 m).

The largest animal weighed in whole was a sperm whale which measured 18 metres (59 ft) long and weighed 53 tonnes (52 long tons; 58 short tons). The largest sperm whale weighed in piecemeal was 18.1 metres (59 ft) long and weighed 57 tonnes (56 long tons; 63 short tons). An individual measuring 20.7 metres (68 ft) was reported from a Soviet whaling fleet near the Kuril Islands in 1950 and is cited by some authors as the largest accurately measured. It has been estimated to weigh 80 tonnes (79 long tons; 88 short tons). In a review of size variation in marine megafauna, McClain and colleagues noted that the International Whaling Commission's largest recorded male was 24 metres (79 ft) in 1933, which they supported as the largest. However, sizes like these are rare, with 95% of recorded sperm whales below 15.85 metres (52.0 ft).

Extensive whaling may have decreased their size, as males were highly sought, primarily after World War II. Today, males do not usually exceed 18.3 metres (60 ft) in length or 51 tonnes (50 long tons; 56 short tons) in weight. Another view holds that exploitation by overwhaling had virtually no effect on the size of the bull sperm whales, and their size may have actually increased in current times on the basis of density dependent effects. Old males taken at Solander Islands were recorded to be extremely large and unusually rich in blubbers.

The sperm whale's unique body is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The sperm whale's distinctive shape comes from its very large, block-shaped head, which can be one-quarter to one-third of the animal's length. The S-shaped blowhole is located very close to the front of the head and shifted to the whale's left. This gives rise to a distinctive bushy, forward-angled spray.

The sperm whale's flukes (tail lobes) are triangular and very thick. Proportionally, they are larger than that of any other cetacean, and are very flexible. The whale lifts its flukes high out of the water as it begins a feeding dive. It has a series of ridges on the back's caudal third instead of a dorsal fin. The largest ridge was called the 'hump' by whalers, and can be mistaken for a dorsal fin because of its shape and size.

In contrast to the smooth skin of most large whales, its back skin is usually wrinkly and has been likened to a prune by whale-watching enthusiasts. Albinos have been reported.

The ribs are bound to the spine by flexible cartilage, which allows the ribcage to collapse rather than snap under high pressure. While sperm whales are well adapted to diving, repeated dives to great depths have long-term effects. Bones show the same pitting that signals decompression sickness in humans. Older skeletons showed the most extensive pitting, whereas calves showed no damage. This damage may indicate that sperm whales are susceptible to decompression sickness, and sudden surfacing could be lethal to them.

Like that of all cetaceans, the spine of the sperm whale has reduced zygapophysial joints, of which the remnants are modified and are positioned higher on the vertebral dorsal spinous process, hugging it laterally, to prevent extensive lateral bending and facilitate more dorso-ventral bending. These evolutionary modifications make the spine more flexible but weaker than the spines of terrestrial vertebrates.

Like many cetaceans, the sperm whale has a vestigial pelvis that is not connected to the spine.

Like that of other toothed whales, the skull of the sperm whale is asymmetrical so as to aid echolocation. Sound waves that strike the whale from different directions will not be channeled in the same way. Within the basin of the cranium, the openings of the bony narial tubes (from which the nasal passages spring) are skewed towards the left side of the skull.

Jaws and teeth

The sperm whale's lower jaw is very narrow and underslung. The sperm whale has 18 to 26 teeth on each side of its lower jaw which fit into sockets in the upper jaw. The teeth are cone-shaped and weigh up to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) each. The teeth are functional, but do not appear to be necessary for capturing or eating squid, as well-fed animals have been found without teeth or even with deformed jaws. One hypothesis is that the teeth are used in aggression between males. Mature males often show scars which seem to be caused by the teeth. Rudimentary teeth are also present in the upper jaw, but these rarely emerge into the mouth. Analyzing the teeth is the preferred method for determining a whale's age. Like the age-rings in a tree, the teeth build distinct layers of cementum and dentine as they grow.

The sperm whale brain is the largest known of any modern or extinct animal, weighing on average about 7.8 kilograms (17 lb) (with the smallest known weighing 6.4 kilograms (14 lb) and the largest known weighing 9.2 kilograms (20 lb)), more than five times heavier than a human's, and has a volume of about 8,000 cm ³. Although larger brains generally correlate with higher intelligence, it is not the only factor. Elephants and dolphins also have larger brains than humans. The sperm whale has a lower encephalization quotient than many other whale and dolphin species, lower than that of non-human anthropoid apes, and much lower than humans'.

The sperm whale's cerebrum is the largest in all mammalia, both in absolute and relative terms. The olfactory system is reduced, suggesting that the sperm whale has a poor sense of taste and smell. By contrast, the auditory system is enlarged. The pyramidal tract is poorly developed, reflecting the reduction of its limbs.

Biological systems

The sperm whale respiratory system has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible ribcage allows lung collapse, reducing nitrogen intake, and metabolism can decrease to conserve oxygen. Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again. Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole, which is extremely skewed to the left. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3-5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6-7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle. On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives. A sperm whale killed 160 km (100 mi) south of Durban, South Africa, after a 1-hour, 50-minute dive was found with two dogfish ( Scymnodon sp.), usually found at the sea floor, in its belly.

The sperm whale has the longest intestinal system in the world, exceeding 300 m in larger specimens. Similar to ruminants the sperm whale has a four-chambered stomach. The first secretes no gastric juices and has very thick muscular walls to crush the food (since whales cannot chew) and resist the claw and sucker attacks of swallowed squid. The second chamber is larger and is where digestion takes place. Undigested squid beaks accumulate in the second chamber - as many as 18,000 have been found in some dissected specimens. Most squid beaks are vomited by the whale, but some occasionally make it to the hindgut. Such beaks precipitate the formation of ambergris.

In 1959, the heart of a 22 metric-ton (24 short-ton) male taken by whalers was measured to be 116 kilograms (256 lb), about 0.5% of its total mass. The circulatory system has a number of specific adaptations for the aquatic environment. The diameter of the aortic arch increases as it leaves the heart. This bulbous expansion acts as a windkessel, ensuring a steady blood flow as the heart rate slows during diving. The arteries that leave the aortic arch are positioned symmetrically. There is no costocervical artery. There is no direct connection between the internal carotid artery and the vessels of the brain. Their circulatory system has adapted to dive at great depths, as much as 2,250 metres (7,382 ft) for up to 120 minutes. More typical dives are around 400 metres (1,310 ft) and 35 minutes in duration. Myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle tissue, is much more abundant than in terrestrial animals. The blood has a high density of red blood cells, which contain oxygen-carrying haemoglobin. The oxygenated blood can be directed towards only the brain and other essential organs when oxygen levels deplete. The spermaceti organ may also play a role by adjusting buoyancy (see below). The arterial retia mirabilia are extraordinarily well-developed. The complex arterial retia mirabilia of the sperm whale are more extensive and larger than those of any other cetacean.

Spermaceti organ and melon

Atop the whale's skull is positioned a large complex of organs filled with a liquid mixture of fats and waxes called spermaceti. The purpose of this complex is to generate powerful and focused clicking sounds, which the sperm whale uses for echolocation and communication.

The spermaceti organ is like a large barrel of spermaceti. Its surrounding wall, known as the case, is extremely tough and fibrous. The case can hold within it up to 1,900 litres of spermaceti. It is proportionately larger in males. This oil is a mixture of triglycerides and wax esters. The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale: 38-51% in calves, 58-87% in adult females, and 71-94% in adult males. The spermaceti at the core of the organ has a higher wax content than the outer areas. The speed of sound in spermaceti is 2,684 m/s (at 40 kHz, 36 °C), making it nearly twice as fast as in the oil in a dolphin's melon.

Below the spermaceti organ lies the "junk" which consists of compartments of spermaceti separated by cartilage. It is analogous to the melon found in other toothed whales. The structure of the junk redistributes physical stress across the skull and may have evolved to protect the head during ramming.

Running through the head are two air passages. The left passage runs alongside the spermaceti organ and goes directly to the blowhole, whilst the right passage runs underneath the spermaceti organ and passes air through a pair of phonic lips and into the distal sac at the very front of the nose. The distal sac is connected to the blowhole and the terminus of the left passage. When the whale is submerged, it can close the blowhole, and air that passes through the phonic lips can circulate back to the lungs. The sperm whale, unlike other odontocetes, has only one pair of phonic lips, whereas all other toothed whales have two, and it is located at the front of the nose instead of behind the melon.

At the posterior end of this spermaceti complex is the frontal sac, which covers the concave surface of the cranium. The posterior wall of the frontal sac is covered with fluid-filled knobs, which are about 4-13 mm in diameter and separated by narrow grooves. The anterior wall is smooth. The knobbly surface reflects sound waves that come through the spermaceti organ from the phonic lips. The grooves between the knobs trap a film of air that is consistent whatever the orientation or depth of the whale, making it an excellent sound mirror.

The spermaceti organs may also help adjust the whale's buoyancy. It is hypothesized that before the whale dives, cold water enters the organ, and it is likely that the blood vessels constrict, reducing blood flow, and, hence, temperature. The wax therefore solidifies and reduces in volume. The increase in specific density generates a down force of about 392 newtons (88 lb f) and allows the whale to dive with less effort.[citation needed ] During the hunt, oxygen consumption, together with blood vessel dilation, produces heat and melts the spermaceti, increasing its buoyancy and enabling easy surfacing. However, more recent work has found many problems with this theory including the lack of anatomical structures for the actual heat exchange. Another issue is that if the spermaceti does indeed cool and solidify, it would affect the whale's echolocation ability just when it needs it most (for hunting in the depths).

Herman Melville's fictional story suggests that the "case" containing the spermaceti serves as a battering ram for use in fights between males. A few famous instances include the well-documented sinking of the ships and Ann Alexander by attackers estimated to weigh only one-fifth as much as the ships.

The frontal sac, exposed. Its surface is covered with fluid-filled knobs.

A piece of the posterior wall of the frontal sac. The grooves between the knobs trap a consistent film of air, making it an excellent sound mirror.[105]

Eyes and vision

The sperm whale's eye does not differ greatly from those of other toothed whales except in size. It is the largest among the toothed whales, weighing about 170 g. It is overall ellipsoid in shape, compressed along the visual axis, measuring about 7×7×3 cm. The cornea is elliptical and the lens is spherical. The sclera is very hard and thick, roughly 1 cm anteriorly and 3 cm posteriorly. There are no ciliary muscles. The choroid is very thick and contains a fibrous tapetum lucidum. Like other toothed whales, the sperm whale can retract and protrude its eyes, thanks to a 2-cm-thick retractor muscle attached around the eye at the equator, but are unable to roll the eyes in their sockets.

According to Fristrup and Harbison (2002), sperm whale's eyes afford good vision and sensitivity to light. They conjectured that sperm whales use vision to hunt squid, either by detecting silhouettes from below or by detecting bioluminescence. If sperm whales detect silhouettes, Fristrup and Harbison suggested that they hunt upside down, allowing them to use the forward parts of the ventral visual fields for binocular vision.

For some time researchers have been aware that pods of sperm whales may sleep for short periods, assuming a vertical position with their heads just below or at the surface. A 2008 study published in Current Biology recorded evidence that whales may sleep with both sides of the brain. It appears that some whales may fall into a deep sleep for about 7 percent of the time, most often between 6 p.m. and midnight.

Sperm whales have 21 pairs of chromosomes ( 2n=42). The genome of live whales can be examined by recovering shed skin.

Vocalization complex

Capable of emitting sounds at a volume of 230 decibels-more than an airplane jet engine at takeoff-the sperm whale is the loudest animal in the world. Sperm whale vocalization is a learned behavior that is clan specific.

When echolocating, the sperm whale emits a directionally focused beam of broadband clicks. Clicks are generated by forcing air through a pair of phonic lips (also known as "monkey lips" or "museau de singe") at the front end of the nose, just below the blowhole. The sound then travels backwards along the length of the nose through the spermaceti organ. Most of the sound energy is then reflected off the frontal sac at the cranium and into the melon, whose lens-like structure focuses it. Some of the sound will reflect back into the spermaceti organ and back towards the front of the whale's nose, where it will be reflected through the spermaceti organ a third time. This back and forth reflection which happens on the scale of a few milliseconds creates a multi-pulse click structure. This multi-pulse click structure allows researchers to measure the whale's spermaceti organ using only the sound of its clicks. Because the interval between pulses of a sperm whale's click is related to the length of the sound producing organ, an individual whale's click is unique to that individual. However, if the whale matures and the size of the spermaceti organ increases, the tone of the whale's click will also change. The lower jaw is the primary reception path for the echoes. A continuous fat-filled canal transmits received sounds to the inner ear.

The source of the air forced through the phonic lips is the right nasal passage. While the left nasal passage opens to the blow hole, the right nasal passage has evolved to supply air to the phonic lips. It is thought that the nostrils of the land-based ancestor of the sperm whale migrated through evolution to their current functions, the left nostril becoming the blowhole and the right nostril becoming the phonic lips.

Air that passes through the phonic lips passes into the distal sac, then back down through the left nasal passage. This recycling of air allows the whale to continuously generate clicks for as long as it is submerged.

Types of vocalization

A creak is a rapid series of high-frequency clicks that sounds somewhat like a creaky door hinge. It is typically used when homing in on prey.

A coda is a short pattern of 3 to 20 clicks that is used in social situations. They were once thought to be a way by which individuals identified themselves, but individuals have been observed producing multiple codas, and the same codas are used by multiple individuals. However, each click contains a physical signature which suggests that clicks can be used to identify individuals. Geographically separate pods exhibit distinct dialects. Large males are generally solitary and rarely produce codas. In breeding grounds, codas are almost entirely produced by adult females. Despite evidence that sperm whales share similar codas, it is still unknown whether sperm whales possess individually specific coda repertoires or whether individuals make codas at different rates.

Slow clicks are heard only in the presence of males (it is not certain whether females occasionally make them). Males make a lot of slow clicks in breeding grounds (74% of the time), both near the surface and at depth, which suggests they are primarily mating signals. Outside breeding grounds, slow clicks are rarely heard, and usually near the surface.

Distribution

Sperm whales are among the most cosmopolitan species. They prefer ice-free waters over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep. Although both sexes range through temperate and tropical oceans and seas, only adult males populate higher latitudes. Among several regions, such as along coastal waters of southern Australia, sperm whales have been considered to be locally extinct.

They are relatively abundant from the poles to the equator and are found in all the oceans. They inhabit the Mediterranean Sea, but not the Black Sea, while their presence in the Red Sea is uncertain. The shallow entrances to both the Black Sea and the Red Sea may account for their absence. The Black Sea's lower layers are also anoxic and contain high concentrations of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide.[What does being anoxic have to do with whales that don't breath under water? Lack of prey? ] The first ever sighting in Pakistan was made in 2017. The first ever record on the west coast of the Korean Peninsula ( Yellow Sea) was made in 2005. followed by one on Ganghwa Island in 2009.

Populations are denser close to continental shelves and canyons. Sperm whales are usually found in deep, off-shore waters, but may be seen closer to shore, in areas where the continental shelf is small and drops quickly to depths of 310 to 920 metres (1,020 to 3,020 ft). Coastal areas with significant sperm whale populations include the Azores and Dominica. In Asian waters, whales are also observed regularly in coastal waters in places such as the Commander and Kuril Islands, Shiretoko Peninsula which is one of few locations where whales can be observed from shores, off Kinkasan, vicinity to Tokyo Bay and the Bōsō Peninsula to the Izu and the Izu Islands, the Volcano Islands, Yakushima and the Tokara Islands to the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, the Northern Mariana Islands, and so forth. Historical catch records suggest there could have been smaller aggression grounds in the Sea of Japan as well. Along the Korean Peninsula, the first confirmed observation within the Sea of Japan, eight animals off Guryongpo, was made in 2004 since after the last catches of five whales off Ulsan in 1911, while nine whales were observed in the East China Sea side of the peninsula in 1999.

Grown males are known to enter surprisingly shallow bays to rest (whales will be in state of rest during these occasions). There are unique, coastal groups reported from various areas among the globe such as Scotland, and Shiretoko Peninsula, off Kaikoura, in the Davao Gulf. Such coastal groups were more abundant in pre-whaling days.

Genetic analysis indicates that the world population of sperm whales originated in the Pacific Ocean from a population of about 10,000 animals around 100,000 years ago, when expanding ice caps blocked off their access to other seas. In particular, colonization of the Atlantic was revealed to have occurred multiple times during this expansion of their range.

Sperm whales usually dive between 300 to 800 metres (980 to 2,620 ft), and sometimes 1 to 2 kilometres (3,300 to 6,600 ft), in search of food. Such dives can last more than an hour. They feed on several species, notably the giant squid, but also the colossal squid, octopuses, and fish such as demersal rays, but their diet is mainly medium-sized squid. Some prey may be taken accidentally while eating other items. Most of what is known about deep-sea squid has been learned from specimens in captured sperm whale stomachs, although more recent studies analysed faeces. One study, carried out around the Galápagos, found that squid from the genera Histioteuthis (62%), Ancistrocheirus (16%), and Octopoteuthis (7%) weighing between 12 and 650 grams (0.026 and 1.433 lb) were the most commonly taken. Battles between sperm whales and giant squid or colossal squid have never been observed by humans; however, white scars are believed to be caused by the large squid. One study published in 2010 collected evidence that suggests that female sperm whales may collaborate when hunting Humboldt squid. Tagging studies have shown that sperm whales hunt upside down at the bottom of their deep dives. It is suggested that the whales can see the squid silhouetted above them against the dim surface light.

An older study, examining whales captured by the New Zealand whaling fleet in the Cook Strait region, found a 1.69:1 ratio of squid to fish by weight. Sperm whales sometimes take sablefish and toothfish from long lines. Long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska complain that sperm whales take advantage of their fishing operations to eat desirable species straight off the line, sparing the whales the need to hunt. However, the amount of fish taken is very little compared to what the sperm whale needs per day. Video footage has been captured of a large male sperm whale "bouncing" a long line, to gain the fish. Sperm whales are believed to prey on the megamouth shark, a rare and large deep-sea species discovered in the 1970s. In one case, three sperm whales were observed attacking or playing with a megamouth.

Sperm whales have also been noted to feed on bioluminescent pyrosomes such as Pyrosoma atlanticum. It is thought that the foraging strategy of sperm whales for bioluminescent squids may also explain the presence of these light-emitting pyrosomes in the diet of the sperm whale.

The sharp beak of a consumed squid lodged in the whale's intestine may lead to the production of ambergris, analogous to the production of pearls in oysters. The irritation of the intestines caused by squid beaks stimulates the secretion of this lubricant-like substance. Sperm whales are prodigious feeders and eat around 3% of their body weight per day. The total annual consumption of prey by sperm whales worldwide is estimated to be about 91 million tonnes (100 million short tons). In comparison, human consumption of seafood is estimated to be 115 million tonnes (127 million short tons).

Sperm whales hunt through echolocation. Their clicks are among the most powerful sounds in the animal kingdom ( see above). It has been hypothesised that it can stun prey with its clicks. Experimental studies attempting to duplicate this effect have been unable to replicate the supposed injuries, casting doubt on this idea.

It has been stated that sperm whales, as well as other large cetaceans, help fertilise the surface of the ocean by consuming nutrients in the depths and transporting those nutrients to the oceans' surface when they defecate, an effect known as the whale pump. This fertilises phytoplankton and other plants on the surface of the ocean and contributes to ocean productivity and the drawdown of atmospheric carbon.

Sperm whales can live 70 years or more. They are a prime example of a species that has been K-selected, meaning their reproductive strategy is associated with stable environmental conditions and comprises a low birth rate, significant parental aid to offspring, slow maturation, and high longevity.

How they choose mates has not been definitively determined. Bulls will fight with each other over females, and males will mate with multiple females, making them polygynous, but they do not dominate the group as in a harem. Bulls do not provide paternal care to their offspring but rather play a fatherly role to younger bulls to show dominance.

Females become fertile at around 9 years of age. The oldest pregnant female ever recorded was 41 years old. Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf. Sexually mature females give birth once every 4 to 20 years (pregnancy rates were higher during the whaling era). Birth is a social event, as the mother and calf need others to protect them from predators. The other adults may jostle and bite the newborn in its first hours.

Lactation proceeds for 19 to 42 months, but calves, rarely, may suckle up to 13 years. Like that of other whales, the sperm whale's milk has a higher fat content than that of terrestrial mammals: about 36%, compared to 4% in cow milk. This gives it a consistency similar to cottage cheese, which prevents it from dissolving in the water before the calf can eat it. It has an energy content of roughly 3,840 kcal/kg, compared to just 640 kcal/kg in cow milk. Calves may be allowed to suckle from females other than their mothers.

Males become sexually mature at 18 years. Upon reaching sexual maturity, males move to higher latitudes, where the water is colder and feeding is more productive. Females remain at lower latitudes. Males reach their full size at about age 50.

Social behaviour

Relations within the species

Like elephants, females and their young live in matriarchal groups called pods, while bulls live apart. Bulls sometimes form loose bachelor groups with other males of similar age and size. As they grow older, they typically live solitary lives, only returning to the pod to socialize or to breed . Bulls have beached themselves together, suggesting a degree of cooperation which is not yet fully understood. The whales rarely, if ever, leave their group.

A social unit is a group of sperm whales who live and travel together over a period of years. Individuals rarely, if ever, join or leave a social unit. There is a huge variance in the size of social units. They are most commonly between six and nine individuals in size but can have more than twenty. Unlike killer whales, sperm whales within a social unit show no significant tendency to associate with their genetic relatives. Females and calves spend about three-quarters of their time foraging and a quarter of their time socializing. Socializing usually takes place in the afternoon.

When sperm whales socialize, they emit complex patterns of clicks called codas. They will spend much of the time rubbing against each other. Tracking of diving whales suggests that groups engage in herding of prey, similar to bait balls created by other species, though the research needs to be confirmed by tracking the prey.

Relations with other species

The most common natural predator of sperm whales is the killer whale, but pilot whales and false killer whales sometimes harass them. Killer whales prey on target groups of females with young, usually making an effort to extract and kill a calf. The females will protect their calves or an injured adult by encircling them. They may face inwards with their tails out (the 'marguerite formation', named after the flower). The heavy and powerful tail of an adult whale is potentially capable of delivering lethal blows. Alternatively, they may face outwards (the 'heads-out formation'). Other than sperm whales, southern right whales had been observed to perform similar formations. However, formations in non-dangerous situations have been recorded as well. Early whalers exploited this behaviour, attracting a whole unit by injuring one of its members. Such a tactic is described in :

"Say you strike a Forty-barrel-bull-poor devil! all his comrades quit him. But strike a member of the harem school, and her companions swim around her with every token of concern, sometimes lingering so near her and so long, as themselves to fall a prey."

If the killer whale pod is large, its members may sometimes be able to kill adult female sperm whales and can at least injure an entire pod of sperm whales. Bulls have no predators, and are believed to be too large, powerful and aggressive to be threatened by killer whales. Solitary bulls are known to interfere and come to the aid of vulnerable groups nearby. However, the bull sperm whale, when accompanying pods of female sperm whales and their calves as such, may be reportedly unable to effectively dissuade killer whales from their attacks on the group, although the killer whales may end the attack sooner when a bull is present. However, male sperm whales have been observed to attack and intimidate killer whale pods in competitive feeding instances. An incident was filmed from a long-line trawler: a killer whale pod was systematically taking fish caught on the trawler's long lines (as the lines were being pulled into the ship) when a male sperm whale appeared to repeatedly charge the killer whale pod in an attempt to drive them away; it was speculated by the film crew that the sperm whale was attempting to access the same fish. The killer whales employed a tail outward and tail-slapping defensive position against the bull sperm whale similar to that used by female sperm whales against attacking killer whales. However, at some potential feeding sites, the killer whales may prevail over sperm whales even when outnumbered by the sperm whales. Some authors consider the killer whales "usually" behaviorally dominant over sperm whales but express that the two species are "fairly evenly matched", with the killer whales' greater aggression, more considerable biting force for their size and predatory prowess more than compensating for their smaller size.

Sperm whales are not known for forging bonds with other species, but it was observed that a bottlenose dolphin with a spinal deformity had been accepted into a pod of sperm whales. They are known to swim alongside other cetaceans such as humpback, fin, minke, pilot, and killer whales on occasion.

Sperm whales can suffer of parasites. Out of 35 sperm whales caught during the 1976-1977 Antarctic whaling season, all of them were infected by Anisakis physeteris (in their stomachs) and Phyllobothrium delphini (in their blubber). Both whales with a placenta were infected withPlacentonema gigantissima, potentially the largest nematode worm ever described.

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

Although the fossil record is poor, several extinct genera have been assigned to the clade Physeteroidea, which includes the last common ancestor of the modern sperm whale, pygmy sperm whales, dwarf sperm whales, and extinct physeteroids. These fossils include Ferecetotherium, Idiorophus, Diaphorocetus, Aulophyseter, Orycterocetus, Scaldicetus, Placoziphius, Zygophyseter and Acrophyseter. Ferecetotherium, found in Azerbaijan and dated to the late Oligocene (about 28 to 23 million years ago), is the most primitive fossil that has been found, which possesses sperm whale-specific features, such as an asymmetric rostrum ("beak" or "snout"). Most sperm whale fossils date from the 23 to 5 million years ago. Miocene period, Diaphorocetus, from Argentina, has been dated to the early Miocene. Fossil sperm whales from the Middle Miocene include Aulophyseter, Idiorophus and Orycterocetus, all of which were found on the West Coast of the United States, and Scaldicetus, found in Europe and Japan. Orycterocetus fossils have also been found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, in addition to the west coast of the United States. Placoziphius, found in Europe, and Acrophyseter, from Peru, are dated to the late Miocene.

Fossil sperm whales differ from modern sperm whales in tooth count and the shape of the face and jaws. For example, Scaldicetus had a tapered rostrum. Genera from the Oligocene and early and middle Miocene, with the possible exception of Aulophyseter, had teeth in their upper jaws. Acrophyseter, from the late Miocene, also had teeth in both the upper and lower jaws as well as a short rostrum and an upward curving mandible (lower jaw). These anatomical differences suggest that fossil species may not have necessarily been deep-sea squid eaters such as the modern sperm whale, but that some genera mainly ate fish. Zygophyseter, dated from the middle to late Miocene and found in southern Italy, had teeth in both jaws and appears to have been adapted to feed on large prey, rather like the modern killer whale (orca). Other fossil sperm whales with adaptations similar to this are collectively known as killer sperm whales.

Two fossil species belonging to the modern genus Physeter have been recognized so far: P. antiquus ( Neogene of France) and P. vetus (Neogene of eastern North America).

The traditional view has been that Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales) arose from more primitive whales early in the Oligocene period, and that the super-family Physeteroidea, which contains the sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, and pygmy sperm whale, diverged from other toothed whales soon after that, over 23 million years ago. From 1993 to 1996, molecular phylogenetics analyses by Milinkovitch and colleagues, based on comparing the genes of various modern whales, suggested that the sperm whales are more closely related to the baleen whales than they are to other toothed whales, which would have meant that Odontoceti were not monophyletic; in other words, it did not consist of a single ancestral toothed whale species and all its descendants. However, more recent studies, based on various combinations of comparative anatomy and molecular phylogenetics, criticised Milinkovitch's analysis on technical grounds and reaffirmed that the Odontoceti are monophyletic.

These analyses also confirm that there was a rapid evolutionary radiation (diversification) of the Physeteroidea in the Miocene period. The Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales) diverged from the Physeteridae (true sperm whales) at least 8 million years ago.

Relationship with humans

Sperm whaling

Spermaceti, obtained primarily from the spermaceti organ, and sperm oil, obtained primarily from the blubber in the body, were much sought after by 18th, 19th, and 20th century whalers. These substances found a variety of commercial applications, such as candles, soap, cosmetics, machine oil, other specialised lubricants, lamp oil, pencils, crayons, leather waterproofing, rust-proofing materials and many pharmaceutical compounds. Ambergris, a solid, waxy, flammable substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, was also sought as a fixative in perfumery.

Prior to the early eighteenth century, hunting was mostly by indigenous Indonesians. Legend has it that sometime in the early 18th century, around 1712, Captain Christopher Hussey, while cruising for right whales near shore, was blown offshore by a northerly wind, where he encountered a sperm whale pod and killed one. Although the story may not be true, sperm whales were indeed soon exploited by American whalers. Judge Paul Dudley, in his Essay upon the Natural History of Whales (1725), states that a certain Atkins, 10 or 12 years in the trade, was among the first to catch sperm whales sometime around 1720 off the New England coast.

There were only a few recorded instances during the first few decades (1709-1730s) of offshore sperm whaling. Instead, sloops concentrated on the Nantucket Shoals, where they would have taken right whales or went to the Davis Strait region to catch bowhead whales. By the early 1740s, with the advent of spermaceti candles (before 1743), American vessels began to focus on sperm whales. The diary of Benjamin Bangs (1721-1769) shows that, along with the bumpkin sloop he sailed, he found three other sloops flensing sperm whales off the coast of North Carolina in late May 1743. On returning to Nantucket in the summer 1744 on a subsequent voyage, he noted that "45 spermacetes are brought in here this day," another indication that American sperm whaling was in full swing.

American sperm whaling soon spread from the east coast of the American colonies to the Gulf Stream, the Grand Banks, West Africa (1763), the Azores (1765), and the South Atlantic (1770s). From 1770 to 1775 Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island ports produced 45,000 barrels of sperm oil annually, compared to 8,500 of whale oil. In the same decade, the British began sperm whaling, employing American ships and personnel. By the following decade, the French had entered the trade, also employing American expertise. Sperm whaling increased until the mid-nineteenth century. Spermaceti oil was important in public lighting (for example, in lighthouses, where it was used in the United States until 1862, when it was replaced by lard oil, in turn replaced by petroleum) and for lubricating the machines (such as those used in cotton mills) of the Industrial Revolution. Sperm whaling declined in the second half of the nineteenth century, as petroleum came into broader use. In that sense, petroleum use may be said to have protected whale populations from even greater exploitation. Sperm whaling in the 18th century began with small sloops carrying only one or two whaleboats. The fleet's scope and size increased over time, and larger ships entered the fishery. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, sperm whaling ships sailed to the equatorial Pacific, the Indian Ocean, Japan, the coast of Arabia, Australia and New Zealand. Hunting could be dangerous to the crew, since sperm whales (especially bulls) will readily fight to defend themselves against attack, unlike most baleen whales. When dealing with a threat, sperm whales will use their huge head effectively as a battering ram. Arguably the most famous sperm whale counter-attack occurred on 20 November 1820, when a whale claimed to be about 25.9 metres (85 ft) long rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship . Only 8 out of 21 sailors survived to be rescued by other ships.

The sperm whale's ivory-like teeth were often sought by 18th- and 19th-century whalers, who used them to produce inked carvings known as 30 teeth of the sperm whale can be used for ivory. Each of these teeth, up to 20 cm (8 in) and 8 cm (3 in) across, are hollow for the first half of their length. Like walrus ivory, sperm whale ivory has two distinct layers. However, sperm whale ivory contains a much thicker inner layer. Though a widely practised art in the 19th century, scrimshaw using genuine sperm whale ivory declined substantially after the retirement of the whaling fleets in the 1880s. Currently the Endangered Species Act and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), prevents the sales of or trade in sperm whale ivory harvested after 1973 or scrimshaw crafted from it.

Modern whaling was more efficient than open-boat whaling, employing steam-powered ships and exploding harpoons. Initially, modern whaling activity focused on large baleen whales, but as these populations were taken, sperm whaling increased. Spermaceti, the fine waxy oil produced by sperm whales, was in high demand. In both the 1941-1942 and 1942-1943 seasons, Norwegian expeditions took over 3,000 sperm whales off the coast of Peru alone. After World War II, whaling continued unabated to obtain oil for cosmetics and high-performance machinery, such as automobile transmissions.

The hunting led to the near-extinction of large whales, including sperm whales, until bans on whale oil use were instituted in 1972. The International Whaling Commission gave the species full protection in 1985, but hunting by Japan in the northern Pacific Ocean continued until 1988.

It is estimated that the historic worldwide population numbered 1,100,000 before commercial sperm whaling began in the early 18th century. By 1880, it had declined by an estimated 29 percent. From that date until 1946, the population appears to have partially recovered as whaling activity decreased, but after the Second World War, the population declined even further, to 33 per cent of the pre-whaling population.[citation needed ] Between 184,000 and 236,000 sperm whales were killed by the various whaling nations in the 19th century, while in the 20th century, at least 770,000 were taken, the majority between 1946 and 1980.

Sperm whales increase levels of primary production and carbon export by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron-rich faeces cause phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year.

Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough that the species' conservation status is rated as vulnerable rather than endangered. However, the recovery from centuries of commercial whaling is a slow process, particularly in the South Pacific, where the toll on breeding-age males was severe.

Current conservation status

The total number of sperm whales in the world is unknown, but is thought to be in the hundreds of thousands. The conservation outlook is brighter than for many other whales. Commercial whaling has ceased, and the species is protected almost worldwide, though records indicate that in the 11-year period starting from 2000, Japan has caught 51 sperm whales. Fishermen do not target the creatures sperm whales eat, but long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska have complained about sperm whales stealing fish from their lines.

Currently, entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships represent the greatest threats to the sperm whale population. Other threats include ingestion of marine debris, ocean noise, and chemical pollution. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) regards the sperm whale as being " vulnerable". The species is listed as endangered on the United States Endangered Species Act.

Sperm whales are listed on Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. It is also covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).

Cultural importance

Rope-mounted teeth are important cultural objects throughout the Pacific. In New Zealand, the Māori know them as "rei puta"; such whale tooth pendants were rare objects because sperm whales were not actively hunted in traditional Māori society. Whale ivory and bone were taken from beached whales. In Fiji the teeth are known as , traditionally given as gifts for atonement or esteem (called sevusevu), and were important in negotiations between rival chiefs. Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported in 1896 that, in Fiji, whales' or cachalots' teeth were the most-demanded article of ornament or value. They occurred often in necklaces. Today the tabua remains an important item in Fijian life. The teeth were originally rare in Fiji and Tonga, which exported teeth, but with the Europeans' arrival, teeth flooded the market and this "currency" collapsed. The oversupply led in turn to the development of the European art of scrimshaw.

Herman Melville's novel is based on a true story about a sperm whale that attacked and sank the whaleship . Melville associated the sperm whale with the Bible's Leviathan. The fearsome reputation perpetuated by Melville was based on bull whales' ability to fiercely defend themselves from attacks by early whalers, smashing whaling boats and, occasionally, attacking and destroying whaling ships.

In Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, the Nautilus fights a group of "cachalots" (sperm whales) to protect a pod of southern right whales from their attacks. Verne portrays them as being savage hunters ("nothing but mouth and teeth").

The sperm whale was designated as the Connecticut state animal by the General Assembly in 1975. It was selected because of its specific contribution to the state's history and because of its present-day plight as an endangered species.

Watching sperm whales

Sperm whales are not the easiest of whales to watch, due to their long dive times and ability to travel long distances underwater. However, due to the distinctive look and large size of the whale, watching is increasingly popular. Sperm whale watchers often use hydrophones to listen to the clicks of the whales and locate them before they surface. Popular locations for sperm whale watching include the town of Kaikoura on New Zealand's South Island, Andenes and Tromsø in Arctic Norway; as well as the Azores, where the continental shelf is so narrow that whales can be observed from the shore, and Dominica where a long-term scientific research program, The Dominica Sperm Whale Project, has been in operation since 2005.

Plastic waste

The introduction of plastic waste to the ocean environment by humans is relatively new. From the 1970s, sperm whales have occasionally been found with pieces of plastic in their stomachs.

References

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Further reading

Whitehead, H. (2003). Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-226-89518-5.

Perrin, William F.; Würsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J.G.M., eds. (2002). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1.

Carwardine, Hoyt; Fordyce & Gill (1998). Whales & Dolphins: The Ultimate Guide to Marine Mammals. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-220105-6.

Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A; Bannikov, Andrei Grigorevich; Hoffmann, Robert S, Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume II, part 3 (1996). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The sperm whale or cachalot ( Physeter macrocephalus) is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus and one of three extant species in the sperm whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus .

# data[].attributes.body
National Geographic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads.

Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities

They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti. Whalers once believed that the oily fluid was sperm, but scientists still do not understand the function of spermaceti. One common theory is that the fluid-which hardens to wax when cold-helps the whale alter its buoyancy so it can dive deep and rise again. Sperm whales are known to dive as deep as 3,280 feet in search of squid to eat. These giant mammals must hold their breath for up to 90 minutes on such dives.

These toothed whales eat thousands of pounds of fish and squid-about one ton per day.

Sperm whales are often spotted in groups (called pods) of some 15 to 20 animals. Pods include females and their young, while males may roam solo or move from group to group. Females and calves remain in tropical or subtropical waters all year long, and apparently practice communal childcare. Males migrate to higher latitudes, alone or in groups, and head back towards the equator to breed. Driven by their tale fluke, approximately 16 feet from tip to tip, they can cruise the oceans at around 23 miles per hour.

These popular leviathans are vocal and emit a series of "clangs" that may be used for communication or for echolocation. Animals that use echolocation emit sounds that travel underwater until they encounter objects, then bounce back to their senders-revealing the location, size, and shape of their target.

Sperm whales were mainstays of whaling's 18th and 19th century heyday. A mythical albino sperm whale was immortalized in Herman Melville's Moby Dick, though Ahab's nemesis was apparently based on a real animal whalers called Mocha Dick. The animals were targeted for oil and ambergris, a substance that forms around squid beaks in a whale's stomach. Ambergris was (and remains) a very valuable substance once used in perfumes.

Despite large population drops due to whaling, sperm whales are still fairly numerous.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads. Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads.

Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities

They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti. Whalers once believed that the oily fluid was sperm, but scientists still do not understand the function of spermaceti. One common theory is that the fluid-which hardens to wax when cold-helps the whale alter its buoyancy so it can dive deep and rise again. Sperm whales are known to dive as deep as 3,280 feet in search of squid to eat. These giant mammals must hold their breath for up to 90 minutes on such dives.

These toothed whales eat thousands of pounds of fish and squid-about one ton per day.

Sperm whales are often spotted in groups (called pods) of some 15 to 20 animals. Pods include females and their young, while males may roam solo or move from group to group. Females and calves remain in tropical or subtropical waters all year long, and apparently practice communal childcare. Males migrate to higher latitudes, alone or in groups, and head back towards the equator to breed. Driven by their tale fluke, approximately 16 feet from tip to tip, they can cruise the oceans at around 23 miles per hour.

These popular leviathans are vocal and emit a series of "clangs" that may be used for communication or for echolocation. Animals that use echolocation emit sounds that travel underwater until they encounter objects, then bounce back to their senders-revealing the location, size, and shape of their target.

Sperm whales were mainstays of whaling's 18th and 19th century heyday. A mythical albino sperm whale was immortalized in Herman Melville's Moby Dick, though Ahab's nemesis was apparently based on a real animal whalers called Mocha Dick. The animals were targeted for oil and ambergris, a substance that forms around squid beaks in a whale's stomach. Ambergris was (and remains) a very valuable substance once used in perfumes.

Despite large population drops due to whaling, sperm whales are still fairly numerous.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads. Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads.

Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities

They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti. Whalers once believed that the oily fluid was sperm, but scientists still do not understand the function of spermaceti. One common theory is that the fluid-which hardens to wax when cold-helps the whale alter its buoyancy so it can dive deep and rise again. Sperm whales are known to dive as deep as 3,280 feet in search of squid to eat. These giant mammals must hold their breath for up to 90 minutes on such dives.

These toothed whales eat thousands of pounds of fish and squid-about one ton per day.

Sperm whales are often spotted in groups (called pods) of some 15 to 20 animals. Pods include females and their young, while males may roam solo or move from group to group. Females and calves remain in tropical or subtropical waters all year long, and apparently practice communal childcare. Males migrate to higher latitudes, alone or in groups, and head back towards the equator to breed. Driven by their tale fluke, approximately 16 feet from tip to tip, they can cruise the oceans at around 23 miles per hour.

These popular leviathans are vocal and emit a series of "clangs" that may be used for communication or for echolocation. Animals that use echolocation emit sounds that travel underwater until they encounter objects, then bounce back to their senders-revealing the location, size, and shape of their target.

Sperm whales were mainstays of whaling's 18th and 19th century heyday. A mythical albino sperm whale was immortalized in Herman Melville's Moby Dick, though Ahab's nemesis was apparently based on a real animal whalers called Mocha Dick. The animals were targeted for oil and ambergris, a substance that forms around squid beaks in a whale's stomach. Ambergris was (and remains) a very valuable substance once used in perfumes.

Despite large population drops due to whaling, sperm whales are still fairly numerous.

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Sperm whales are easily recognized by their massive heads and prominent rounded foreheads. Spermaceti and Diving Capabilities They have the largest brain of any creature known to have lived on Earth. Their heads also hold large quantities of a substance called spermaceti.

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Ocean Expeditions

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Wikipedia

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The false killer whale ( Pseudorca crassidens) is the fourth-largest dolphin, a member of the oceanic dolphins. It lives in temperate and tropical waters throughout the world. As its name implies, the false killer whale shares characteristics with the more widely known killer whale ( Orcinus orca), though the species belong to different genera within Delphinidae; as well as similarities in appearance, both species attack and kill other marine mammals.

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Facts & Pictures

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Contrary to what its name implies, the false killer whale is not directly related to the orca (killer whale). However, as with the orca, it is also not a whale but a large member of the dolphin family. It is often referred to as 'blackfish' with similar species such as the pygmy killer whale, melon-headed whale, and pilot whale. False killer whales are known for their depredation of fishing longlines and this behaviour has resulted in them being hunted and fired upon by fishermen in several parts of their range, including Japan where they are a target of the annual drive-hunt fisheries.

The false killer whale has a long, slender, uniformly black or dark grey body. Some individuals have a slightly paler head and sides, and sometimes a pale 'W' shape on the chest. It has a narrow, pointed head with a prominent, bulbous melon. It has no beak and in adult males the upper jaw sometimes slightly overhangs the lower one. The false killer whale has narrow, pointed flippers with a distinctive S-shaped elbow, and a large falcate dorsal fin mid-body which may or may not have a rounded or flattened tip. The size of a false killer whale and the narrow pointed head and S-shaped flippers distinguish it from the similar looking but much smaller pygmy killer whale and melon-headed whale.

The false killer whale is the only member of the blackfish group that bow-rides regularly, though other species are known to do so in certain areas. It is a fast moving energetic animal, not shy of boats. It is active and playful, often surfacing with its mouth open revealing its teeth. They are highly social and form strong bonds and are known to breach, lobtail, and porpoise while swimming energetically in pods of 10-60 individuals. Sometimes they will join together with other pods and create superpods of hundreds of animals. They are also one of the more common species known to mass strand and there is one extreme case of a mass stranding of more than 800 individuals. They can be seen in the company of other species including bottlenose dolphins.

Found in tropical to warm temperate waters of the three oceans, the diet of this species consists primarily of fish and cephalopods. Known occasionally to attack smaller dolphins as well as humpback and sperm whales, they generally eat large species of fish, such as mahi-mahi and tuna. This dependence on large fish may create the major threat to this species, as humans remove populations of one fish species after another as part of commercial fisheries. Other threats include accidental entanglement in fisheries gear, live capture for display and also chemical pollution. Overall, this is a relatively little-known species and abundance estimates and by-catch data do not exist for most areas; nor is it really known if this species migrates. The populations seem to be sparse and it is usually found only in deeper seas, which may help to explain why it has been little studied. It is currently designated by the IUCN as Near Threatened.

Please make a donation to support our work to protect whales and dolphins and their homes. Thank you.

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Contrary to what its name implies, the false killer whale is not directly related to the orca (killer whale). However, as with the orca, it is also not a whale but a large member of the dolphin family. It is often referred to as 'blackfish' with similar species such as the pygmy killer whale, melon-headed whale, and pilot whale.

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Smithsonian Video

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False killer whales are a species of dolphins known for being methodical group hunters. When they're pursuing prey, they can spread out into a band that's several miles wide! From: SECRETS OF SHARK ISLAND http://bit.ly/1N3BsAj

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Text & Pictures

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Species Directory

About The Species

False killer whales are social animals found globally in all tropical and subtropical oceans and generally in deep offshore waters. The false killer whale's entire body is black or dark gray, although lighter areas may occur ventrally (on its underside) between the flippers or on the sides of the head.

Fishery interactions is one of the main threats facing this species. False killer whales are known to depredate (take fish and bait off of fishing lines), which can lead to hooking and/or entanglement. This is especially a concern for false killer whales that interact with the Hawaiʻi longline fishery.

Due to its very small population size (about 150 individuals) and population decline in recent decades, the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale distinct population segment (DPS) is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. It is the only false killer whale population protected under the ESA. This stock is also listed as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.

NOAA Fisheries is committed to conserving and protecting false killer whales. Our scientists and partners use a variety of innovative techniques to study and protect this species.

Status

The broad pelagic distribution of most false killer whale populations make it difficult to estimate the global population size of this species.

The endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is estimated to number around 150 whales. The historical population size is unknown, though spotter planes in the late 1980s observed large aggregations of 350 to 400 whales in a single area. Aerial survey sightings since then suggest that the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale population declined at an average rate of 9 percent per year through at least the early 2000s. The current population trend is unknown.

The cause of this decline is unknown, but it's thought to be partially due to interactions with fisheries, especially before 1990 when longline fishing was more common in Hawaiʻi's nearshore waters. Annual variability in survey efforts within the range of the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale make it difficult to assess population trends, so it's unknown whether the population has continued to decline, recently stabilized, or recently increased.

A survey conducted in 2010 estimated the Hawaiʻi pelagic population of false killer whales to be roughly 1,550 individuals. Their historical population size is also unknown, though interactions with longline fisheries are known to have killed or seriously injured animals in this population since at least the late 1990s. There have been few large-scale surveys in Hawaiian waters, and changes in survey design (intended to provide more precise estimates given the social structure and behavior of false killer whales) make it difficult to determine trends in abundance for this pelagic population.

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, northern Gulf of Mexico, and western North Atlantic stocks (populations) are not as well-studied. Current population abundance estimates for all stocks (Hawaiian, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the western North Atlantic) can be found in the latest marine mammal stock assessment reports.
Learn more about the three populations of false killer whales in Hawaiʻi
Protected Status

ESA Endangered

Main Hawaiian Islands Insular DPS

MMPA Depleted

Main Hawaiian Islands Insular stock

Appearance

False killer whales are large members of the dolphin family. They are dark gray, often appearing black on all but a small part of their ventral (underside) surface, which is lighter between the pectoral fins running from the throat down to the belly.

The species is large and slender, and males are slightly larger than females. They have a small conical head without a beak. The front of an adult male's head hangs over the lower jaw to a greater extent than in females and is flattened in older males.

The pectoral fins or flippers have a distinct central hump creating an S-shape along the outer edge. The dorsal fin is located in the middle of the back and generally curves backward. In Hawaiian waters, dorsal fin shapes show a lot of variability, often caused by injury from fishery interactions.

Adult females reach lengths of 16 feet, while adult males are almost 20 feet long. In adulthood, large false killer whales can weigh up to 3,000 pounds.

Scientists can photo-identify individual whales through unique natural markings, such as scars to false killer whales' dorsal fins or scars from cookie cutter sharks. These prominent markings to the body and dorsal fin help distinguish one whale from another.

Behavior and Diet

False killer whales are gregarious and form strong social bonds. They are often found in relatively small subgroups of a single to a few individuals that are associated with a larger aggregation that may spread over tens of kilometers. These strong social bonds between groups and dispersion into small subgroups likely help them find prey.

When they capture prey, many individuals tend to converge, and their prey items may be shared among several animals in the group. In Hawaiʻi, these larger aggregations may include 40 to 50 animals altogether, whereas larger groups have been observed in other regions. They are known to strand in groups as well. In some regions, false killer whales are also found with other cetaceans (whales and dolphins), most notably bottlenose dolphins.

Although the range of the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale partially overlaps with the ranges of the Hawaiʻi pelagic and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands populations, genetic analyses, photo-identification, and social network analyses indicate that the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale population consists of a tight social network that is socially unconnected with the other two Hawaiʻi-based populations.

In addition to the social structure found among all three Hawaiian false killer whale populations, there is significant social structure within the main Hawaiian Islands insular population. A social network analysis indicates that this population can be broadly divided into four primary social clusters.

False killer whales are top predators that primarily hunt fish and squid. They feed both during the day and at night, hunt in dispersed subgroups, and converge when prey is captured. Prey sharing has also been observed among individuals in the group.

False killer whales can dive for up to 18 minutes and swim at high speeds to capture prey at depths of 300 to 500 meters. They often leap completely out of the water, particularly when attacking certain prey species. In Hawaiʻi, they are also known to throw fish high into the air before consuming them.

Where They Live

Habitat

False killer whales generally prefer offshore tropical to subtropical waters that are deeper than 3,300 feet.

Both main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whales and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands false killer whales maintain a more island-associated habitat, preferring to remain close to the Hawaiian Islands. This is likely due to the islands' unique oceanographic setting, which concentrates and aggregates prey.

Distribution

False killer whales occur in tropical, subtropical, and temperate waters of all ocean basins. In the United States, they are found around Hawaiʻi, in all Pacific Remote Island Areas, the Mariana Archipelago, and in American Samoa, as well in the Gulf of Mexico and in the warm Gulf Stream waters off the East Coast. False killer whales have been observed off the U.S. West Coast as far north as British Columbia, Canada, typically during warmer oceanographic regimes.
Learn more about the three populations of false killer whales in Hawaiʻi

Lifespan & Reproduction

The oldest estimated age of false killer whales (based on growth layers in teeth) is 63 years for females and 58 years for males.

Female false killer whales reach sexual maturity between the ages of 8 and 11, while males mature 8 to 10 years later. Gestation ranges from 11 to 16 months, and lactation occurs for 1.5 to 2 years. Time between births is unknown, but is estimated to be around 7 years. Female false killer whales enter menopause and become less reproductively successful between 44 and 55 years old.

Threats

Fishery Interactions

Fishery interactions occur when false killer whales take (or depredate) bait and catch off fishing lines. This action can result in incidental take-unintentional hooking and/or entanglement-as well as serious injury and/or death. False killer whales in Hawaiʻi, particularly main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whales, have a high rate of dorsal fin injuries and mouthline injuries, likely caused by efforts to take bait and catch from fishing lines.

Competition with Fisheries

Prey items for false killer whales are similar to many of the same species that fisheries target. This is particularly true in Hawaiʻi, where preferred fish for both false killer whales and consumers are tuna, billfish, wahoo, and mahimahi. Competition with fisheries can result in smaller and fewer prey for false killer whales, requiring them to spend more time and energy hunting for food.

Environmental Contaminants

False killer whales are long-lived, upper-trophic-level predators (that is, they're near the top of the food chain), so they accumulate high levels of toxins from the marine environment. Exposure to toxic chemicals in the marine environment, including persistent organic pollutants (industrial chemicals and pesticides, heavy metals, etc.), can result in a number of biological effects to marine mammals, such as diseases and reproductive issues. It can also affect the quality and quantity of false killer whales' prey. Although the United States has banned many of these chemicals, some continue to be used in other regions of the world and can be transported via atmospheric means or ocean currents.

Small Population Size

The small size of the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale population poses a unique threat to this group. Within a small, highly social population, the potential for reduced genetic diversity increases, potentially making the population more vulnerable to diseases or other environmental changes. Such environmental events may further harm the population by causing a genetic bottleneck-a reduction in the variation of the gene pool that only rebounds when the population breeds with other populations or enough random genetic mutations have accumulated over many generations. Such a small population may also suffer from a breakdown of cooperative feeding if an aggregation is not large enough to find adequate food.

Hunting

False killer whales are hunted in other parts of the world, including Indonesia, Japan, and the West Indies.

Scientific Classification

Animalia

Chordata

Mammalia

Cetacea

Delphinidae
Pseudorca crassidens

What We Do

Conservation & Management

We are committed to conserving and protecting all populations of false killer whales. We are especially committed to protecting populations in Hawaiʻi, including recovering the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale. Our work to protect and conserve this species includes:

Establishing a take reduction team and publishing a take reduction plan to reduce bycatch of Hawaiian false killer whales in commercial longline fisheries.

Listing the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale as an endangered DPS under the ESA

Developing a rule to designate critical habitat for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale.

Developing a recovery plan and implementation strategy to conserve and recover the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale.

Learn more about our conservation efforts

Science

We conduct various research activities on the biology, genetics, behavior, and ecology of false killer whales, with an emphasis on populations of the species in Hawaiʻi. The results of this research inform management decisions for all false killer whales and enhance recovery efforts for the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale DPS. Our work includes:

Performing stock assessments to gather population information.

Researching false killer whale social structure.

Collaborating with scientists to track the movements and behavior of Hawaiian false killer whales.

Identifying high-use areas of habitat in the main Hawaiian Islands.

Acoustically monitoring the Hawaiʻi-based longline fishery for interactions with false killer whales.Conducting necropsies on stranded false killer whales.

Learn more about our research

How You Can Help

Do Not Interact with Marine Animals in the Wild

Do not harass, feed, hunt, capture, kill, pursue, approach, surround, swim with, or attempt to touch protected marine wildlife. Never entice protected marine wildlife to approach you.

Disturbing wildlife interrupts their ability to perform critical functions such as feeding, breeding, nursing, resting, and socializing.

Report Marine Life in Distress

Call the NOAA Fisheries Enforcement Hotline at (800) 853-1964 to report a federal marine resource violation. This hotline is available 24 hours a day, 7 days week for anyone in the United States.

You may also contact your closest NOAA Office of Law Enforcement field office during regular business hours.

Population

Three populations or stocks of false killer whales occur in Hawaiʻi: the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands population, the pelagic population, and the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular population.

The entirety of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands stock range, with the exception of the area within 6.8 miles around the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau, is an overlap zone between the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and pelagic false killer whales. All three false killer whale stocks overlap between 6.8 miles from the shore around Kauaʻi and Niʻihau out to the main Hawaiian Islands insular stock boundary between Kauaʻi and Nihoa and to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands stock boundary between Kauaʻi and Oʻahu.

Despite having partially overlapping ranges, the three Hawaiian false killer whale populations don't socially interact or interbreed with one another. In fact, the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale can also be broadly divided into four social clusters, with mating occurring primarily, though not exclusively, within these clusters. This may further constrict the already limited gene flow within the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale population.

Main Hawaiian Islands Insular

The range of the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is described by a modified 44-mile radius (approximately 39 nautical miles) around the main Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaiʻi Island to Niʻihau and including waters farther offshore to the southeast. The waters farther than 44 miles from shore-from the Island of Oʻahu to Hawaiʻi Island and out to the main Hawaiian Islands insular stock boundary-are an overlap zone between the insular and pelagic stocks. Main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whales, the population we know the most about, move widely, quickly, and regularly throughout the main Hawaiian Islands. The greatest offshore movements occur on the leeward (western) sides of the islands, where individuals tend to spread out over much larger areas, both near and far from shore. When on the windward (eastern) sides, individuals concentrate closer to shore, heavily using areas in the 1,640- to 3,937-feet depth range, particularly north of Hawaiʻi Island, Maui, and Molokaʻi. Movements between islands may occur over the course of a few days, moving from the windward to leeward side and back within a day.

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Population

The range of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands population is delineated by a 58 mile radius around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Kauaʻi Island, with a slight latitudinal expansion of this area at the eastern end of the range.

Hawaiʻi Pelagic Population

The Hawaiʻi pelagic population includes false killer whales inhabiting waters more than 6.8 miles from the main Hawaiian Islands, including adjacent high-seas waters.

Management Overview

All false killer whales are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. The main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is protected under both the Endangered Species Act and the MMPA. NOAA Fisheries has taken steps to reduce incidental serious injury and death of false killer whales in the Hawaiʻi-based deep-set and shallow-set longline commercial fisheries. NOAA Fisheries has also proposed to designate critical habitat for the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale, with plans to finalize the designation in summer 2018. A recovery plan for ways to recover the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is also under development.

Recovery Planning and Implementation

Recovery Action

Under the ESA, NOAA Fisheries is required to develop and implement recovery plans for the conservation and survival of listed species. We are committed to the protection and recovery of the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale, with the ultimate goal of helping this distinct population segment recover from its very low population size. This would allow the population to be reclassified from "endangered" to "threatened" and ultimately removed from the list of protected species.

Although we are still drafting the recovery plan, it will recommend the following major actions:

Determine population trends and continue satellite tagging and photo-identification efforts.

Conduct fishing gear tests to understand how, why, and from which fisheries injuries are occurring so we can reduce or eliminate injury and mortality caused by fisheries and fishing gear.

Establish and implement a state of Hawaiʻi non-commercial fishing license.

Target outreach and awareness to specific fishermen, boaters, and tour operators to effectively mitigate or reduce interactions with false killer whales.

Acquire biopsy samples to better understand types and effects from environmental contaminants.

Protect, maintain, and enhance habitat.

Recovery Outline

The ESA mandates that NOAA Fisheries develop and implement recovery plans for the conservation and survival of ESA-listed species under its jurisdiction. We developed a recovery outline (PDF, 23 pages) to systematically and cohesively guide recovery actions for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale until we complete a recovery plan.

Recovery Planning Workshop

On October 25-28, 2016, we held a recovery planning workshop for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale. The purpose of the workshop was to review and update the original threats analysis from the 2012 final listing rule and the 2010 Status Review Report, as well as identify potential recovery criteria and actions to address the threats to the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale. Participants included federal and state agencies, scientific experts, commercial and recreational fishermen, conservation partners, and nongovernmental organizations.

Recovery Plan Preparation

In addition to using recovery planning guidance, we are using a new approach developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and recently endorsed by NOAA Fisheries. The strategy, briefly described below, will make recovery planning more efficient and effective and to create a more dynamic and flexible plan, presented in two independent parts-a species status assessment and the recovery plan-so it can more easily be updated.

Species Status Assessment

Using the 2010 Status Review Report for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale as a foundation, we are developing an up-to-date species status assessment. A species status assessment is a stand-alone document that summarizes the status of the species and can be updated as necessary with new information and used for various purposes, including 5-year reviews, section 7 analyses, and section 10 conservation plans. Traditionally, this information was included in the background of a recovery plan and became outdated quickly. As a stand-alone living document, information can be kept more relevant.

Recovery Plan

We are currently drafting a recovery plan for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale. The three statutory elements required in a recovery plan will be contained in this second stand-alone document:

1. Objective, measurable recovery criteria.

2. A description of site-specific management actions necessary to conserve the species.

3. Estimates of the time and costs required to achieve the plan's goals.

In addition, a brief introduction to the plan will describe its vision (what the recovered species looks like) and strategy (the rationale for, and how we plan to get to a recovered state). This introduction will provide the trail of logic for recovery and reference the species status assessment.

The draft species status assessment and draft recovery plan will undergo peer review as well as public review and comment before being finalized.
Learn more about the recovery of species under the Endangered Species Act
Critical Habitat Designation

On July 24, 2018, NOAA Fisheries published a final rule to designate critical habitat under the ESA for main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whales in waters from 45 meters to 3,200 meters (49 to 3,500 yards) in depth surrounding the main Hawaiian Islands (from Ni'ihau to Hawai'i Island). This designation does not include most bays, harbors, or coastal in-water structures. Within this larger area, NOAA Fisheries excluded 10 areas from the designation due to economic and national security impacts. In addition, two areas are ineligible for designation because they are managed under the Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan that was found to benefit main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whales. The total area includes approximately 49,948 km² (19,280 mi²) of marine habitat.
Learn more about the final rule to designate critical habitat for the main Hawaiian islands insular false killer whale DPS
Conservation Efforts

Reducing Interactions with Fishing Gear

Bycatch in fishing gear is a leading cause of false killer whale deaths and injuries. To reduce deaths and serious injuries of false killer whales from Hawaii-based deep-set and shallow-set longline fisheries, NOAA Fisheries established a take reduction team. We then published a final take reduction plan and final rule to implement the plan in 2012, based on the take reduction team's recommendations. The final rule includes gear requirements ("weak" circle hooks and strong branch lines) in the deep-set longline fishery, longline fishing closure areas, training and certification for vessel owners and captains in marine mammal handling and release, captains' supervision of marine mammal handling and release, and posting of placards on longline vessels to aid in species identification and handling and release techniques. We also develop research priorities to support the plan's implementation and inform development of potential future amendments, and we monitor its progress toward achieving MMPA goals.
Learn more about the False Killer Whale Take Reduction Plan
False killer whales are classified as data deficient on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. NOAA Fisheries funds several research studies on life history and stock structure of false killer whales in Hawaiʻi.

Partnering with the State of Hawaiʻi

NOAA Fisheries partners with the State of Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources' Department of Aquatic Resources to undertake cooperative conservation and long-term management of the endangered main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale. Our objectives include:

Conducting field work to address false killer whales' spatial and temporal habitat use.

Analyzing overlap between false killer whales and Hawaiʻi state fisheries.

Investigating strandings.

Providing targeted outreach to specific fishers, boaters, and tour operators to mitigate or reduce interactions with false killer whales, improve species identification to complement research, and increase public reporting of strandings.

These efforts are funded in part via an ESA section 6 cooperative agreement grant.

Overseeing Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response

We work with volunteer networks in all coastal states to respond to marine mammal strandings. When stranded animals are found alive, NOAA Fisheries and our partners assess the animal's health. When stranded animals are found dead, our scientists work to understand and investigate the cause of death. Although the cause often remains unknown, scientists can sometimes identify strandings due to disease, harmful algal blooms, vessel strikes, fishing gear entanglements, pollution exposure, and underwater noise. Some strandings can serve as indicators of ocean health, giving insight into larger environmental issues that may also have implications for human health and welfare.
Learn more about the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program
Regulatory History

False Killer Whale Populations Managed under the MMPA

All false killer whales that reside in the United States are protected under the MMPA. Although there are three populations or stocks of false killer whales in Hawaiian waters, only the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is listed as depleted (i.e., they have fallen below their optimum sustainable population level). Under the MMPA, the False Killer Whale Take Reduction Plan addresses the threat of incidental serious injury and death of false killer whales in the Hawaiʻi-based deep-set and shallow-set longline fisheries.

False Killer Whale Populations Managed under the ESA

The main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale is the only false killer whale population protected under the ESA.

In 2009, NOAA Fisheries received a petition [PDF, 29 pages] to list the Main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale as an endangered species and designate critical habitat under the ESA.

NOAA Fisheries reviewed the petition and determined that a status review for the Main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale should be conducted.

On November 17, 2010, NOAA Fisheries completed a status review of the Main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale and proposed to list it as an endangered DPS under the ESA. Read the ESA status review report.

On November 28, 2012, NOAA Fisheries published a final rule listing the Main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale as an endangered DPS under the ESA.

In August 2018, NOAA Fisheries published a final rule to designate critical habitat under the ESA for the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale in waters from 45 meters to 3,200 meters in depth surrounding the main Hawaiian Islands (from Niʻihau to Hawaiʻi Island).

NOAA Fisheries is developing a recovery plan to identify actions that will protect the main Hawaiian Islands insular false killer whale.

Key Actions and Documents

NOAA Fisheries has issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to the Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO) to incidentally harass, by Level B harassment only, marine mammals during a low-energy marine geophysical survey in the South Atlantic...

NOAA Fisheries issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to the Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO) to incidentally harass, by Level A and Level B harassment, marine mammals during a low-energy marine geophysical survey in the Southwest...

NOAA Fisheries has issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (L-DEO) to incidentally harass, by Level A and Level B harassment, marine mammals during seismic activities associated with a marine geophysical...

NOAA Fisheries has received a request from the U.S. Navy (Navy) to extend the expiration date from December 2023 to December 2025 for Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) regulations authorizing the take of marine mammals incidental to Navy training and...

Science

NOAA Fisheries conducts research on the biology, behavior, ecology, and genetics of false killer whales, with a special focus on Hawaiian false killer whales. We use the results of this research to inform management decisions, further direct scientific research, and enhance conservation and recovery efforts for the species.

In collaboration with fishermen of the Hawaiʻi longline deep-set fishery, we conduct research to investigate interactions between false killer whales and fishing gear. We deploy small, autonomous acoustic recorders on longline fishing gear to acoustically monitor fishing sets for the presence of false killer whales. We compare the acoustic presence of false killer whales to fishing activity and depredation rates to assess vessel and gear sounds and false killer whale occurrence and behavior around gear, as well as to identify potential acoustic cues.

Visual Observations

We collect observations of whales and dolphins following line-transect protocols. Observers continuously search for animals using 25x150 "big-eye" binoculars to scan 180° forward of the ship. When they spot whales or dolphins, the visual team identifies the species and each observer independently estimates the number of animals in the group.

Passive Acoustic Surveys

Sound travels much farther in water than light, and cetaceans commonly use sound rather than vision to communicate with each other and find food. Just as cetaceans listen for each other and for their prey, we can listen to their sounds to locate groups of whales and dolphins.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Target species for Unmanned Aircraft Systems operations include false killer whales, short-finned pilot whales, sperm whales, and Bryde's whales. We may also conduct flights during sightings of rare and high-profile species, such as killer whales, blue whales, and North Pacific right whales, to maximize the information gained from such unique opportunities.

Surveying with Drifting Autonomous Spar Buoy Recorders

We've broadly used autonomous (no human intervention needed) stationary acoustic recorders to understand the distribution and seasonality of cetaceans throughout the world's oceans. Our scientists maintain a network of seafloor-anchored passive acoustic listening stations to listen for cetaceans and understand ocean noise.

Identifying "Mystery Whales" Using Environmental DNA

The name eDNA derives from the collection method-essentially, we are detecting the DNA of an individual as it passes through the environment and sheds small bits of tissue, such as sloughed skin.

Ocean Noise Reference Stations

To monitor ocean noise, NOAA has deployed acoustic monitoring stations throughout U.S. waters that together make up the Ocean Noise Reference Station Network. One of these stations is located approximately 100 miles north of Oʻahu.

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False killer whales are social animals found globally in all tropical and subtropical oceans and generally in deep offshore waters. The false killer whale's entire body is black or dark gray, although lighter areas may occur ventrally (on its unders

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Wikipedia

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Beaked whales ( systematic name Ziphiidae) are a family of cetaceans noted as being one of the least-known groups of mammals because of their deep-sea habitat, reclusive behavior and apparent low abundance. Only three or four of the 24 existing species are reasonably well-known. Baird's beaked whales and Cuvier's beaked whales were subject to commercial exploitation, off the coast of Japan, while the northern bottlenose whale was extensively hunted in the northern part of the North Atlantic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Reports emerged in late 2020 of the possible discovery of a new beaked whale species off the coast of Mexico, the taxonomy of which had not been determined as of December 2020.

Blainville's beaked whale

Beaked whales are moderate in size, ranging from 4.0 to 13 metres (13.1 to 42.7 ft) and weighing from 1.0 to 15 tonnes (0.98 to 14.76 long tons; 1.1 to 16.5 short tons). Their key distinguishing feature is the presence of a 'beak', somewhat similar to many dolphins. Other distinctive features include a pair of converging grooves under the throat, and the absence of a notch in the tail fluke. Although Shepherd's beaked whale is an exception, most species have only one or two pairs of teeth, and even these do not erupt in females (other than in the genus Berardius). Beaked whale species are often sexually dimorphic - one or the other sex is significantly larger. The adult males often possess a large bulging forehead, some to an extreme feature. However, aside from dentition and size, very few morphological differences exist between male and female beaked whales.

Individual species are very difficult to identify in the wild, since body form varies little from one species to another. The observer must rely on often subtle differences in size, color, forehead shape, and beak length. In the skull, the expansion of the premaxillary process can be a key feature to identification.

The blubber of these whales is almost entirely (94%) composed of wax ester, a unique characteristic of this family.

Beaked whales are unique among toothed whales in that most species only have one pair of teeth. The teeth are tusk-like, but are only visible in males, which are presumed to use these teeth in combat for females for reproductive rights. In females, the teeth do not develop and remain hidden in the gum tissues.

In December 2008, researchers from the Marine Mammal Institute at Oregon State University completed a DNA tree of 13 of 15 known species of Mesoplodon beaked whales (excluding the spade-toothed whale, which was then only known from a skeletal specimen and a few stranded specimens). Among the results of this study was the conclusion that the male's teeth are actually a secondary sexual characteristic, similar to the antlers of male deer. Each species' teeth have a characteristically unique shape. In some cases, these teeth even hinder feeding; in the strap-toothed whale, for example, the teeth curve over the upper jaw, effectively limiting the gape to a few centimeters. Females are presumed to select mates based on the shape of the teeth, because the different species are otherwise quite similar in appearance.

The social structure is not well known, but sightings of single males accompanying multiple females suggest a polygynous mating system, which would considerably limit the number of males a female can choose.

Beaked whales comprise at least 22 species. Several species have been described only in the last two decades. Six genera have been identified.

The beaked whales are the second-largest family of cetaceans (after the dolphins). They were one of the first groups to diverge from the ancestral lineage. The earliest known beaked whale fossils date to the Miocene, about 15 million years ago.

Arnoux's beaked whale

Order Cetacea

Suborder Odontoceti: toothed whales
Family Ziphiidae

Incertae sedis

Basal forms

Subfamily Berardiinae

Subfamily Hyperoodontinae

Genus †Africanacetus

Genus †Belemnoziphius

Genus Hyperoodon, bottlenose whales

Genus †Ihlengesi

Genus Indopacetus

Genus †Khoikhoicetus

Genus Mesoplodon, mesoplodont whales

M. bidens, Sowerby's beaked whale

M. bowdoini, Andrews' beaked whale

M. carlhubbsi, Hubbs' beaked whale

M. densirostris, Blainville's beaked whale

M. eueu, Ramari's beaked whale

M. europaeus, Gervais's beaked whale

M. ginkgodens, ginkgo-toothed beaked whale

M. grayi, Gray's beaked whale

M. hectori, Hector's beaked whale

M. layardii, strap-toothed whale

M. mirus, True's beaked whale

M. peruvianus, pygmy beaked whale

M. perrini, Perrin's beaked whale

M. stejnegeri, Stejneger's beaked whale

M. traversii, spade-toothed whale

M. hotaula, Deraniyagala's beaked whale[15]

Genus †Nenga

Genus †Pterocetus

Genus †Xhosacetus

Subfamily Ziphiinae

As many as 26 genera antedate humans. These include ancestors of giant beaked whales (), such as Microberardius, and ancestors of Cuvier's beaked whale (); they had many relatives, such as Caviziphius, Archaeoziphius, and Izikoziphius. They were probably preyed upon by predatory whales and sharks, including Otodus megalodon. Recently,[when? ] a large fossil ziphiid sample was discovered off the South African coast, confirming the extant ziphiid diversity might just be a remnant of a higher past diversity. After studying numerous fossil skulls off the shore of Iberia and South Africa, researchers discovered the absence of functional maxillary teeth in all South African fossil ziphiids, which is evidence that suction feeding had already developed in several beaked whale lineages during the Miocene. Researchers also found fossil ziphiids with robust skulls, signaling that tusks were used for male-male interactions (speculated with extant beaked whales).

Beaked whales are deep divers with extreme dive profiles. They regularly dive deeper than 500 m (1,600 ft) to echolocate for food, and these deep dives are often followed by multiple shallower dives less than 500 m. This pattern is not always followed, however. Animals have been observed spending more than an hour at or near the surface breathing. Beaked whales are often seen surfacing synchronously, but asynchronous surfacing has also been observed. In March 2014, a study by Cascadia Research revealed that Cuvier's beaked whales were recorded to dive at least 2992 m in depth, a mammalian record. Another study, published in 2020, reported a Cuvier's beaked whale making a dive that lasted 222 minutes, another mammalian record.

Deep-diving mammals face a number of challenges related to extended breath-holding and hydrostatic pressure. Cetaceans and pinnipeds that prolong apnea must optimize the size and use of their oxygen stores, and they must deal with the accumulation of lactic acid due to anaerobic metabolism. Beaked whales have several anatomical adaptations to deep diving: large spleens, livers, and body shape. Most cetaceans have small spleens. However, beaked whales have much larger spleens than delphinids, and may have larger livers, as well. These anatomical traits, which are important for filtering blood, could be adaptations to deep diving. Another notable anatomical adaptation among beaked whales is a slight depression in the body wall that allows them to hold their pectoral flippers tightly against their bodies for increased streamlining. However, they are not invulnerable to the effects of diving so deep and so often. Cascadia Research shows that the deeper the whales dive, the less often they dive per day, cutting their efforts by at least 40%.

The challenges of deep diving are also overcome by the unique diving physiology of beaked whales. Oxygen storage during dives is mostly achieved by blood hemoglobin and muscle myoglobin. While the whale is diving, its heart rate slows and blood flow changes. This physiological dive response ensures oxygen-sensitive tissues maintain a supply of oxygen, while those tissues tolerant to hypoxia receive less blood flow. Additionally, lung collapse obviates the exchange of lung gas with blood, likely minimizing the uptake of nitrogen by tissues.

The throats of all beaked whales have a bilaterally paired set of grooves that are associated with their unique feeding mechanism, suction feeding. Instead of capturing prey with their teeth, beaked whales suck it into their oral cavity. Suction is aided by the throat grooves, which stretch and expand to accommodate food. Their tongues can move very freely. By suddenly retracting the tongue and distending the gular (throat) floor, pressure immediately drops within the mouth, sucking the prey in with the water.

Dietary information is available from stomach contents analyses of stranded beaked whales and from whaling operations. Their preferred diet is primarily deep-water squid, but also benthic and benthopelagic fish and some crustaceans, mostly taken near the sea floor. In a recent study, gouge marks in the sea floor were interpreted to be a result of feeding activities by beaked whales.

To understand the hunting and foraging behavior of beaked whales, researchers used sound and orientation recording devices on two species: Cuvier's beaked whale ( Ziphius cavirostris) and Blainville's beaked whale ( Mesoplodon densirostris). These whales hunt by echolocation in deep water (where the majority of their prey is located) between about 200 and 1,885 m (656 and 6,184 ft) and usually catch about 30 prey per dive. Cuvier's beaked whales must forage on average at 1,070 m (3,510 ft) for 58 minutes and Blainville's beaked whales typically forage at 835 m (2,740 ft) deep for an average of 47 minutes.

The family Ziphiidae is one of the most widespread families of cetaceans, ranging from the ice edges at both the north and south poles, to the equator in all the oceans. Specific ranges vary greatly by species, though beaked whales typically inhabit offshore waters that are at least 300 m deep.

Beaked whales are known to congregate in deep waters off the edge of continental shelves, and bottom features, such as seamounts, canyons, escarpments, and oceanic islands, including the Azores and the Canary Islands, and even off the coasts of Hawaii.

Very little is known about the life history of beaked whales. The oldest recorded age is 84 years for a male Baird's beaked whale and 54 years for a female. For all other beaked whale species studied, the oldest recorded age is between 27 and 39 years. Sexual maturity is reached between seven and 15 years of age in Baird's beaked whales and northern bottlenose whales. Gestation varies greatly between species, lasting 17 months for Baird's beaked whales and 12 months for the northern bottlenose whale. No data are available on their reproductive rates.

Determining group size for beaked whales is difficult, due to their inconspicuous surfacing behavior. Groups of beaked whales, defined as all individuals found in the same location at the same time, have been reported as ranging from one to 100 individuals. Nevertheless, some populations' group size has been estimated from repeated observations. For example, northern and southern bottlenose whales ( H. ampullatus and H. planifrons), Cuvier's beaked whales, and Blainville's beaked whales ( Mesoplodon densirostris) have a reported maximum group size of 20 individuals, with the average ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 individuals. Berardius species and Longman's beaked whales ( Indopacetus pacificus) are found in larger groups of up to 100 individuals.

Not much information is available about group composition of beaked whales. Only three species have been studied in any detail: northern bottlenose whales, Blainville's beaked whales, and Baird's beaked whales. Female northern bottlenose whales appear to form a loose network of social partners with no obvious long-term associations. In contrast to females, some male northern bottlenose whales have been repeatedly recorded together over several years, and possibly form long-term associations. Studies of Blainville's beaked whales have revealed groups usually consist of a number of females, calves, and/or juvenile animals. These whales are assumed to live in "harem-like" groups, where several females and young are accompanied by a single male. Baird's beaked whales are known to occur in multiple male groups, and in large groups consisting of adult animals of both sexes. Arnoux's beaked whales have also been observed to form large pods of up to 47 individuals off the Southern Ocean off the coast of Kemp Land, Antarctica.

For many years, most beaked whale species were insulated from anthropogenic impacts because of their remote habitat. However, now several issues of concern include:

Studies of stranded beaked whales show rising levels of toxic chemicals in their blubber.

As a top predator, beaked whales, like raptors, are particularly vulnerable to build-up of biocontaminants. They can ingest plastic (which can be lethal).

They more frequently become trapped in trawl nets, due to the expansion of deepwater fisheries.

Decompression sickness

A major conservation concern for beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) is they appear to be vulnerable to modern sonar operations, which arises from recent strandings that temporally and physically coincide with naval sonar exercises. Mid-frequency active sonar (MFAS), developed in the 1950s for submarine detection, is thought to induce panic when experienced by whales at depth. This raises their heart-rates, forcing them to attempt to rapidly ascend toward the surface in search of air. This artificially-induced rapid ascent can cause decompression.

Post mortem examinations of the stranded whales in concurrence with naval exercises have reported the presence of hemorrhaging near the ears or gas and fat emboli, which could have a deleterious impact on beaked whales that is analogous to decompression sickness in humans. Gas and fat emboli have been shown to cause nervous and cardiovascular system dysfunction, respiratory distress, pain, and disorientation in both humans and animals. In the inner ear, gas embolism can cause hemorrhages, leading to disorientation or vestibular dysfunction.

Breath-holding divers, like beaked whales, can develop decompression-related problems (the "bends") when they return to the surface after deep dives. This is a possible hypothesis for the mass strandings of pelagic beaked whales associated with sonar-related activities. To illustrate, a diving beaked whale may be surfacing from a deep dive and must pass vertically through varying received sound levels. Since the whale has limited remaining oxygen supplies at the end of a long dive, it probably has limited abilities to display any normal sound avoidance behavior. Instead, the whale must continue to swim toward the surface to replenish its oxygen stores. Avoiding sonar inevitably requires a change in behavior or surfacing pattern. Therefore, sonar in close proximity to groups of beaked whales has the potential to cause hemorrhaging or to disorient the animal, eventually leading to a stranding.

Current research reveals two species of beaked whales are most affected by sonar: Cuvier's ( Z. cavirostris) and Blainville's ( M. densirostris) beaked whales. These animals have been reported as stranding in correlation with military exercises in Greece, the Bahamas, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. The livers of these animals had the most damage.

In 2019, a review of evidence on the mass strandings of beaked whale linked to naval exercises where sonar was used was published. It concluded that the effects of mid-frequency active sonar are strongest on Cuvier's beaked whales but vary among individuals or populations, and the strength of their response may depend on whether the individuals had prior exposure to sonar. The report considered that the most plausible explanation of the symptoms of decompression sickness such as gas embolism found in stranded whales to be the whales' response to sonar. It noted that no more mass strandings had occurred in the Canary Islands once naval exercises where sonar was used were banned there, and recommended that the ban be extended to other areas where mass strandings continue to occur.

Four species are classified by the IUCN as "lower risk, conservation dependent": Arnoux's and Baird's beaked whales, and the northern and southern bottlenose whales. The status of the remaining species is unknown, preventing classification.

Beaked whales live very short lives in captivity when compared to other cetaceans such as common bottlenose dolphins and short-finned pilot whales, most surviving only a few days out of the ocean.[better source needed ] The longest time period for a beaked whale living in captivity was 25 days. Alexander and Nicholas, two male beaked whales-their species unknown, though they were thought to be either Hubbs' beaked whale or Blainville's beaked whale-had become stranded in California on 24 August 1989. They were taken to Marine World California. Both of the whales would die of pneumonia; Nicholas died on 8 September and Alexander died 10 days later.

A handful of other beaked whales have been briefly kept in captivity. A juvenile female Cuvier's beaked whale was found stranded on a kelp bed off of Santa Catalina Island on 23 February 1956. She was taken to Marineland of the Pacific, where she was named Martha Washington. On 16 June 1969, a Cuvier's beaked whale live stranded in St. Augustine. The whale, thought to be a male, was then transported to Marineland of Florida. It is unknown what happened to the whale, but it was still alive on 18 June 1969.

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Beaked whales ( systematic name Ziphiidae) are a family of cetaceans noted as being one of the least-known groups of mammals because of their deep-sea habitat, reclusive behavior and apparent low abundance. Only three or four of the 24 existing species are reasonably well-known.

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Facts & Pictures

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Cuvier's beaked whale or the goose-beaked whale ( Ziphius cavirostris), the only member of the genus Ziphius , is the most widely distributed of all the beaked whales. It is one of the most frequently seen beaked whales, despite preferring deep pelagic waters, usually deeper than 1,000 m (3,300 ft).

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Wikipedia

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The short-finned pilot whale primarily feeds on squid, but will also feed on certain species of fish and octopus. They feed nearly 300 meters (1000 ft) deep or more, and spend great lengths of time at depth. A pod may spread out up to 800 meters (.5 mi) to cover more area to find food.

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Species Guide

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Globicephala macrorhynchus

There are currently two recognised species of pilot whale, the short-finned and long-finned, although it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish the two species from one another whilst at sea. Their distributional range rarely overlaps however with the short-finned species preferring warm temperate and tropical waters and the long-finned species favouring colder temperate conditions. In Japan, there are two morphologically and geographically distinct populations of short-finned pilot whales, one northern and one southern. It is believed that they are in fact separate subspecies however further examination is required.

Pilot whales are large, robust animals with a bulbous head and no discernible beak. The flippers are long with a pointed tip, though in the short-finned form they are more curved, slightly shorter and the 'elbow' is less defined than in the long-finned form. The dorsal fin is set forward on the body and varies in shape depending on age and sex. The tail flukes also have sharply pointed tips plus a distinct notch in the middle and concave edges. The short-finned pilot whale is jet black or dark grey with a grey or white 'saddle-patch' over its back behind the dorsal fin. It has a grey or almost white anchor shaped patch on its chest and a grey or white stripe which goes diagonally upwards behind each eye.

Short-finned pilot whales are highly sociable and are rarely seen alone. They are found in groups of between 15-50 animals, though some pods are as large as 60 individuals. Super-pods of hundreds of individuals are not uncommon and may swim abreast in a line several miles across with adults occasionally porpoising when swimming fast. They are sometimes seen logging and will allow boats to get quite close. They rarely breach, but may be seen lobtailing, spyhopping and surfing in the wake of large waves. Short-finned pilot whales have a preference for water about 1000m deep and are often found on continental slopes where their main prey item, squid is abundant. Their highly social nature and strong familial bonds could explain why this species is amongst those cetaceans that most frequently mass-strand. Males are thought to live to be about 45 years of age whilst females are thought to survive into their 60's.

Short-finned pilot whales have been found as far north as the coast of France, but more common places to see this species include the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and offshore islands off Northwest Africa. Populations of short-finned pilot whales are present in some waters all year round, for example in Hawaii and Tenerife, but most groups seem to range widely. The species tends to stay offshore, unless their main prey of squid are spawning, in which case they may move closer inshore. The worldwide population of short-finned pilot whales is unknown and although they are not thought to be threatened on a global scale, several populations are hunted. Targeted in Japanese drive fisheries and other hunts elsewhere, the short-finned pilot whale is also favoured as a display species in dolphinaria around the world. Other threats to the species include entanglement in fishing nets and noise pollution. The IUCN lists the species as Data Deficient.

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Globicephala macrorhynchus There are currently two recognised species of pilot whale, the short-finned and long-finned, although it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish the two species from one another whilst at sea. Their distributional range rarely overlaps however with the short-finned species preferring warm temperate and tropical waters and the long-finned species favouring colder temperate conditions.

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Facts

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Species Directory

About The Species

Short-finned pilot whales are found globally in tropical and temperate oceans. They are one of two species of pilot whale, along with the long-finned pilot whale. The two species differ slightly in size, features, coloration, and pattern. In the field and at sea, it is very difficult to tell the difference between the two species.

Short-finned pilot whales are long-live, slow to reproduce, and highly social. They live in stable groups of 15 to 30 animals comprised of close family relatives, and tend to live in localized, resident populations, although some populations have wider ranges. Their diet consists primarily of squid, with a small amount of fish. They are commonly found along the coast close to the continental shelf, although some populations have been found to extend into deep, open ocean environments, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Pilot whales are often involved in mass strandings for reasons that are still unclear.

Three stocks of short-finned pilot whales are recognized in U.S. waters, which live along the U.S. east and west coasts, and around the Hawaiian Islands. On the west coast, short-finned pilot whales were once commonly seen, with an apparently resident population around Santa Catalina Island. After a strong El Niño in 1982 and 1983, short-finned pilot whales virtually disappeared from this area, and there are now thought to about 800 animals in the West Coast stock. About 21,500 animals live in the East Coast stock, and about 9,000 animals are thought to live in the Hawaiian stock.

Status

Short-finned pilot whales, like all marine mammals, are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.
Review the most recent stock assessment reports with population estimates for short-finned pilot whales
Protected Status

SPAW Annex II

Throughout the Wider Caribbean Region

Appearance

The short-finned pilot whale has a bulbous melon head with no obvious beak. Its dorsal fin is far forward on its body and has a relatively long base. The body its black or dark brown, with a large gray saddle behind the dorsal fin.

Behavior and Diet

Short-finned pilot whales feed mainly on squid, but they may also feed on octopuses and fish, all from moderately deep water of 1,000 feet or more. When they are swimming and probably looking for food, a pilot whale group can spread out over an area a half-mile wide.

Short-finned pilot whales often occur in groups of 25 to 50 animals. Males have more than one mate-typically a group has one mature male for every eight mature females. Males generally leave their birth school, while females may stay in theirs for their entire lives.

They are known as the "cheetahs of the deep sea" for their deep, high-speed dives to chase and capture large squid.

Where They Live

Short-finned pilot whales prefer warmer tropical and temperate waters. They can be found at varying distances from shore, but typically prefer deeper waters. Areas with a high density of squid are their main foraging habitats.

Lifespan & Reproduction

Short-finned pilot whales mature at around 10 years of age. The maximum lifespan is 45 years for males and 60 years for females.

Females have calves every 5 to 8 years. Older females do not give birth as often as younger females. They are pregnant for about 15 months, then nurse for at least two years. The last calf born to a mother may be nursed for as long as 15 years.

Threats

Entanglement in Fishing Gear

Short-finned pilot whales can become entangled in fishing gear, either swimming off with the gear attached or becoming anchored. They can become entangled in many different gear types, including gillnets, longlines, and trawls. Once entangled or hooked, whales may drag and swim with attached gear for long distances, resulting in fatigue, compromised feeding ability, or severe injury, which may lead to reduced reproductive success and death.

Hunting

Short-finned pilot whales are directly targeted and hunted in Japan and the Lesser Antilles.

Vessel Strikes

Vessel strikes can injure or kill short-finned pilot whales. Scarred short-finned pilot whales have been observed in Hawaiian waters.

Scientific Classification

Animala

Chordata

Mammalia

Cetacea

Delphinidae
Globicephala macrorhynchus

What We Do

Conservation & Management

We are committed to protecting short-finned pilot whales. Our work includes:

Reducing interactions with fishing gear.

Minimizing the effects of noise disturbance.

Responding to stranded pilot whales.

Educating the public about pilot whales and the threats they face.

Monitoring population abundance and distribution.

Learn more about our conservation efforts

Science

Our research projects have discovered new aspects of pilot whale biology, behavior, and ecology and helped us better understand the challenges that all pilot whales face. This research is especially important in maintaining populations. Our work includes:

Learn more about our research

How You Can Help

Report Marine Life in Distress

Call the NOAA Fisheries Enforcement Hotline at (800) 853-1964 to report a federal marine resource violation. This hotline is available 24 hours a day, 7 days week for anyone in the United States.

You may also contact your closest NOAA Office of Law Enforcement field office during regular business hours.

Management Overview

This species is protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 as amended.

Conservation Efforts

Reducing Interactions with Fishing Gear

Bycatch in fishing gear is a leading cause of short-finned pilot whale deaths and injuries in U.S. waters.

To reduce serious injuries and deaths of several marine mammal stocks incidental to the California thresher shark/swordfish drift gillnet fishery, NOAA Fisheries implemented the Pacific Offshore Cetacean Take Reduction Plan. Representatives from NOAA, the fishing industry, regional fishery management councils, state and federal resource management agencies, the scientific community, and conservation organizations worked together to develop the plan. The plan includes gear modifications, such as net extenders and pingers, as well as skipper education workshops.

To reduce deaths and serious injuries of long-finned pilot whales from certain commercial fisheries in the western North Atlantic, NOAA Fisheries implemented the Atlantic Pelagic Longline Take Reduction Plan. Representatives from NOAA, the fishing industry, regional fishery management councils, state and federal resource management agencies, the scientific community, and conservation organizations worked together to develop the plan. The plan includes a special research area, gear modifications, outreach material, observer coverage, and captains' communications.
Learn more about bycatch and fisheries interactions
Reducing Vessel Strikes

Collisions between whales and large vessels can injure or kill the whales and damage the vessels, but they often go unnoticed and unreported. The most effective way to reduce collision risk is to keep whales and vessels apart. If this is not possible, second best is for vessels to slow down and keep a lookout.
Learn more about reducing vessel strikes
Addressing Ocean Noise

Underwater noise threatens whale populations, interrupting their normal behavior and driving them away from areas important to their survival. Increasing evidence suggests that exposure to intense underwater sound in some settings may cause some whales to strand and ultimately die. NOAA Fisheries is investigating all aspects of acoustic communication and hearing in marine animals, as well as the effects of sound on whale behavior and hearing. In 2016, we issued technical guidance for assessing the effects of anthropogenic (human-caused) sound on marine mammal hearing.
Learn more about ocean noise Overseeing Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response
We work with volunteer networks in all coastal states to respond to marine mammal strandings. When stranded animals are found alive, NOAA Fisheries and our partners assess the animal's health. When stranded animals are found dead, our scientists work to understand and investigate the cause of death. Although the cause often remains unknown, scientists can sometimes identify strandings due to disease, harmful algal blooms, vessel strikes, fishing gear entanglements, pollution exposure, and underwater noise. Some strandings can serve as indicators of ocean health, giving insight into larger environmental issues that may also have implications for human health and welfare.
Learn more about the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program
Educating the Public

NOAA Fisheries aims to increase public awareness and support for pilot whale conservation through education, outreach, and public participation. We regularly share information with the public about the status of pilot whales, as well as our research and efforts to promote their recovery.

Regulatory History

In 1997, NOAA Fisheries implemented the Pacific Offshore Cetacean Take Reduction Plan, which requires the use of pingers and 6-fathom net extenders in the California/Oregon drift gillnet fishery to reduce bycatch of cetaceans, including short-finned pilot whales.

The Pacific Offshore Cetacean Take Reduction Team continues to meet and recommend measures to further reduce bycatch and achieve MMPA goals.

In 2009, NOAA Fisheries implemented the Pelagic Longline Take Reduction Plan, which includes a mainline length requirement as well as research and observer coverage recommendations.

The Atlantic Pelagic Longline Take Reduction Team continues to meet and develop recommendations for further reducing bycatch of pilot whales and achieving MMPA goals.

Key Actions and Documents

NOAA Fisheries has issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to the Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO) to incidentally harass, by Level B harassment only, marine mammals during a low-energy marine geophysical survey in the South Atlantic...

NOAA Fisheries has issued an IHA Skipjack Offshore Energy, LLC (Skipjack) for authorization to take marine mammals incidental to marine site characterization surveys offshore of Delaware in the area of the Commercial Lease of Submerged Lands for...

NOAA Fisheries issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to the Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO) to incidentally harass, by Level A and Level B harassment, marine mammals during a low-energy marine geophysical survey in the Southwest...

NOAA Fisheries has issued an incidental harassment authorization (IHA) to Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (L-DEO) to incidentally harass, by Level A and Level B harassment, marine mammals during seismic activities associated with a marine geophysical...

Science

NOAA Fisheries conducts various research activities on the biology, behavior, and ecology of the pilot whale. The results of this research are used to learn more about this species.

Stock Assessments

Determining the number of pilot whales in each population-and whether a stock is increasing or decreasing over time-helps resource managers assess the success of enacted conservation measures. Our scientists collect information and present these data in annual stock assessment reports.

Acoustic Science

Acoustic research at NOAA uses underwater microphones to record sounds made by whales and dolphins. Once the recorders are collected and brought back to the lab, those sounds are detected on the recordings, and classified to species when possible. Using this data, scientists are able to learn more about the distribution and abundance of a species than using visual observations alone.

NOAA scientists have used recordings of short-finned pilot whales to describe their acoustic behavior and improve our descriptions of their stock structure in the Pacific Ocean. Similar experiments track the response of short-finned pilot whales to human-generated sounds by playing recordings of those sounds and observing the response of animals in the wild.

Eventually, what we learn about the way different species vocalize can be used to detect and count cetaceans using autonomous gliders and passive acoustic arrays.
Learn more about acoustic science
Molecular Genetic Research

Molecular genetic techniques are an invaluable tool in cetacean research. Cetaceans are elusive, spending little time at the surface, and often live in remote areas that are difficult to sample. Because of this, classifying species and population structure using traditional morphological methods often gives us an incomplete picture of cetacean diversity. Analyses of molecular genetic markers provide insight about species' population structure and diversity, and can reveal cryptic populations or subspecies that may be separated by oceanographic features, ecological differences, or social structure.

NOAA Fisheries has been using mitochondrial DNA control region sequences to examine population structure of short-finned pilot whales in the Pacific Ocean. Using these sequences, we have described the distribution of two types of short-finned pilot whale in the Pacific Ocean - one in the eastern Pacific Ocean, and the other in Hawai'i and the western Pacific Ocean. In Hawai'i, we've identified a resident population around the Main Hawaiian Islands that is likely reproductively isolated from individuals in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and open ocean surrounding the islands.

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Short-finned pilot whales are found globally in tropical and temperate oceans. They are one of two species of pilot whale, along with the long-finned pilot whale. The two species differ slightly in size, features, coloration, and pattern. In the field and

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Sea World

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Explore the wild world of animals. Discover opportunities to care and conserve. Connect through our camps, courses, and careers at SeaWorld and Busch Gardens.

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Wikipedia

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The beluga whale (; Delphinapterus leucas) is an Arctic and sub-Arctic cetacean. It is one of two members of the family Monodontidae, along with the narwhal, and the only member of the genus Delphinapterus. It is also known as the white whale, as it is the only cetacean to regularly occur with this colour; the sea canary, due to its high-pitched calls; and the melonhead, though that more commonly refers to the melon-headed whale, which is an oceanic dolphin.

The beluga is adapted to life in the Arctic, with anatomical and physiological characteristics that differentiate it from other cetaceans. Amongst these are its all-white colour and the absence of a dorsal fin, which allows it to swim under ice with ease. It possesses a distinctive protuberance at the front of its head which houses an echolocation organ called the melon, which in this species is large and deformable. The beluga's body size is between that of a dolphin and a true whale, with males growing up to 5.5 m (18 ft) long and weighing up to 1,600 kg (3,530 lb). This whale has a stocky body. Like many cetaceans, a large percentage of its weight is blubber (subcutaneous fat). Its sense of hearing is highly developed and its echolocation allows it to move about and find breathing holes under sheet ice.

Belugas are gregarious and form groups of 10 animals on average, although during the summer, they can gather in the hundreds or even thousands in estuaries and shallow coastal areas. They are slow swimmers, but can dive to 700 m (2,300 ft) below the surface. They are opportunistic feeders and their diets vary according to their locations and the season. The majority of belugas live in the Arctic Ocean and the seas and coasts around North America, Russia, and Greenland; their worldwide population is thought to number around 200,000. They are migratory and the majority of groups spend the winter around the Arctic ice cap; when the sea ice melts in summer, they move to warmer river estuaries and coastal areas. Some populations are sedentary and do not migrate over great distances during the year.

The native peoples of North America and Russia have hunted belugas for many centuries. They were also hunted by non-natives during the 19th century and part of the 20th century. Hunting of belugas is not controlled by the International Whaling Commission, and each country has developed its own regulations in different years. Currently, some Inuit in Canada and Greenland, Alaska Native groups and Russians are allowed to hunt belugas for consumption as well as for sale, as aboriginal whaling is excluded from the International Whaling Commission 1986 moratorium on hunting. The numbers have dropped substantially in Russia and Greenland, but not in Alaska and Canada. Other threats include natural predators ( polar bears and killer whales), contamination of rivers (as with Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) which bioaccumulate up the food chain), climate change and infectious diseases. The beluga was placed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List in 2008 as being "near threatened"; the subpopulation from the Cook Inlet in Alaska, however, is considered critically endangered and is under the protection of the United States' Endangered Species Act. Of all seven extant Canadian beluga populations, those inhabiting eastern Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay, and the St. Lawrence River are listed as endangered.

Belugas are one of the most commonly kept cetaceans in captivity and are housed in aquariums, dolphinariums and wildlife parks in North America, Europe and Asia. They are considered charismatic because of their docile demeanour and characteristic smile, communicative nature, and supple, graceful movement.

The beluga was first described in 1776 by Peter Simon Pallas. It is a member of the family Monodontidae, which is in turn part of the parvorder Odontoceti (toothed whales). The Irrawaddy dolphin was once placed in the same family, though recent genetic evidence suggests these dolphins belong to the family Delphinidae. The narwhal is the only other species within the Monodontidae besides the beluga. A skull has been discovered with intermediate characteristics supporting the hypothesis that hybridisation is possible between these two species.

The name of the genus, Delphinapterus, means "dolphin without fin" (from the Greek δελφίν ( delphin), dolphin and απτερος ( apteros), without fin) and the species name leucas means "white" (from the Greek λευκας ( leukas), white). The Red List of Threatened Species gives both beluga and white whale as common names, though the former is now more popular. The English name comes from the Russian белу́га, which derives from the word белый ( bélyj), meaning "white". Nowadays the word белу́га in Russian refers to the beluga sturgeon, while the whale is called almost similarly - белу́ха ("belúha").

The whale is also colloquially known as the "sea canary" on account of its high-pitched squeaks, squeals, clucks, and whistles. A Japanese researcher claimed that he taught a beluga to "talk" by using these sounds to identify three different objects, offering hope that humans may one day be able to communicate effectively with sea mammals. A similar observation has been made by Canadian researchers, where a beluga which died in 2007 "talked" when he was still a subadult. Another example is NOC, a beluga whale that could mimic the rhythm and tone of human language. Beluga whales in the wild have been reported to imitate human voices.

Skeleton of D. leucas

Mitochondrial DNA studies have shown modern cetaceans last shared a common ancestor between 25 and 34 million years ago The superfamily Delphinoidea (which contains monodontids, dolphins and porpoises) split from other toothed whales, odontoceti, between 11 and 15 million years ago. Monodontids then split from dolphins (Delphinidae) and later from porpoises (Phocoenidae), their closest relatives in evolutionary terms. In 2017 the genome of a beluga whale was sequenced, comprising 2.327 Gbp of assembled genomic sequence that encoded 29,581 predicted genes. The authors estimated that the genome-wide sequence similarity between beluga whales and killer whales is 97.87%.

The beluga's earliest known distinctive ancestors include the prehistoric Denebola brachycephala from the late Miocene epoch (9-10 million years ago), and Bohaskaia monodontoides, from the early Pliocene (3-5 million years ago). Fossil evidence from Baja California and Virginia indicate the family once inhabited warmer waters. A fossil of the monodontid Casatia thermophila, from five million years ago, provides the strongest evidence that monodontids once inhabited warmer waters, as the fossil was found alongside fossils of tropical species such as bull and tiger sharks.

The fossil record also indicates that, in comparatively recent times, the beluga's range varied with that of the polar ice packs expanding during ice ages and contracting when the ice retreated. Counter-evidence to this theory comes from the finding in 1849 of fossilised beluga bones in Vermont in the United States, 240 km (150 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean. The bones were discovered during construction of the first railroad between Rutland and Burlington in Vermont, when workers unearthed the bones of a mysterious animal in Charlotte. Buried nearly 10 ft (3.0 m) below the surface in a thick blue clay, these bones were unlike those of any animal previously discovered in Vermont. Experts identified the bones as those of a beluga. Because Charlotte is over 150 mi (240 km) from the nearest ocean, early naturalists were at a loss to explain the presence of the bones of a marine mammal buried beneath the fields of rural Vermont.

The remains were found to be preserved in the sediments of the Champlain Sea, an extension of the Atlantic Ocean within the continent resulting from the rise in sea level at the end of the ice ages some 12,000 years ago. Today, the Charlotte whale is the official Vermont State Fossil (making Vermont the only state whose official fossil is that of a still extant animal).

Description

Its body is round, particularly when well fed, and tapers less smoothly to the head than the tail. The sudden tapering to the base of its neck gives it the appearance of shoulders, unique among cetaceans. The tail-fin grows and becomes increasingly and ornately curved as the animal ages. The flippers are broad and short-making them almost square-shaped.

Preliminary investigations suggested a beluga's life expectancy was rarely more than 30 years. The method used to calculate the age of a beluga is based on counting the layers of dentin and dental cement in a specimen's teeth, which were originally thought to be deposited once or twice a year. The layers can be readily identified as one layer consists of opaque dense material and the other is transparent and less dense. It is therefore possible to estimate the age of the individual by extrapolating the number of layers identified and the estimated frequency with which the deposits are laid down. A 2006 study using radiocarbon dating of the dentin layers showed the deposit of this material occurs with a lesser frequency (once per year) than was previously thought. The study therefore estimated belugas can live for 70 or 80 years. However, recent studies suggest that it is unclear as to whether belugas receive a different number of layers per year depending on the age of the animal (for example young belugas may only receive an additional one layer per year), or simply just one layer per year or every other year.[citation needed ]

The species presents a moderate degree of sexual dimorphism, as the males are 25% longer than the females and are sturdier. Adult male belugas can range from 3.5 to 5.5 m (11 to 18 ft), while the females measure 3 to 4.1 m (9.8 to 13.5 ft). Males weigh between 1,100 and 1,600 kg (2,430 and 3,530 lb), and occasionally up to 1,900 kg (4,190 lb) while females weigh between 700 and 1,200 kg (1,540 and 2,650 lb). They rank as mid-sized species among toothed whales.

Individuals of both sexes reach their maximum size by the time they are 10 years old. The beluga's body shape is stocky and fusiform (cone-shaped with the point facing backwards), and they frequently have folds of fat, particularly along the ventral surface. Between 40% and 50% of their body weight is fat, which is a higher proportion than for cetaceans that do not inhabit the Arctic, where fat only represents 30% of body weight. The fat forms a layer that covers all of the body except the head, and it can be up to 15 cm (5.9 in) thick. It acts as insulation in waters with temperatures between 0 and 18 °C, as well as being an important reserve during periods without food.

The adult beluga is rarely mistaken for any other species, because it is completely white or whitish-grey in colour. Calves are usually born grey, and by the time they are a month old, have turned dark grey or blue grey. They then start to progressively lose their pigmentation until they attain their distinctive white colouration, at the age of seven years in females and nine in males. The white colouration of the skin is an adaptation to life in the Arctic that allows belugas to camouflage themselves in the polar ice caps as protection against their main predators, polar bears and killer whales. Unlike other cetaceans, the belugas seasonally shed their skin. During the winter, the epidermis thickens and the skin can become yellowish, mainly on the back and fins. When they migrate to the estuaries during the summer, they rub themselves on the gravel of the riverbeds to remove the cutaneous covering.

Head and neck

Like most toothed whales, the beluga has a compartment found at the centre of the forehead that contains an organ used for echolocation called a melon, which contains fatty tissue. The shape of the beluga's head is unlike that of any other cetacean, as the melon is extremely bulbous, lobed and visible as a large frontal prominence. Another distinctive characteristic it possesses is the melon is malleable; its shape is changed during the emission of sounds. The beluga is able to change the shape of its head by blowing air around its sinuses to focus the emitted sounds. This organ contains fatty acids, mainly isovaleric acid (60.1%) and long-chain branched acids (16.9%), a very different composition from its body fat, and which could play a role in its echolocation system.

Unlike many dolphins and whales, the seven vertebrae in the neck are not fused together, allowing the animal to turn its head laterally without needing to rotate its body. This gives the head a lateral manoeuvrability that allows an improved field of view and movement and helps in catching prey and evading predators in deep water. The rostrum has about eight to ten small, blunt and slightly curved teeth on each side of the jaw and a total of 36 to 40 teeth. Belugas do not use their teeth to chew, but for catching hold of their prey; they then tear them up and swallow them nearly whole.

Belugas only have a single spiracle, which is located on the top of the head behind the melon, and has a muscular covering, allowing it to be completely sealed. Under normal conditions, the spiracle is closed and an animal must contract the muscular covering to open the spiracle. A beluga's thyroid gland is larger than that of terrestrial mammals-weighing three times more than that of a horse-which helps it to maintain a greater metabolism during the summer when it lives in river estuaries. It is the marine cetacean that most frequently develops hyperplastic and neoplastic lesions of the thyroid.

The fins retain the bony vestiges of the beluga's mammalian ancestors, and are firmly bound together by connective tissue. The fins are small in relation to the size of the body, rounded and oar-shaped and slightly curled at the tips. These versatile extremities are mainly used as a rudder to control direction, to work in synchrony with the tailfin and for agile movement in shallow waters up to 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. The fins also contain a mechanism for regulating body temperature, as the arteries feeding the fin's muscles are surrounded by veins that dilate or contract to gain or lose heat. The tailfin is flat with two oar-like lobes, it does not have any bones, and is made up of hard, dense, fibrous connective tissue. The tailfin has a distinctive curvature along the lower edge. The longitudinal muscles of the back provide the ascending and descending movement of the tailfin, which has a similar thermoregulation mechanism to the pectoral fins.

Belugas have a dorsal ridge, rather than a dorsal fin. The absence of the dorsal fin is reflected in the genus name of the species- apterus the Greek word for "wingless". The evolutionary preference for a dorsal ridge rather than a fin is believed to be an adaptation to under-ice conditions, or possibly as a way of preserving heat. The crest is hard and, along with the head, can be used to open holes in ice up to 8 cm (3.1 in) thick.

The beluga has a very specialised sense of hearing and its auditory cortex is highly developed. It can hear sounds within the range of 1.2 to 120 kHz, with the greatest sensitivity between 10 and 75 kHz, where the average hearing range for humans is 0.02 to 20 kHz. The majority of sounds are most probably received by the lower jaw and transmitted towards the middle ear. In the toothed whales, the lower jawbone is broad with a cavity at its base, which projects towards the place where it joins the cranium. A fatty deposit inside this small cavity connects to the middle ear. Toothed whales also possess a small external auditory hole a few centimetres behind their eyes; each hole communicates with an external auditory conduit and an eardrum. It is not known if these organs are functional or simply vestigial.

Belugas are able to see within and outside of water, but their vision is relatively poor when compared to dolphins. Their eyes are especially adapted to seeing under water, although when they come into contact with the air, the crystalline lens and the cornea adjust to overcome the associated myopia (the range of vision under water is short). A beluga's retina has cones and rods, which also suggests they can see in low light. The presence of cone cells indicates they can see colours, although this suggestion has not been confirmed. Glands located in the medial corner of their eyes secrete an oily, gelatinous substance that lubricates the eye and helps flush out foreign bodies. This substance forms a film that protects the cornea and the conjunctiva from pathogenic organisms.

Studies on captive animals show they seek frequent physical contact with other belugas. Areas in the mouth have been found that could act as chemoreceptors for different tastes, and they can detect the presence of blood in water, which causes them to react immediately by displaying typical alarm behaviour. Like the other toothed whales, their brains lack olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves, which suggests they do not have a sense of smell.

Social structure and play

These cetaceans are highly sociable and they regularly form small groups, or pods, that may contain between two and 25 individuals, with an average of 10 members. Pods tend to be unstable, meaning individuals tend to move from pod to pod. Radio tracking has even shown belugas can start out in one pod and within a few days be hundreds of miles away from that pod. Beluga whale pods can be grouped into three categories, nurseries (which consist of mother and calves), bachelors (which consist of all males) and mixed groups. Mixed groups contain animals of both sexes. Many hundreds and even thousands of individuals can be present when the pods join in river estuaries during the summer. This can represent a significant proportion of the total population and is when they are most vulnerable to being hunted.

Belugas also show a great degree of curiosity towards humans in the wild, and frequently swim alongside boats. They also play with objects they find in the water; in the wild, they do this with wood, plants, dead fish and bubbles they have created. During the breeding season, adults have been observed carrying objects such as plants, nets, and even the skeleton of a dead reindeer on their heads and backs. Captive females have also been observed displaying this behavior, carrying items such as floats and buoys, after they have lost a calf. Experts consider this interaction with the objects to be a substitute behavior.

In captivity, mothering behavior among belugas depends on the individual. Some mothers are extremely attentive while other mothers are so blasé, that they have actually lost their calves. In aquaria, there have been cases where dominant females have stolen calves from mothers, particularly if they have lost a calf or if they are pregnant. After giving birth, dominant females will return the calf back to their mother. Additionally, male calves will temporarily leave their mothers to interact with an adult male who can serve as a role model for the calf, before they return to their mothers. Male calves are also frequently seen interacting with each other.

Swimming and diving

Belugas are slower swimmers than the other toothed whales, such as the killer whale and the common bottlenose dolphin, because they are less hydrodynamic and have limited movement of their tail-fins, which produce the greatest thrust. They frequently swim at speeds between 3 and 9 km/h (1.9 and 5.6 mph), although they are able to maintain a speed of 22 km/h for up to 15 min. Unlike most cetaceans, they are capable of swimming backwards. Belugas swim on the surface between 5% and 10% of the time, while for the rest of the time they swim at a depth sufficient enough to cover their bodies. They do not jump out of the water like dolphins or killer whales.

These animals usually only dive to depths to 20 m (66 ft), although they are capable of diving to greater depths. Individual captive animals have been recorded at depths between 400 and 647 m below sea level, while animals in the wild have been recorded as diving to a depth of more than 700 m, with the greatest recorded depth being over 900 m. A dive normally lasts 3 to 5 minutes, but can last up to over 20 minutes. In the shallower water of the estuaries, a diving session may last around two minutes; the sequence consists of five or six rapid, shallow dives followed by a deeper dive lasting up to one minute. The average number of dives per day varies between 31 and 51.

All cetaceans, including belugas, have physiological adaptations designed to conserve oxygen while they are under water. During a dive, these animals will reduce their heart rate from 100 beats a minute to between 12 and 20. Blood flow is diverted away from certain tissues and organs and towards the brain, heart and lungs, which require a constant oxygen supply. The amount of oxygen dissolved in the blood is 5.5%, which is greater than that found in land-based mammals and is similar to that of Weddell seals (a diving marine mammal). One study found a female beluga had 16.5 L of oxygen dissolved in her blood. Lastly, the beluga's muscles contain high levels of the protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle. Myoglobin concentrations in belugas are several times greater than for terrestrial mammals, which help prevent oxygen deficiency during dives.

Beluga whales often accompany bowhead whales, for curiosity and to secure polynya feasibility to breathe as bowheads are capable of breaking through ice from underwater by headbutting.

Belugas play an important role in the structure and function of marine resources in the Arctic Ocean, as they are the most abundant toothed whales in the region. They are opportunistic feeders; their feeding habits depend on their locations and the season. For example, when they are in the Beaufort Sea, they mainly eat Arctic cod ( Boreogadus saida) and the stomachs of belugas caught near Greenland were found to contain rose fish ( Sebastes marinus), Greenland halibut ( Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and northern shrimp ( Pandalus borealis), while in Alaska their staple diet is Coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch). In general, the diets of these cetaceans consist mainly of fish; apart from those previously mentioned, other fish they feed on include capelin ( Mallotus villosus), smelt, sole, flounder, herring, sculpin and other types of salmon. They also consume a great quantity of invertebrates, such as shrimp, squid, crabs, clams, octopus, sea snails, bristle worms and other deep-sea species. Belugas feed mainly in winter as their blubber is thickest in later winter and early spring, and thinnest in the fall. Inuit observation has led scientists to believe that belugas do not hunt during migration, at least in Hudson Bay.

The diet of Alaskan belugas is quite diverse and varies depending on season and migratory behavior. Belugas in the Beaufort Sea mainly feed on staghorn and shorthorn sculpin, walleye pollock, Arctic cod, saffron cod and Pacific sand lance. Shrimp are the most common invertebrate eaten, with octopus, amphipods and echiurids being other sources of invertebrate prey. The most common prey species for belugas in the Eastern Chukchi Sea appears to be shrimp, echiurid worms, cephalopods and polychaetes. The largest prey item consumed by beluga whales in the Eastern Chukchi Sea seems to be saffron cod. Beluga whales in the Eastern Bering Sea feed on a variety of fish species including saffron cod, rainbow smelt, walleye pollock, Pacific salmon, Pacific herring and several species of flounder and sculpin. The primary invertebrate consumed is shrimp. The primary prey item in regard to fish species for belugas in Bristol Bay appears to be the five species of salmon, with sockeye being the most prevalent. Smelt is also another common fish family eaten by belugas in this region. Shrimp is the most prevalent invertebrate prey item. The most common prey items for belugas in Cook Inlet appear to be salmon, cod and smelt.

Foraging on the seabed typically takes place at depths between 20 and 40 m (66 and 131 ft), although they can dive to depths of 700 m (2,300 ft) in search of food. Their flexible necks provide a wide range of movement while they are searching for food on the ocean floor. Some animals have been observed to suck up water and then forcefully expel it to uncover their prey hidden in the silt on the seabed. As their teeth are neither large nor sharp, belugas must use suction to bring their prey into their mouths; it also means their prey has to be consumed whole, which in turn means it cannot be too large or the belugas run the risk of it getting stuck in their throats. They also join into coordinated groups of five or more to feed on shoals of fish by steering the fish into shallow water, where the belugas then attack them. For example, in the estuary of the Amur River, where they mainly feed on salmon, groups of six or eight individuals join to surround a shoal of fish and prevent their escape. Individuals then take turns feeding on the fish.

Reproduction

Estimations of the age of sexual maturity for beluga whales vary considerably; the majority of authors estimate males reach sexual maturity when they are between nine and fifteen years old, and females reach maturity when they are between eight and fourteen years old. The average age at which females first give birth is 8.5 years and fertility begins to decrease when they are 25, eventually undergoing menopause, and ceasing reproductive potential with no births recorded for females older than 41. There is a slight difference on the sexual maturation period between males and females. The male beluga whales take seven to nine years to become sexually matured, while the females take four to seven years.

Female belugas typically give birth to one calf every three years. Most mating occurs usually February through May, but some mating occurs at other times of year. The beluga may have delayed implantation. Gestation has been estimated to last 12.0 to 14.5 months, but information derived from captive females suggests a longer gestation period up to 475 days (15.8 months). During the mating season, the testes mass of belugas will double in weight. Testosterone levels increase, but seems to be independent of copulation. Copulation typically takes place between 3 and 4 AM.

Calves are born over a protracted period that varies by location. In the Canadian Arctic, calves are born between March and September, while in Hudson Bay, the peak calving period is in late June, and in Cumberland Sound, most calves are born from late July to early August. Births usually take place in bays or estuaries where the water is warm with a temperature of 10 to 15 °C. Newborns are about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long, weigh about 80 kg (180 lb), and are grey in colour. They are able to swim alongside their mothers immediately after birth. The newborn calves nurse under water and initiate lactation a few hours after birth; thereafter, they feed at intervals around an hour. Studies of captive females have indicated their milk composition varies between individuals and with the stage of lactation; it has an average content of 28% fat, 11% protein, 60.3% water, and less than 1% residual solids. The milk contains about 92 cal per ounce.

The calves remain dependent on their mothers for nursing for the first year, when their teeth appear. After this, they start to supplement their diets with shrimp and small fish. The majority of the calves continue nursing until they are 20 months old, although occasionally lactation can continue for more than two years, and lactational anoestrus may not occur. Alloparenting (care by females different from the mother) has been observed in captive belugas, including spontaneous and long-term milk production. This suggests this behaviour, which is also seen in other mammals, may be present in belugas in the wild.

Communication and echolocation

Vocalisations of Delphinapterus leucas published by NOAA

Belugas use sounds and echolocation for movement, communication, to find breathing holes in the ice, and to hunt in dark or turbid waters. They produce a rapid sequence of clicks that pass through the melon, which acts as an acoustic lens to focus the sounds into a beam that is projected forward through the surrounding water. These sounds spread through the water at a speed of nearly 1.6 km per second, some four times faster than the speed of sound in air. The sound waves reflect from objects and return as echoes that are heard and interpreted by the animal. This enables them to determine the distance, speed, size, shape and the object's internal structure within the beam of sound. They use this ability when moving around thick Arctic ice sheets, to find areas of unfrozen water for breathing, or air pockets trapped under the ice.

Some evidence indicates that belugas are highly sensitive to noise produced by humans. In one study, the maximum frequencies produced by an individual located in San Diego Bay, California, were between 40 and 60 kHz. The same individual produced sounds with a maximum frequency of 100 to 120 kHz when transferred to Kaneohe Bay in Hawaii. The difference in frequencies is thought to be a response to the difference in environmental noise in the two areas. In special circumstances, beluga whale sounds have been reported to resemble human speech.

These animals communicate using sounds of high frequency; their calls can sound like bird songs, so belugas were nicknamed "canaries of the sea". Like the other toothed whales, belugas do not possess vocal cords and the sounds are probably produced by the movement of air between the nasal sacks, which are located near to the blowhole.

There is debate as to whether cetacean vocalizations can constitute a language. A study conducted in 2015 determined that European beluga signals share physical features comparable to vowels. These sounds were found to be stable throughout time, but varied among different geographical locations. The further away the populations were from each other, the more varied the sounds were in relation to one another.

Distribution

The beluga inhabits a discontinuous circumpolar distribution in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters. During the summer, they can mainly be found in deep waters ranging from 76°N to 80°N, particularly along the coasts of Alaska, northern Canada, western Greenland and northern Russia. The southernmost extent of their range includes isolated populations in the St. Lawrence River in the Atlantic, and the Amur River delta, the Shantar Islands and the waters surrounding Sakhalin Island in the Sea of Okhotsk.

Belugas have a seasonal migratory pattern. Migration patterns are passed from parents to offspring. Some travel as far as 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi) per year. When the summer sites become blocked with ice during the autumn, they move to spend the winter in the open sea alongside the pack ice or in areas covered with ice, surviving by using polynyas to surface and breathe. In summer after the sheet ice has melted, they move to coastal areas with shallower water (1-3 m [3 ft 3 in - 9 ft 10 in] deep), although sometimes they migrate towards deeper waters (deeper than 800 m [2,600 ft]). In the summer, they occupy estuaries and the waters of the continental shelf, and, on occasion, they even swim up the rivers. A number of incidents have been reported where groups or individuals have been found hundreds or even thousands of kilometres from the ocean. One such example comes from June 9, 2006, when a young beluga carcass was found in the Tanana River near Fairbanks in central Alaska, nearly 1,700 km (1,100 mi) from the nearest ocean habitat. Belugas sometimes follow migrating fish, leading Alaska state biologist Tom Seaton to speculate it had followed migrating salmon up the river at some point in the previous autumn. The rivers they most often travel up include: the Northern Dvina, the Mezen, the Pechora, the Ob and the Yenisei in Asia; the Yukon and the Kuskokwim in Alaska, and the Saint Lawrence in Canada. Spending time in a river has been shown to stimulate an animal's metabolism and facilitates the seasonal renewal of the epidermal layer. In addition, the rivers represent a safe haven for newborn calves where they will not be preyed upon by killer whales. Calves often return to the same estuary as their mother in the summer, meeting her sometimes even after becoming fully mature. However, not all beluga whale populations summer in estuaries. Belugas from the Beaufort Sea stock were found to summer along the Eastern Beaufort Sea shelf, Amundsen Gulf and slope regions north and west of Banks Island, in addition to core areas in the Mackenzie River Estuary. Male belugas have been observed summering in deeper waters along Viscount Melville Sound, in depths of up to 600 metres (2,000 ft). The bulk of Eastern Chukchi Sea belugas summer over Barrow canyon.

The migration season is relatively predictable, as it is basically determined by the amount of daylight and not by other variable physical or biological factors, such as the condition of the sea ice. Vagrants may travel further south to areas such as Irish and Scottish waters, the islands of Orkney and Hebrides, and to Japanese waters. There had been several vagrant individuals that have demonstrated seasonal residencies at Volcano Bay, and a unique whale were used to return annually to areas adjacent to Shibetsu in Nemuro Strait in the 2000s. On rarer occasions, individuals of vagrancy can reach the Korean Peninsula. A few other individuals have been confirmed to return to the coasts of Hokkaido, and one particular individual became a resident in brackish waters of Lake Notoro since in 2014.

Some populations are not migratory and certain resident groups will stay in well-defined areas, such as in Cook Inlet, the estuary of the Saint Lawrence River and Cumberland Sound. The population in Cook Inlet stays in the waters furthest inside the inlet during the summer until the end of autumn. Then during the winter, they disperse to the deeper water in the center of the inlet, but without completely leaving it.

In April, the animals that spend the winter in the center and southwest of the Bering Sea move to the north coast of Alaska and the east coast of Russia. The populations living in the Ungava Bay and the eastern and western sides of Hudson Bay overwinter together beneath the sea ice in Hudson Strait. Whales in James Bay that spend winter months within the basin, could be a distinct group from those in Hudson Bay. The populations of the White Sea, the Kara Sea and the Laptev Sea overwinter in the Barents Sea. In the spring, the groups separate and migrate to their respective summer sites.

Beluga in the mouth of the Churchill River in the Hudson Bay, Canada

Belugas exploit a varied range of habitats; they are most commonly seen in shallow waters close to the coast, but they have also been reported to live for extended periods in deeper water, where they feed and give birth to their young.

In coastal areas, they can be found in coves, fjords, canals, bays and shallow waters in the Arctic Ocean that are continuously lit by sunlight. They are also often seen during the summer in river estuaries, where they feed, socialize and give birth to young. These waters usually have a temperature between 8 and 10 °C. The mudflats of Cook Inlet in Alaska are a popular location for these animals to spend the first few months of summer. In the eastern Beaufort Sea, female belugas with their young and immature males prefer the open waters close to land, while the adult males live in waters covered by ice near the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The younger males and females with slightly older young can be found nearer to the ice shelf. Generally, the use of different habitats in summer reflects differences in feeding habits, risk from predators and reproductive factors for each of the subpopulations.

Population

There are currently 22 stocks of beluga whales recognized:

1. James Bay - 14,500 individuals (belugas remain here all year round)

2. Western Hudson Bay - 55,000 individuals

3. Eastern Hudson Bay - 3,400-3,800 individuals

4. Cumberland Sound - 1,151 individuals

5. Ungava Bay - 32 individuals (maybe functionally extinct)

6. St. Lawrence River Estuary - 889 individuals

7. Eastern Canadian Arctic - 21,400 individuals

8. Southwest Greenland - Extinct

9. Eastern Chukchi Sea - 20,700 individuals

10. Eastern Bering Sea - 7,000-9,200 individuals

11. Eastern Beaufort Sea - 39,300 individuals

12. Bristol Bay - 2,000-3,000 individuals

13. Cook Inlet - 300 individuals

14. White Sea - 5,600 individuals

15. Kara Sea/Laptev Sea/Barents Sea - Data Deficient

16. Ulbansky - 2,300

17. Anadyr - 3,000

18. Shelikhov - 2,666

19. Sakhalin/Amur - 4,000 individuals

20. Tugurskiy - 1,500 individuals

21. Udskaya - 2,500 individuals

22. Svalbard - 549 individuals

The Yakutat Bay belugas are not considered to be a true stock because they have only been present in these waters since the 1980s, and are believed to be of Cook Inlet origin. It is estimated that less than 20 whales inhabit the bay year-round. Overall the beluga population is estimated to be 150,000-200,000 animals.

Illustration from 1883 showing Dena'ina hunting party harpooning a beluga in Cook Inlet, Alaska

The native populations of the Arctic in Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Russia hunt belugas, for both consumption and profit. Belugas have been easy prey for hunters due to their predictable migration patterns and the high population density in estuaries and surrounding coastal areas during the summer.

The number of animals killed is about 1,000 per year, (see table below. and its sources). Beluga whale hunting quotas in Canada and the United States are established using the Potential Biological Removal equation PBR = Nmin * 0.5 * Rmax * FR, to determine what constitutes a sustainable hunt. Nmin represents a conservative estimation of the population size, Rmax, represents the maximum rate of population increase and FR represents the recovery factor.

Hunters in Hudson's Bay rarely eat the meat. They give a little to dogs, and leave the rest for wild animals. Other areas may dry the meat for later consumption by humans. In Greenland the skin ( muktuk) is sold commercially to fish factories, and in Canada to other communities. An average of one or two vertebrae and one or two teeth per beluga are carved and sold. One estimate of the annual gross value received from Beluga hunts in Hudson Bay in 2013 was CA$600,000 for 190 belugas, or CA$3,000 per beluga. However, the net income, after subtracting costs in time and equipment, was a loss of CA$60 per person. Hunts receive subsidies, but they continue as a tradition, rather than for the money, and the economic analysis noted that whale watching may be an alternate revenue source. Of the gross income, CA$550,000 was for skin and meat, to replace beef, pork and chickens which would otherwise be bought. CA$50,000 was received for carved vertebrae and teeth.

Russia now harvests 5 to 30 belugas per year for meat and captures an additional 20 to 30 per year for live export to Chinese aquaria. However, in 2018, 100 were illegally captured for live export.

Previous levels of commercial whaling have put the species in danger of extinction in areas such as Cook Inlet, Ungava Bay, the St. Lawrence River and western Greenland. Continued hunting by the native peoples may mean some populations will continue to decline. Northern Canadian sites are the focus of discussions between local communities and the Canadian government, with the objective of permitting sustainable hunting that does not put the species at risk of extinction.

The total amount of landed (defined as belugas successfully hunted and retrieved) belugas averages 275 in regard to the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort stocks from 1987 to 2006. The average annual landed harvest of belugas in the Beaufort Sea consisted of 39 individuals while the Chukchi harvest averaged 62 individuals. Bristol bay's annual average landed harvest was 17 while the Bering Sea's was 152. Statistical studies have demonstrated that subsistence hunting in Alaska did not significantly impact the population of the Alaskan beluga whale stocks. The number of belugas struck and lost did not seem to profoundly impact Chukchi and Bering Sea belugas.

Commercial whaling by European, American and Russian whalers during the 18th and 19th centuries decreased beluga populations in the Arctic. The animals were hunted for their meat and blubber, while the Europeans used the oil from the melon as a lubricant for clocks, machinery and lighting in lighthouses. Mineral oil replaced whale oil in the 1860s, but into the early 20th century the cured skin was still used to make horse harnesses and machine belts for saw mills and shoelaces. The cured skin is the only cetacean skin that is sufficiently thick to be used as leather, and was used to manufacture some of the first bulletproof vests.

Russia had large hunts, peaking in the 1930s at 4,000 per year and the 1960s at 7,000 per year, for a total of 86,000 from 1915 to 2014. Canada hunted a total of 54,000 from 1731 to 1970. Between 1868 and 1911, Scottish and American whalers killed more than 20,000 belugas in Lancaster Sound and Davis Strait.

During the 1920s, fishermen in the Saint Lawrence River estuary considered belugas to be a threat to the fishing industry, as they eat large quantities of cod, salmon, tuna and other fish caught by the local fishermen. The presence of belugas in the estuary was, therefore, considered to be undesirable; in 1928, the Government of Quebec offered a reward of 15 dollars for each dead beluga. The Quebec Department of Fisheries launched a study into the influence of these cetaceans on local fish populations in 1938. The unrestricted killing of belugas continued into the 1950s, when the supposed voracity of the belugas was found to be overestimated and did not adversely affect fish populations. L'Isle-aux-Coudres is the setting for the classic 1963 National Film Board of Canada documentary Pour la suite du monde, which depicts a one-off resurrection of the beluga hunt; one animal is caught live, and transported by truck to an aquarium in the big city. The method of capture is akin to dolphin drive hunting.

Beluga catches by location

Killer whales hunt and eat both young and adult belugas. They live in all the seas of the world and share the same habitat as belugas in the sub-Arctic region. Attacks on belugas by killer whales have been reported in the waters of Greenland, Russia, Canada and Alaska. A number of killings have been recorded in Cook Inlet, and experts are concerned the predation by killer whales will impede the recovery of this sub-population, which has already been badly depleted by hunting. The killer whales arrive at the beginning of August, but the belugas are occasionally able to hear their presence and evade them. The groups near to or under the sea ice have a degree of protection, as the killer whale's large dorsal fin, up to 2 m in length, impedes their movement under the ice and does not allow them to get sufficiently close to the breathing holes in the ice. Beluga whale behavior under killer whale predation makes them vulnerable to hunters. When killer whales are present, large numbers of beluga whales congregate in the shallows for protection, which allows them to be hunted in droves.

Contamination

The beluga is considered an excellent sentinel species (indicator of environment health and changes), because it is long-lived, at the top of the food web, bears large amounts of fat and blubber, relatively well-studied for a cetacean, and still somewhat common.

Human pollution can be a threat to belugas' health when they congregate in river estuaries. Chemical substances such as DDT and heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium have been found in individuals of the Saint Lawrence River population. Local beluga carcasses contain so many contaminants, they are treated as toxic waste. Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls between 240 and 800 ppm have been found in belugas' brains, liver and muscles, with the highest levels found in males. These levels are significantly greater than those found in Arctic populations. These substances have a proven adverse effect on these cetaceans, as they cause cancers, reproductive diseases and the deterioration of the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to pneumonias, ulcers, cysts, tumours and bacterial infections. Although the populations that inhabit the river estuaries run the greatest risk of contamination, high levels of zinc, cadmium, mercury and selenium have also been found in the muscles, livers and kidneys of animals that live in the open sea. Mercury is a particular area of concern. The concentration of Mercury in Beaufort Sea belugas tripled from the 1980s to the 1990s. However, mercury concentration has decreased in Beaufort belugas as of the 21st century, possibly due to changes in dietary preference. Larger body sized belugas tend to have more mercury than smaller sized belugas, because they spend more time offshore, hunting prey such as cod and shrimp, which have more mercury.

From a sample of 129 beluga adults from the Saint Lawrence River examined between 1983 and 1999, a total of 27% had suffered cancer. This is a higher percentage than that documented for other populations of this species and is much higher than for other cetaceans and for the majority of terrestrial mammals; in fact, the rate is only comparable to the levels found in humans and some domesticated animals. For example, the rate of intestinal cancer in the sample is much higher than for humans. This condition is thought to be directly related to environmental contamination, in this case by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and coincides with the high incidence of this disease in humans residing in the area. The prevalence of tumours suggests the contaminants identified in the animals that inhabit the estuary are having a direct carcinogenic effect or they are at least causing an immunological deterioration that is reducing the inhabitants' resistance to the disease.

Indirect human disturbance may also be a threat. While some populations tolerate small boats, most actively try to avoid ships. Whale-watching has become a booming activity in the St. Lawrence and Churchill River areas, and acoustic contamination from this activity appears to have an effect on belugas. For example, a correlation appears to exist between the passage of belugas across the mouth of the Saguenay River, which has decreased by 60%, and the increase in the use of recreational motorboats in the area. A dramatic decrease has also been recorded in the number of calls between animals (decreasing from 3.4 to 10.5 calls/min to 0 or <1) after exposure to the noise produced by ships, the effect being most persistent and pronounced with larger ships such as ferries than with smaller boats. Belugas can detect the presence of large ships (for example icebreakers) up to 50 km away, and they move rapidly in the opposite direction or perpendicular to the ship following the edge of the sea ice for distances of up to 80 km to avoid them. The presence of shipping produces avoidance behaviour, causing deeper dives for feeding, the break-up of groups, and asynchrony in dives.

As with any animal population, a number of pathogens cause death and disease in belugas, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans and fungi, which mainly cause skin, intestinal and respiratory infections.

Papillomaviruses, herpesviruses, and encephalitis caused by the protozoan Sarcocystis have been found in belugas in the Saint Lawrence River. Cases have been recorded of ciliate protozoa colonising the spiracle of certain individuals, but they are not thought to be pathogens or are not very harmful.: 26, 303, 359  The bacterium Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, which probably comes from eating infected fish, poses a threat to belugas kept in captivity, causing anorexia and dermal plaques and lesions that can lead to sepsis.: 26, 303, 359  This condition can cause death if it is not diagnosed and treated in time with antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin. A study of infections caused by parasitic worms in a number of individuals of both sexes found the presence of larvae from a species from the genus Contracaecum in their stomachs and intestines, Anisakis simplex in their stomachs, Pharurus pallasii in their ear canals, Hadwenius seymouri in their intestines and Leucasiella arctica in their rectums.

Relationship with humans

Belugas were among the first whale species to be kept in captivity. The first beluga was shown at Barnum's Museum in New York City in 1861. For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source for belugas destined for exhibition. Throughout the early 1960s, belugas were taken from the St. Lawrence River estuary. In 1967, the Churchill River estuary became the main source from which belugas were captured. This continued until 1992, when the practice was banned. Since Canada ceased to be the supplier of these animals, Russia has become the largest provider. Individuals are caught in the Amur River delta and the far eastern seas of the country, and then are either transported domestically to aquaria in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sochi, or exported to foreign nations, including China and formerly Canada. Canada has now banned the practice of holding new animals in captivity.

To provide some enrichment while in captivity, aquaria train belugas to perform behaviours for the public and for medical exams, such as blood draws, ultrasound, providing toys, and allowing the public to play recorded or live music.

Between 1960 and 1992, the United States Navy carried out a program that included the study of marine mammals' abilities with echolocation, with the objective of improving the detection of underwater objects. The program started with dolphins, but a large number of belugas were also used from 1975 onwards. The program included training these mammals to carry equipment and material to divers working under water, the location of lost objects, surveillance of ships and submarines, and underwater monitoring using cameras held in their mouths. A similar program was implemented by the Soviet Navy during the Cold War, in which belugas were also trained for anti mining operations in Arctic waters. It is possible this program continues within the Russian Navy, as on April 24, 2019, a tame beluga whale wearing a Russian equipment harness was found by fishermen near the Norwegian island of Ingøya.

Belugas released from captivity have difficulties adapting to life in the wild, but if not fed by humans they may have a chance to join a group of wild belugas and learn to feed themselves, according to Audun Rikardsen of the University of Tromsø.

In 2019, a sanctuary in Iceland was established for two belugas, Little White and Little Grey, that retired from a marine park in China. The Sea Life Trust Beluga Whale Sanctuary was created with support from Merlin Entertainments and Whale and Dolphin Conservation (WDC). Merlin bought the park in 2012, as part of an Australian chain, and it is one of their largest aquaria. Merlin has a policy against captive cetaceans, so they sponsored a 32,000-square-metre sea pen as a sanctuary. The 12-year-old belugas, caught in Russia and raised in captivity, do not know how to live in the wild. The cost is variously listed as ISK 3,000,000 (US$24,000) or US$27,000,000. Merlin was owned until 2015 by Blackstone Group, which also owned SeaWorld until selling its last stake in 2017 to a Chinese company which will use SeaWorld's expertise to expand in China; SeaWorld still keeps belugas in captivity.

Belugas are the only whale species kept in aquaria and marine parks. They are displayed across North America, Europe and Asia. As of 2006, 58 belugas were held in captivity in Canada and the United States, and 42 deaths in US captivity had been reported up to that time. A single specimen costs up to US$100,000, although the price has now dropped to US$70,000. As of January 2018, according to the nonprofit Ceta Base, which tracks belugas and dolphins under human care, there were 81 captive belugas in Canada and the United States, and unknown numbers in the rest of the world. The beluga's popularity with visitors reflects its attractive colour and its range of facial expressions. The latter is possible because while most cetacean "smiles" are fixed, the extra movement afforded by the beluga's unfused cervical vertebrae allows a greater range of apparent expression.

Most belugas found in aquaria are caught in the wild, as captive-breeding programs have not had much success so far. For example, despite best efforts, as of 2010, only two male whales had been successfully used as stud animals in the Association of Zoos and Aquariums beluga population, Nanuq at SeaWorld San Diego and Naluark at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago, US. Nanuq has fathered 10 calves, five of which survived birth. Naluark at Shedd Aquarium has fathered four living offspring. Naluark was relocated to the Mystic Aquarium in the hope that he would breed with two of their females, but he did not, and in 2016 he was moved to SeaWorld Orlando. The first beluga calf born in captivity in Europe was born in L'Oceanogràfic marine park in Valencia, Spain, in November 2006. However, the calf died 25 days later after suffering metabolic complications, infections and not being able to feed properly. A second calf was born on 16 November 2016, and was successfully maintained by artificial feeding based on enriched milk.

In 2009 during a free-diving competition in a tank of icy water in Harbin, China, a captive beluga brought a cramp-paralysed diver from the bottom of the pool up to the surface by holding her foot in its mouth, saving the diver's life.

Whale watching

Beluga at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Saguenay rivers

Whale watching has become an important activity in the recovery of the economies of towns in Quebec and Hudson Bay, near the Saint Lawrence and Churchill Rivers (in fact Churchill is considered to be the Beluga Whale Capital of the World) respectively. The best time to see belugas is during the summer, when they meet in large numbers in the estuaries of the rivers and in their summer habitats. The animals are easily seen due to their high numbers and their curiosity regarding the presence of humans.

However, the boats' presence poses a threat to the animals, as it distracts them from important activities such as feeding, social interaction and reproduction. In addition, the noise produced by the motors has an adverse effect on their auditory function and reduces their ability to detect their prey, communicate and navigate. To protect these marine animals during whale-watching activities, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has published a "Guide for observing marine life". The guide recommends boats carrying the whale watchers keep their distance from the cetaceans and it expressly prohibits chasing, harassing, obstructing, touching, or feeding them.

Some regular migrations do occur into Russian EEZ of Sea of Japan such as to Rudnaya Bay, where diving with wild belugas became a less-known but popular attraction.

On 25 September 2018, a beluga was sighted in the Thames Estuary and near towns along the Kent side of the Thames, being nicknamed Benny by newspapers. The whale, who was noticed by conservationists to be traveling alone, appeared to be separated from the rest of its group, and is thought to be a lost individual. Subsequent sightings were reported on the following day, and continued into 2019, when local experts concluded that Benny had left the estuary.

On 13 May 2021, two beluga whales were sighted in waters around Prince Edward Island, Atlantic Canada. One whale entered the Charlottetown Harbour and travelled up the Hillsborough River to Mount Stewart, Prince Edward Island. As of 30 May the whale was still sighted in the area.

In August 2022, a beluga was found on the river Seine, France.

Human speech

Conservation status

Video explaining conservation efforts in the Sea of Okhotsk, Russia

Prior to 2008, the beluga was listed as "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a higher level of concern. The IUCN cited the stability of the largest sub-populations and improved census methods that indicate a larger population than previously estimated. In 2008, the beluga was reclassified as "near threatened" by the IUCN due to uncertainty about threats to their numbers and the number of belugas over parts of its range (especially the Russian Arctic), and the expectation that if current conservation efforts cease, especially hunting management, the beluga population is likely to qualify for "threatened" status within five years. In June 2017, its status was reassessed to "least concern".

There are about 21 sub-populations of beluga whales and it is estimated that 200,000 individuals still exist, which are listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. However, the nonmigratory Cook Inlet sub-population off the Gulf of Alaska is a separate sub-population that is listed as "critically endangered" by the IUCN as of 2006 and as "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act as of October 2008. This was primarily due to unregulated overharvesting of beluga whales prior to 1998. The population has remained relatively consistent, though the reported harvest has been small. As of 2016, the estimated abundance of the endangered Cook Inlet population was 293 individuals. The most recent estimate in 2018 by NOAA Fisheries suggested that the population declined to 279 individuals.

Beluga whale populations are currently being harvested at levels which are not sustainable and it is difficult for those harvesting beluga whales to know which sub-population they are from. Because there is little protection of sub-populations, harvest will need to be managed to ensure sub-populations will survive long into the future to discover the importance of their migratory patterns and habitat use.

It is hypothesized that beluga whales utilize ice as protection from killer whale predation or for feeding on schools of fish. Killer whales can penetrate further into the Arctic and remain in arctic waters for a longer period of time due to reductions in sea ice. For example, residents in Kotzebue, have reported that killer whales have been sighted more frequently in Kotzebue Sound.

In addition, it is possible that beluga whales may face by an increased risk of entrapment from leads and cracks freezing, due to the erratic nature of climate change. Abrupt changes in weather can cause these leads and cracks to freeze ultimately causing the whales to die of suffocation. An increase in urbanization will likely lead to higher concentrations of toxic pollutants in the blubber of beluga whales since they are at the top of the food chain and are affected by bio-accumulation. Loss of sea ice and a change in ocean temperatures may also affect the distribution and composition of prey or affect their competition. There is also some evidence that climate change can affect males and females differently. Since 1983, belugas have been increasing scarce in Kotzebue sound. However, in 2007, several hundred whales were spotted in the sound, with over 90% of the whales being male. However, more research needs to be conducted to understand how climate change affects beluga whale sex aggregation.

Legal protection

The US Congress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, outlawing the persecution and hunting of all marine mammals within US coastal waters. The act has been amended a number of times to permit subsistence hunting by native peoples, temporary capture of restricted numbers for research, education and public display, and to decriminalise the accidental capture of individuals during fishing operations. The act also states that all whales in US territorial waters are under the jurisdiction of the National Marine Fisheries Service, a division of NOAA.

To prevent hunting, belugas are protected under the 1986 International Moratorium on Commercial Whaling; however, hunting of small numbers of belugas is still allowed. Since it is very difficult to know the exact population of belugas because their habitats include inland waters away from the ocean, they easily come in contact with oil and gas development centres. To prevent whales from coming in contact with industrial waste, the Alaskan and Canadian governments are relocating sites where whales and waste come in contact.

The beluga whale is listed on appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. All toothed whales are protected under the CITES that was signed in 1973 to regulate the international import and export of certain species.

The isolated beluga population in the Saint Lawrence River has been legally protected since 1983. In 1988 Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans and Environment Canada, a governmental agency that supervises national parks, implemented the Saint Lawrence Action Plan with the aim of reducing industrial contamination by 90% by 1993; as of 1992, the emissions had been reduced by 59%. The population of the St. Lawrence belugas decreased from 10,000 in 1885 to around 1,000 in the 1980 and around 900 in 2012.

Conservation research in managed care facilities

Cultural references

Pour la suite du monde, is a Canadian documentary film released in 1963 about traditional beluga hunting carried out by the inhabitants of L'Isle-aux-Coudres on the Saint Lawrence River.

The children's singer Raffi released an album called Baby Beluga in 1980. The album starts with the sound of whales communicating, and includes songs representing the ocean and whales playing. The song "Baby Beluga" was composed after Raffi saw a recently born beluga calf in Vancouver Aquarium.

The fuselage design of the Airbus Beluga, one of the world's biggest cargo planes, is very similar to that of a beluga. It was originally called the Super Transporter, but the nickname Beluga became more popular and was then officially adopted. The company paints the 2019 Beluga XL version to emphasize the plane's similarity to the Beluga whale.

In the 2016 Disney/ Pixar animated film Finding Dory, the sequel to Finding Nemo (2003), the character Bailey is a beluga whale and its echolocation abilities are a significant part of the plot.

References

Further reading

External links

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The beluga whale (; Delphinapterus leucas ) is an Arctic and sub-Arctic cetacean. It is one of two members of the family Monodontidae, along with the narwhal, and the only member of the genus Delphinapterus .

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National Geographic

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See how this unique white whale is ahead of other whales by a neck. Just don't expect any caviar. Read more.

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National Geographic Kids

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Unlike most other whales, the beluga has a very flexible neck that enables it to nod and turn its head in all directions.

Belugas generally live together in small groups known as pods. They are social animals and vocal communicators using a diversified language of clicks, whistles, and clangs. Belugas can also copy a variety of other sounds.

These whales are common in the Arctic Ocean's coastal waters, though they are found in subarctic waters as well. Arctic belugas migrate southward in large herds when the sea freezes over.

Belugas feed on fish, crustaceans, and worms.

The whale is related to the tusked "unicorn" whale known as the narwhal.

The beluga is not related to the sturgeon of the same name, which has been heavily fished for its famous caviar.

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The beluga, or white whale, is one of the smallest species of whale. Their distinctive color and prominent foreheads make them easily identifiable. Unlike most other whales, the beluga has a very flexible neck that enables it to nod and turn its head in all directions.

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U-Tube Video

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Facts & Pictures

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About The Species

Beluga whales are known for their white color and range of vocal sounds, earning them the title of "canary of the sea." They are very social animals, forming groups to hunt, migrate, and interact with each other.

Beluga whales are found in the United States in Alaska and globally throughout the Arctic Ocean. They are at home in large rivers and can move between salt and fresh water. A thick layer of fat, called blubber, and thick skin helps them live in the freezing waters of the arctic and subarctic environment. Belugas also lack a dorsal fin so that they can swim under ice.

Beluga whales are vulnerable to many stressors and threats, including pollution, habitat degradation, predation from killer whales, harassment, interactions with commercial and recreational fisheries, oil and gas exploration, disease,and other types of human disturbance such as underwater noise.

Commercial and sport hunting once threatened beluga whale populations. These activities are now banned, though some Alaska Natives still hunt beluga whales for subsistence-the practice of hunting marine mammals for food, clothing, shelter, heating, and other uses necessary for preserving the livelihood of Native communities. Beluga subsistence harvest in the Cook Inlet of south-central Alaska is now regulated because of the lack of recovery in the area. Alaska Natives last hunted Cook Inlet beluga whales in 2005.

All beluga whale populations are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. NOAA Fisheries has designated the Cook Inlet beluga whale population in Alaska and the Sakhalin Bay-Nikolaya Bay-Amur River stock off the coast of Russia as depleted under the MMPA (i.e., they have fallen below their optimum sustainable population levels).

In addition, the Cook Inlet distinct population segment has been listed as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act. Cook Inlet belugas are one of NOAA Fisheries' Species in the Spotlight -an initiative that includes animals considered most at risk for extinction and prioritizes their recovery efforts.

NOAA Fisheries is committed to conserving beluga whales and protecting and rebuilding depleted and endangered populations. Our scientists and partners use a variety of innovative techniques to study and protect beluga whales. We also work with our partners to protect critical habitat for Cook Inlet belugas and engage the public in conservation efforts.

Status

In the United States, NOAA Fisheries has identified five stocks of beluga whales, all in Alaskan waters-the Beaufort Sea, Bristol Bay, Cook Inlet, eastern Bering Sea, and eastern Chukchi Sea stocks. Each stock is unique, isolated from one another genetically and/or physically by migration routes and preferred habitats. NOAA Fisheries' stock assessment reports estimate population size for stocks within U.S. waters.

Worldwide, belugas may number in the hundreds of thousands; however, some stocks are small, numbering in the low hundreds. The endangered Cook Inlet beluga whale population has declined by nearly 80 percent since 1979, from about 1,300 whales to an estimated 279 whales in 2018. The rapid decline and dire status of the Cook Inlet beluga whale population makes it a priority for NOAA Fisheries and its partners to prevent extinction and promote recovery.

The population of Sakhalin Bay-Nikolaya Bay-Amur River beluga whales, a stock in the eastern North Pacific off the coast of Russia, is estimated to be around 3,961 whales. In response to a petition, NOAA Fisheries conducted a status review of the stock and designated it as depleted under the MMPA in 2016.

Protected Status

MMPA Depleted

Cook Inlet stock

Sakhalin Bay-Nikolaya Bay-Amur River stock

Appearance

Beluga whales are dark grey as calves. Their skin lightens as they age, becoming white as they reach sexual maturity. They lack a pronounced rostrum, or beak, and the top of their head is characterized by a round, flexible "melon" that focuses and modulates their vocalizations, including echolocation "clicks." They are a toothed whale, possessing 36 to 40 teeth total in both the upper and lower jawbones.

The genus name Delphinapterus translates to "dolphin without a fin." Instead of a dorsal fin, belugas have a tough dorsal ridge, which allows them to swim easily under ice floes (sheets of floating ice). Unlike other whales and dolphins, their neck vertebrae are not fused, so belugas can nod and move their heads from side to side.

Beluga whales are covered with a thick layer of blubber that accounts for up to 40 percent of their weight. The blubber keeps them warm in the Arctic waters and stores energy. Some beluga populations shed their outer layer of skin each summer during an annual molt. They rub against coarse gravel in shallow waters to help remove the layer of old, yellowed skin.

Behavior and Diet

Belugas are social animals. They return to their birth areas each summer to hunt, breed, and calve. Groups may range from one or two whales to several hundred. Individuals move between groups within these populations, unlike killer whales, which appear to have strong ties within their maternal-led pods.

Belugas are known as the "canaries of the sea" because they produce many different sounds, including whistles, squeals, moos, chirps, and clicks. They rely on their hearing and ability to echolocate, using sound to navigate and hunt for prey. Belugas also have sharp vision both in and out of water.

Where They Live

Beluga whales live in the Arctic Ocean and its nearby seas in the Northern Hemisphere. They are common to many regions of Alaska, as well as Russia, Canada, and Greenland. Belugas are usually found in shallow coastal waters during the summer months, often in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies. During other seasons, they may be found in deeper waters, diving to 1,000-meter depths for periods of up to 25 minutes. They swim among ice floes in arctic and subarctic waters, where temperatures may be as low as 32°F. Belugas also seasonally inhabit estuaries and large river deltas and are thus well-adapted to both cold ocean habitats and relatively warmer freshwater habitats.

Lifespan & Reproduction

Similar to tree rings that can be used to age a tree, beluga teeth acquire a "growth layer group" (GLG) for each year they age. The oldest beluga on record had 80 GLGs, though this may be an underestimate of the whale's true age. The oldest Cook Inlet beluga whale had 49 GLGs.

Beluga whales are believed to mate in late winter and early spring. Depending on the population, this may occur during migration or in their wintering grounds. Females reach sexual maturity when they are about 9 to 14 years old, and males when they are slightly older. Pregnancy lasts ~15 months, and calves nurse for 2 years. Females give birth every 2 to 3 years.

Belugas generally give birth during summer in areas where the water is relatively warm, as newborn calves lack a thick blubber layer to protect them from cold water. Calves benefit from the warmer water of shallow tidal flats and estuaries.

Threats

Habitat Degradation

Beluga whales are susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation. This can range from physical barriers that limit their access to important migration, breeding, feeding, or calving areas, to activities that destroy or degrade their habitats. Physical barriers may include shoreline and offshore development (oil and gas exploration, dredging, pile driving) and increased boat traffic. Contaminant releases may also degrade habitat.

Contaminants

Contaminants enter ocean waters from many sources, including oil and gas development, wastewater discharges, urban runoff, and other industrial processes. Once in the environment, these substances move up the food chain and accumulate in predators at the top of the food chain such as beluga whales. Because of their long lifespan and blubber stores, belugas accumulate these contaminants in their bodies, threatening their immune and reproductive systems.

Food Limitations

Strandings

Live strandings occur when marine mammals become "beached" or stuck in shallow water. The cause of most stranding cases is unknown. Belugas may strand when molting (to avoid predation or other threats, such as noise and vessel traffic), when chasing prey, or when suffering from injuries or disease. Unlike other whales and dolphins, healthy belugas that live-strand are usually able to refloat and swim to deeper water during the next high tide. Unfortunately, belugas have died after stranding on their sides and inhaling muddy water. Larger belugas with compromised immune systems also may not survive stranding through a tidal cycle.

Ocean Noise

Underwater noise pollution interrupts the normal behavior of beluga whales, which rely on sound to communicate and echolocate. If loud enough, noise can cause permanent or temporary hearing loss. This is of particular concern for the Cook Inlet population, which inhabits an area with high vessel traffic, oil and gas exploration and development, dredging and pile-driving, military operations, and other noise-making anthropogenic (human-caused) activities.

Scientific Classification

Animalia

Chordata

Mammalia

Cetacea

Monodontidae
Delphinapterus leucas

What We Do

Conservation & Management

NOAA Fisheries is committed to the protection and recovery of all beluga whales. We have focused our conservation efforts to help rebuild the depleted and endangered Cook Inletpopulation, and we monitor the other healthy populations in Alaskan waters (Beaufort Sea, Bristol Bay, eastern Bering Sea, and eastern Chukchi Sea stocks). Targeted management actions to secure beluga whale protections include:

Protecting habitat and designating critical habitat in Cook Inlet.

Minimizing the effects of noise disturbance.

Responding to stranded beluga whales.

Developing oil spill response plans in the event of a spill.

Reviewing projects that could harm beluga whales.

Managing subsistence harvests.

Educating the public about belugas and the threats they face.

Learn more about our conservation efforts

Science

Our research projects have discovered new aspects of beluga whale biology, behavior, and ecology and help us better understand the challenges that all beluga whales face. This research is especially important in rebuilding depleted and endangered populations. Our work includes:

Stock assessments of population size and trends.

Aerial surveys of numbers and distribution.

Measurements of response to sound using digital acoustic recording tags.

Satellite tagging and tracking of movement, range, and distribution.

Learn more about our research

How You Can Help

Report Marine Life in Distress

Report a sick, injured, entangled, stranded, or dead animal to make sure professional responders and scientists know about it and can take appropriate action. Numerous organizations around the country are trained and ready to respond. Never approach or try to save an injured or entangled animal yourself-it can be dangerous to both the animal and you.
Learn who you should contact when you encounter a stranded or injured marine animal

Call the NOAA Fisheries Enforcement Hotline at (800) 853-1964 to report a federal marine resource violation. This hotline is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week for anyone in the United States.

You may also contact your closest NOAA Office of Law Enforcement field office during regular business hours.

In the Spotlight

Cook Inlet Beluga Whale

The Cook Inlet beluga whale is one of NOAA Fisheries' Species in the Spotlight. This initiative is a concerted, agency-wide effort to spotlight and save the most highly at-risk marine species.

Beluga whales are highly social, gregarious animals. They squeal, squeak, and chirp, which is why sailors long ago called them "sea canaries." Of the five Alaskan stocks, the Cook Inlet beluga stock is the smallest and most isolated from other beluga whales.

Cook Inlet belugas were once a valuable part of the regional Alaska Native subsistence diet, but their population has declined rapidly-most likely because of unregulated subsistence harvest at a level that this small population could not sustain. Although the hunt has been suspended since 2005, the whale population has not recovered as expected.

In 2000, NOAA Fisheries designated the Cook Inlet beluga whale population asdepleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. The rapid decline and dire status of the Cook Inlet beluga whale population makes it a priority for NOAA Fisheries and its partners to stabilize and prevent extinction of this iconic species.

Where Cook Inlet Beluga Whales Live

Cook Inlet beluga whales share the upper and middle portions of Cook Inlet with Alaska's human population center (Anchorage), transportation hub, and largest concentration of industrial activity. Generally, belugas spend the ice-free months in upper Cook Inlet, gathering in discrete, high-use areas with plenty of fish. head south to the deeper waters of the middle Cook Inlet in winter.

Population Status

The population has declined by nearly 80 percent since 1979-from about 1,300 whales to around 279 today.

Habitat

Beluga whales exhibit seasonal shifts in distribution and habitat use within Cook Inlet, but they stay in the inlet throughout their lives. The whales' seasonal shifts appear to be related to corresponding changes in their physical environment (e.g., ice ) and food sources, specifically the timing of fish runs.

Threats

The summer range of Cook Inlet belugas has changed significantly since the 1970s, contracting northward and eastward toward Anchorage in upper Cook Inlet. This range contraction coincided with the population's rapid decline. The reason for the Cook Inlet beluga's distribution change is unknown, puts a larger portion of the endangered population near the most densely populated area of the state during the busy summer season, when boating, construction, and other human activities all increase.

The whales' summer core range is extremely silty due to the glaciers that feed into upper Cook Inlet, limiting their visibility in the water. Their adept use of sound is thus essential to communicate, locate prey, avoid predators, and navigate. Cook Inlet is a naturally noisy environment because of its extreme tides and heavy silt load. Adding human sounds from ship traffic, construction projects, oil and gas activities, and other sources can make it more difficult for belugas to thrive.

Especially loud underwater sounds can kill marine mammals, but sublethal effects are more common, including injury or behavioral changes that range from mild (e.g., increased vocalizations) to severe (e.g., abandonment of vital habitat). Thus, assessing and managing the effects of human-caused noise is a major issue for the conservation and recovery of Cook Inlet beluga whales.

Species Recovery

NOAA Fisheries formed a recovery team of scientists and stakeholders to help develop a Cook Inlet beluga whale recovery plan, which was finalized in December 2016. The recovery plan (PDF, 284 pages) builds upon scientific studies, traditional knowledge, and other observations and information sources to identify gaps in our knowledge and the research needed to fill those gaps. The recovery plan also identifies specific criteria that will signal the recovery of these animals.

Threats that could potentially limit recovery of Cook Inlet beluga whales include:

Anthropogenic noise.

Catastrophic events (natural disasters, spills, and mass strandings).

Habitat loss or degradation.

Prey reduction (eulachon and salmon).

Disease agents (pathogens, parasites, and harmful algal blooms).

Unauthorized take and trauma.

Pollution.

Predation.

Hunting, poaching, or intentional harassment.

Cumulative and synergistic effects of multiple stressors.

While developing the draft recovery plan, NOAA Fisheries reached out to all parties with interests in these whales, including local governments in the Cook Inlet area, Alaska Native co-management partners, the oil and gas industry, fishing groups, environmental organizations, the state of Alaska, and other federal agencies. We will continue to involve stakeholders in this priority species initiative as the plan's key strategies for preventing extinction are implemented over the coming years.

In 2016, we also completed a Species in the Spotlight 5-year plan of action for the Cook Inlet beluga whale that builds on the recovery plan and details the focused efforts that are needed over the next 5 years.

Management Overview

All beluga whales are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, with the Sakhalin Bay-Nikolaya Bay-Amur River stock and the Cook Inlet stock considered to be depleted. Only the Cook Inlet beluga whale population is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act.

In the United States, NOAA Fisheries works to protect all beluga whale populations living off the coastlines, bays, and rivers of Alaska. This includes monitoring subsistence harvests and conducting abundance and distribution surveys. Additional management strategies and oversight are required for the endangered Cook Inlet population.

Recovery Planning and Implementation

Recovery Action

NOAA Fisheries is required to develop and implement recovery plans for the conservation and survival of ESA-listed species. The Cook Inlet beluga whale recovery plan builds upon both scientific studies and traditional knowledge from Alaska Natives. The plan's ultimate goal is to recover the species, with an interim goal of down-listing its status from endangered to threatened.

The plan recommends the following major actions:

Protect habitat and designate critical habitat.

Minimize the effects of noise disturbance.

Respond to stranded beluga whales.

Implement oil spill response plans in the event of a spill.

Review projects that could harm beluga whales.

Manage subsistence harvests.

Educate the public about belugas and the threats they face.

Read the recovery plan for Cook Inlet beluga whales
Implementation

The ESA authorizes NOAA Fisheries to appoint recovery teams to help develop and implement recovery plans. In 2010, we convened a recovery team to aid in the development of a draft recovery plan for Cook Inlet beluga whales. The recovery team was composed of two voluntary advisory groups: a science panel and a stakeholder panel. In 2013, the recovery team provided a first draft of the recovery plan and the team disbanded. NOAA Fisheries solicited review and public comment on the draft recovery plan and released a final plan in December 2016.

Some efforts to conserve the Cook Inlet beluga whale include:

Continued monitoring of the status of the Cook Inlet population and developing a greater understanding of their biology.

Improving our understanding of the effects of threats to Cook Inlet belugas.

Improving the management of threats to reduce or eliminate the effect of those threats.

Integrating research findings into current and future management actions.

Keeping the public informed and educated about the status of Cook Inlet belugas, the threats limiting their recovery, and how the public can help achieve recovery of these whales.

NOAA Fisheries will continue to involve stakeholders in this priority species initiative as the plan's key strategies for preventing extinction are implemented over the coming years.

Recovery Implementation Task Force

NOAA Fisheries and the State of Alaska, Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) recognize that successful recovery of Cook Inlet belugas (CIB) will require a multifaceted approach, including: understanding and monitoring the Cook Inlet beluga population (i.e., research); assessing, preventing, mitigating or abating threats to the population's recovery (i.e., habitat and threats management); and garnering public support through improved outreach and education. In an effort to promote recovery, the CIB Recovery Implementation Task Force includes three distinct committees which will focus on each of these general topics: a) Research Committee; b) Habitat and Threats Management Committee; and c) Outreach Committee. The primary role of the Committees is to engage the expertise of researchers, managers, communicators, and various other stakeholders to advise NOAA Fisheries and ADF&G on specific topics or issues relating to CIB recovery. The Committees will provide guidance and recommendations for most effective recovery action implementation based on existing and new data and commercial information, as it becomes available, and will help prioritize limited resources to make the most difference in achieving recovery. The focus will be on short-term actions that can be completed in the next 2-5 years without losing sight of the importance of long-term projects and research.

Critical Habitat Designation

Once a species is listed under the ESA, NOAA Fisheries evaluates and identifies whether any areas meet the definition of critical habitat. Those areas may be designated as critical habitat through a rulemaking process. The designation of an area as critical habitat does not create a closed area, marine protected area, refuge, wilderness reserve, preservation, or other conservation area; nor does the designation affect land ownership. Federal agencies that undertake, fund, or permit activities that may affect these designated critical habitat areas are required to consult with NOAA Fisheries to ensure that their actions do not adversely modify or destroy designated critical habitat.

In 2011, we designated two areas of Cook Inlet as critical habitat because they are essential for the beluga whales' survival. These areas provide important feeding habitats and places where belugas can hide from their predators, killer whales.
View the Cook Inlet beluga whale critical habitat designation View the Cook Inlet beluga critical habitat map

Conservation Efforts

Addressing Ocean Noise

Underwater noise threatens beluga whale populations, interrupting their normal behavior and driving them away from areas important to their survival. Increasing evidence suggests that exposure to intense underwater sound in some settings may cause some whales to strand and ultimately die. NOAA Fisheries is investigating all aspects of acoustic communication and hearing in marine animals, as well as the effects of sound on whale behavior and hearing. In 2016, we issued technical guidance for assessing the effects of anthropogenic (human-caused) sound on marine mammal hearing.

In Cook Inlet, Alaska, we review permits for anthropogenic activities and suggest ways to decrease the amount of noise they create. We also set in-water construction guidelines that outline which noise levels are harmful to beluga whales. We aim to develop a database to store information about underwater sound in Cook Inlet.
Learn more about ocean noise
Overseeing Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response

We work with volunteer networks in all coastal states to respond to marine mammal strandings including small whales. When stranded animals are found alive, NOAA Fisheries and our partners assess the animal's health. When stranded animals are found dead, our scientists work to understand and investigate the cause of death. Although the cause often remains unknown, scientists can sometimes identify strandings due to disease, harmful algal blooms, vessel strikes, fishing gear entanglements, pollution exposure, and underwater noise. Some strandings can serve as indicators of ocean health, giving insight into larger environmental issues that may also have implications for human health and welfare.

After the Cook Inlet beluga whale was listed as endangered in 2008, we developed a Cook Inlet Beluga Whale Stranding Response Plan to address strandings of these critically endangered animals.
Learn more about the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program
Reducing Effects from Oil and Gas Activities

Cook Inlet beluga whales live near oil and gas exploration and production activities. Impacts from these activities include increased ship traffic, oil spills, pollution, seismic research, in-water noise, and habitat degradation. To reduce the risk of oil spills, Alaska's Division of Spill Prevention and Response created an oil and hazardous substance spill plan called the " Unified Plan". NOAA Fisheries helped write the plan's Wildlife Protection Guidelines (PDF, 194 pages) to ensure they protect belugas and marine mammals, as well as other wildlife in Cook Inlet.

Managing Subsistence Harvest

The MMPA allows NOAA Fisheries to enter cooperative agreements with Alaska Native organizations to conserve marine mammals and co-manage subsistence activities, including beluga whale hunts. Alaska Natives hunt beluga whales for subsistence and traditional handicrafts. Belugas are both a food source and a significant part of the cultural and spiritual basis of Native communities.

Notably, past harvest practices have significantly impacted the Cook Inlet beluga whale population. NOAA Fisheries is working with Native communities to implement regulations that limit the number of belugas harvested in Cook Inlet, thus providing continued opportunity for traditional subsistence activities while also allowing the population to recover. Between 1999 and 2005, Alaska Natives only took five Cook Inlet beluga whales through subsistence harvest before it was suspended entirely.

Educating the Public

NOAA Fisheries aims to increase public awareness and support for beluga conservation programs through education, outreach, and public participation. We regularly share information with the public about the status of belugas, as well as our research and efforts to promote their recovery.

Key Actions and Documents

Science Overview

NOAA Fisheries scientists are leading the effort to answer key questions about beluga whales, with a special focus on the Cook Inlet population. Current research includes studies of beluga whale behavior, ecology, health, distribution, and population trends.

Satellite Tagging

NOAA Fisheries scientists and their collaborators track location data from satellite tags deployed on whales to determine their movements, distribution, diving behavior, and range. In Alaska, scientists and Native subsistence hunters have worked together to place satellite tags on belugas.

From 1999 to 2002, we attached satellite tags to belugas in Cook Inlet and observed their year-round distribution for the first time. Tag data showed changes in beluga behavior. During the ice-covered period (December to May), tagged whales did not leave the upper Cook Inlet and remained within the ice floes. Whales with dive-monitoring tags also began to dive deeper and for longer periods. These long-term survey studies show that the seasonal range of the beluga whales in Cook Inlet has contracted since the early 1990s as the size of the population has decreased.

Learn more about the movement and dive behavior of beluga whales in Cook Inlet (PDF, 48 pages)

From 2007 to 2009, scientists from the United States, Canada, Greenland, Norway, and Russia worked together to track beluga movements and habits throughout arctic and subarctic waters using satellite tags. This international project helped us learn more about the behavior and life history of belugas.
Learn more about beluga whale tagging studies
Observational Studies

NOAA Fisheries conducts observational studies using photo-identification and other techniques to understand the behavior and population dynamics of beluga whales, as well as threats against them.

Learn more about the Cook Inlet beluga whale photo-identification project Learn more about how we measure whales from the air using hexacopters
In 2017, scientists began using hexacopters (aerial drones) to collect photographs of the endangered Cook Inlet beluga whale to estimate the length of individual animals and learn more about why they have been slow to recover despite many efforts to help them. Knowing the length of the whales helps scientists determine whether they are adults, juveniles, or calves. Beluga whales give birth from late July to September. By doing hexacopter photography surveys each year in late August or early September, we hope to monitor calf production and compare that to environmental factors, such as the strength of salmon runs in a given year-an important food source for belugas.

Measuring Pollutants and Spills

NOAA Fisheries scientists and their collaborators collect tissue samples to study the chemicals that belugas are exposed to in Cook Inlet. Our scientists also test whether pollutants and oil spills affect the fish that belugas eat. This research helps us understand the threats that belugas and their prey face when harmful substances are spilled in Cook Inlet.

Acoustic Science

Other research focuses on the acoustic environment of cetaceans, including beluga whales. Acoustics is the science of how sound is transmitted. This research involves increasing our understanding of the basic acoustic behavior of whales, dolphins, and fish; mapping the acoustic environment; and developing better methods to locate cetaceans using autonomous gliders and passive acoustic arrays.
Learn more about acoustic science
We use acoustic science to monitor beluga hearing levels and feeding behavior. We also study how underwater noise in Cook Inlet affects the way belugas behave, eat, interact, and move within their habitat.

Aerial Surveys

Scientists use small aircraft to observe beluga whales in Cook Inlet and other regions in Alaska to record their numbers and distribution. Surveys typically occur during the summer months when whales are concentrated in bays and estuaries within their respective stock areas. By comparing numbers collected over multiple years, scientists can look for trends-i.e., whether the population is increasing, decreasing, or remaining stable during a given period.
Learn more about aerial surveys in Cook Inlet
Aerial surveys, along with satellite tagging studies, have documented thatCook Inlet beluga whales have contracted their distribution into a much smaller area in the upper inlet during summer months than had been previously observed in the late 1970s-important information for wildlife managers.

Stock Assessments
Find beluga whale stock assessment reports
Determining the number of beluga whales in each population-and whether a stock is increasing or decreasing over time-helps resource managers assess the success of enacted conservation measures. Our scientists collect information and present these data in an annual stock assessment report.
Find out more about what our scientists are learning about the Cook Inlet beluga whale
Alaska Fisheries Science Center Beluga Research

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Beluga whales are known for their white color and range of vocal sounds, earning them the title of "canary of the sea." They are very social animals, forming groups to hunt, migrate, and interact with each other. Beluga whales are found in the United S

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Wikipedia

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A stocky dark-colored whale without a dorsal fin, it can grow 14 to 18 m (46 to 59 ft) in length. This thick-bodied species can weigh from 75 to 100 tonnes (74 to 98 long tons; 83 to 110 short tons).

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National Geographic - Video

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Now here's a question: How can a creature like the bowhead whale, which has no teeth, get to be 60 feet long and weigh up to 60 tons? Find out!

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BBC

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BBC Nature - Bowhead whale videos, news and facts

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The bowhead whale is second only in size to the mighty blue whale.

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Facts & Pictures

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The bowhead whale is an arctic whale species. Of all large whales, it is the most adapted to life in icy cold water. It has a layer of blubber up to 1.6 feet thick and has a large head that it uses to break through think ice.

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Enchanted Learning

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The bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is an arctic baleen, a right whale with a large, bow-shaped head that is up to 40% of its body length. The arched mouth is up to 10 feet (3 m) wide and 20 feet (6 m) deep. Bowheads live in pods, are rich in blubber, and have 2 blowholes.

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Wikipedia

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The gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus), also known as the grey whale, gray back whale, Pacific gray whale, or California gray whale, is a baleen whale that migrates between feeding and breeding grounds yearly. It reaches a length of 14.9 meters (49 ft), a weight of 36 tonnes (40 short tons), and lives between 55 and 70 years.

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National Geographic

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Follow the global migrations of this massive mammal. Hear the whale's tale-a stirring comeback that saw them removed from the U.S. endangered species list.

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Marine Mammal Science Center

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GRAY WHALE (Eschrichtius robustus)
meaning of scientific name: Eschrichtius-named after the Danish professor who worked with these animals; robustus-strong
DESCRIPTION
Gray whales are medium sized whales, reaching up to 45 feet (14 m) in length, with the females usually being larger than the males. They are gray with white patches, which mostly consist of areas where barnacles and lice have attached themselves to the whales. In fact, they carry over 400 pounds of barnacles and whale lice. Gray whales have no dorsal (back) fins. Instead, they have a low hump and a series of six to twelve knuckles or bumps. Gray whales are baleen whales, and each has approximately 300 plates of cream-colored baleen hanging from its upper jaw. Two to five throat creases allow their throats to expand during feeding. Sparse hairs are found on the snout, especially in young whales. Their blows are usually low and puffy or heart-shaped.
RANGE/HABITAT
Gray whales are found only in the Pacific Ocean, with a population of approximately 26,000. The Eastern North Pacific stock is the largest group. They summer north of Alaska in the Bering and Chukchi Seas and winter in the waters of Baja California, Mexico. The Western North Pacific stock is found in the waters of Sakhalin Island, Russia and is close to extinction with only 100-150 individuals. Another group of gray whales once lived in the North Atlantic Ocean and became extinct in the 17th century, due to hunting. Gray whales generally stay around the continental shelf and are truly a coastal species.
BEHAVIOR
Gray whales have one of the longest migrations of any mammal. During summer, they live in the Arctic in areas rich in their food, bottom-dwelling organisms. As fall approaches, there is less sunlight, less food, and the water turns cold. This is when the whales travel to Baja California, Mexico where they enter lagoons to give birth and mate. Gray whales can be seen passing by California in December and January during their southern migration, and again in March, April, and May on their northern journey.

Since gray whales migrate relatively close to shore, whalewatching is very popular. Many opportunities are available for viewing gray whales from coastal cliffs and headlands or from whalewatching boats. In the seventies, "friendly whales" were first encountered in San Ignacio Lagoon in Baja California, Mexico. Here, gray whales will sometimes swim near small boats and allow themselves to be touched. Concern has grown about the impact of boat traffic around whales, and the number of boats allowed in the breeding lagoons is restricted. Along the migration route, boats' proximity to whales is also limited.

Gray whales feed by sucking in bottom-dwelling animals, mostly amphipods (which are related to shrimp). Muddy patches of water are often seen in places where gray whales are feeding. They feed primarily in the Arctic, although some have been observed feeding during the migration.

MATING AND BREEDING

Female gray whales usually give birth every two to three years, and their pregnancies last twelve months. Newborn calves average 16 feet (4.9 m) in length and weigh about 1,500 pounds (680 kg). Calves are weaned at about eight months, after they have journeyed with their mothers back to the northern feeding grounds.
STATUS
Gray whales have returned from the brink of extinction. In the late 1800s, the gray whale breeding grounds were discovered, and whalers killed a large percentage of the population. The drop in population made it no longer profitable to hunt gray whales; they were left alone and their numbers recovered. However, the early 1900s brought the invention of factory ships, which processed whales aboard the vessels. This new technology allowed intensive hunting on the grays once again, and their population again dangerously dropped to probably fewer than 2,000 individuals. Protection finally came in 1946 through an international agreement to stop hunting them. Since that time, the population has grown to 26,000, similar to what it was before modern-day whaling. As a result of this population recovery, gray whales were removed from the Endangered Species List in 1994.

In 1998 the International Whaling Commission reinstated a treaty made between the U.S. Government and the Makah Indians in 1855, giving the Native American group the permission to hunt gray whales. Under the new agreement, the Makah are able to take 20 whales through the year 2004. After a 70-year ban on gray whale hunting, the Makah took their first whale in May of 1999. The revival of the treaty is very controversial. Since the Makah have been allowed to continue gray whale hunting for its importance to their native culture, the environmentalists are calling for no exceptions to the hunting ban. This is because of the fear that the treaty revival will start a trend toward hunting other marine mammals.

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Sign up for the monthly E-Newsletter from The Marine Mammal Center.

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GRAY WHALE (Eschrichtius robustus) meaning of scientific name: Eschrichtius-named after the Danish professor who worked with these animals; robustus-strong DESCRIPTION Gray whales are medium sized whales, reaching up to 45 feet (14 m) in length, with the females usually being larger than the males.

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Wikipedia

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The humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae) is a species of baleen whale. It is one of the larger rorqual species, with adults ranging in length from 12-16 m (39-52 ft) and weighing around 25-30 t (28-33 short tons). The humpback has a distinctive body shape, with long pectoral fins and a knobbly head. It is known for breaching and other distinctive surface behaviors, making it popular with whale watchers. Males produce a complex song lasting 10 to 20 minutes, which they repeat for hours at a time. All the males in a group will produce the same song, which is different each season. Its purpose is not clear, though it may help induce estrus in females.

Found in oceans and seas around the world, humpback whales typically migrate up to 25,000 km (16,000 mi) each year. They feed in polar waters, and migrate to tropical or subtropical waters to breed and give birth, fasting and living off their fat reserves. Their diet consists mostly of krill and small fish. Humpbacks have a diverse repertoire of feeding methods, including the bubble net technique.

Like other large whales, the humpback was a target for the whaling industry. The species was once hunted to the brink of extinction; its population fell by an estimated 90% before a 1966 moratorium. While numbers have partially recovered to some 80,000 animals worldwide, entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships and noise pollution continue to affect the species.

Humpback whales are rorquals, members of the Balaenopteridae family that includes the blue, fin, Bryde's, sei and minke whales. The rorquals are believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene era. However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.

Though clearly related to the giant whales of the genus Balaenoptera, the humpback is the sole member of its genus. Recent DNA sequencing has indicated the humpback is actually more closely related to certain rorquals, particularly the fin whale ( B. physalus) and possibly the gray ( Eschrichtius robustus), than it is to others such as the minke.

The humpback was first identified as baleine de la Nouvelle Angleterre by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Regnum Animale of 1756. In 1781, Georg Heinrich Borowski described the species, converting Brisson's name to its Latin equivalent, Balaena novaeangliae. In 1804, Lacépède shifted the humpback from the family Balaenidae, renaming it B. jubartes. In 1846, John Edward Gray created the genus Megaptera, classifying the humpback as Megaptera longipinna, but in 1932, Remington Kellogg reverted the species names to use Borowski's novaeangliae. The common name is derived from the curving of their backs when diving. The generic name Megaptera from the Ancient Greek mega- μεγα ("giant") and ptera/ πτερα ("wing"), refers to their large front flippers. The specific name means "New Englander" and was probably given by Brisson due to regular sightings of humpbacks off the coast of New England.

Genetic research in mid-2014 by the British Antarctic Survey confirmed that the separate populations in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Oceans are more distinct than previously thought. Some biologists believe that these should be regarded as separate subspecies and that they are evolving independently.

Humpbacks can easily be identified by their stocky body, obvious hump, black dorsal coloring and elongated pectoral fins. The head and lower jaw are covered with knobs called tubercles, which are hair follicles and are characteristic of the species. The fluked tail, which typically rises above the surface when diving, has wavy trailing edges.

Humpbacks have 270 to 400 darkly colored baleen plates on each side of their mouths. The plates measure from 18 in (46 cm) in the front to about 3 ft (0.91 m) in the back, behind the hinge.

Ventral grooves run from the lower jaw to the umbilicus, about halfway along the underside of the body. These grooves are less numerous (usually 14-22) than in other rorquals, but are fairly wide.

The female has a hemispherical lobe about 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter in her genital region. This visually distinguishes males and females. The male's penis usually remains hidden in the genital slit.

Fully grown males average 13-14 m (43-46 ft). Females are slightly larger at 15-16 m (49-52 ft); one large recorded specimen was 19 m (62 ft) long and had pectoral fins measuring 6 m (20 ft) each. The largest humpback on record, according to whaling records, was a female killed in the Caribbean; she was 27 m (89 ft) long with a weight of 90 metric tons (99 short tons), although the reliability of these extremely atypical data is impossible to confirm. The largest measured by the scientists of the Discovery Committee were a female and a male at 14.9 and 14.75 m (48.9 and 48.4 ft) respectively, although this was out of a sample size of only 63 whales. Body mass typically is in the range of 25-30 metric tons (28-33 short tons), with large specimens weighing over 40 metric tons (44 short tons).

The long black and white tail fin can be up to a third of body length.

Several hypotheses attempt to explain the humpback's pectoral fins, which are proportionally the longest fins of any cetacean. The higher maneuverability afforded by long fins and the usefulness of the increased surface area for temperature control when migrating between warm and cold climates may have supported this adaptation. These very long heavy pectoral fins with a row of knuckle-like knobs along their anterior edges are effective weapons in confrontations with killer whales. The large, sharp-cornered barnacle Coronula diadema often attaches there, adding a natural equivalent of knuckledusters. Humpbacks occasionally defend other animals against attack by predators; for example, they were observed interfering to defend a gray whale calf that had just been killed by killer whales.

The varying patterns on the tail flukes distinguish individual animals. Identification is done by comparing the amount of white vs black and scars on the fluke. The humpback whales are then given a catalogue number. A study using data from 1973 to 1998 on whales in the North Atlantic gave researchers detailed information on gestation times, growth rates and calving periods, as well as allowing more accurate population predictions by simulating the mark-release-recapture technique. A photographic catalogue of all known North Atlantic whales was developed over this period and is maintained by College of the Atlantic..

The lifespan of rorquals ranges from 45 to 100 years.

Courtship rituals take place during the winter months, following migration toward the equator from summer feeding grounds closer to the poles. Competition is usually fierce. Unrelated males, dubbed escorts, frequently trail females, as well as cow-calf pairs. Males gather into competitive groups around a female and fight for the right to mate with her. Group size ebbs and flows as unsuccessful males retreat and others arrive. Behaviors include breaching, spyhopping, lob-tailing, tail-slapping, pectoral fin-slapping, peduncle throws, charging and parrying.

Whale song is thought to have an important role in inducing estrus in females and in mate selection; however, it may also be used between males to establish dominance. Humpback whales are polyandrous, with a female having multiple male partners over the course of her lifespan.

Females typically breed every two or three years. The gestation period is 11.5 months. The peak months for birth are January and February in the Northern Hemisphere, July and August in the Southern Hemisphere. Females wait for one to two years before breeding again. Recent research on mitochondrial DNA reveals that groups living in proximity to each other may represent distinct breeding pools. Humpback whale births have been rarely observed. One birth witnessed off Madagascar occurred within four minutes. Humpback whales have been known to hybridize with other rorquals; there is a well-documented report of a humpback- blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific.

Humpbacks are a friendly species that interact with other cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins. Right whales interact with humpbacks. These behaviors have been recorded in all oceans. Records of humpback and southern right whales demonstrating what were interpreted to be mating behaviors have been documented off the Mozambique and Brazilian coasts. Humpback whales appear in mixed groups with other species, such as the blue, fin, minke, gray and sperm whales. Interaction with gray, fin, and right whales have been observed. Teams of researchers observed a male humpback whale singing an unknown type of song and approaching a fin whale at Rarotonga in 2014. One individual was observed playing with a bottlenose dolphin in Hawaiian waters. Incidents of humpback whales protecting other animals such as seals and other whales from killer whales have been documented and filmed. Studies of such incidents indicate that the phenomenon is species-wide and global, with incidents being recorded at various locations across the world. In September 2017 in Rarotonga, the Cook Islands, snorkeler and whale biologist Nan Hauser reported that two adult humpback whales had protected her from a 4.5 m (15 ft) tiger shark, with one whale pushing her away from the shark while the other used its tail to block the shark's advances.

Both male and female humpback whales vocalize, but only males produce the long, loud, complex "song" for which the species is famous. Each song consists of several sounds in a low register, varying in amplitude and frequency and typically lasting from 10 to 20 minutes. Individuals may sing continuously for more than 24 hours. Cetaceans have no vocal cords, instead, they produce sound via a larynx-like structure found in the throat, the mechanism of which has not been clearly identified. Whales do not have to exhale to produce sound.

Whales within a population sing a single song. All North Atlantic humpbacks sing the same song, while those of the North Pacific sing a different song. Each population's song changes slowly over a period of years without repeating. The songs are culturally transmitted, and have been shown in some cases to spread "horizontally" between neighbouring populations over the course of successive breeding seasons.

Scientists are unsure of the purpose of whale songs. Only males sing, suggesting one purpose is to attract females or to induce estrus in the females. However, many of the whales observed to approach a singer are other males, often resulting in conflict. Singing may, therefore, be a challenge to other males. Some scientists have hypothesized the song may serve an echolocative function. During the feeding season, humpbacks make unrelated vocalizations for herding fish into their bubble nets.

Humpback whales make other sounds to communicate, such as grunts, groans, snorts and barks.

Whales are air-breathing mammals who must surface to get the air they need. The stubby dorsal fin is visible soon after the blow (exhalation) when the whale surfaces, but disappears by the time the flukes emerge. Humpbacks have a 3 m (9.8 ft), heart-shaped bushy blow through the blowholes. They do not generally sleep at the surface, but they must continue to breathe. Possibly only half of their brain sleeps at one time, with one half managing the surface-blow-dive process without awakening the other half.

Migratory patterns and social interactions were explored in the 1960s, and by further studies in 1971. Calambokidis et al. provided the "first quantitative assessment of the migratory structure of humpback whales in the entire North Pacific basin."

Humpbacks inhabit all major oceans, in a wide band running from the Antarctic ice edge to 81°N latitude. The four global populations are North Pacific, Atlantic, Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean populations. These populations are distinct. Although the species has cosmopolitan distribution and is usually not considered to cross the equator line, seasonal observations at Cape Verde suggest possible interactions among populations from both hemispheres. Aside from the Arabian Sea group, year-round presences have been confirmed among British and Norwegian waters. Parts of wintering grounds around the globe have been poorly studied or being undetected, such as around Pitcairn Islands, Northern Mariana Islands (e.g. Marpi and CK Reefs vicinity to Saipan), Volcano Islands, Pasaleng Bay, Trindade and Martin Vaz, Mauritius, and Aldabra.

Whales were once uncommon in the Mediterranean and the Baltic Seas, but have increased their presence in both waters as global populations have recovered. Recent increases within the Mediterranean basin, including re-sightings, indicate that more whales may migrate into the inland sea in the future, not only for wintering but also for feeding. Humpbacks are also showing signs of re-expanding into former ranges, such as Scotland, Skagerrak and Kattegat, as well as Scandinavian fjords such as Kvænangen, where they had not been observed for decades.

In the North Atlantic, feeding areas range from Scandinavia to New England. Breeding occurs in the Caribbean and Cape Verde. In the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, whales may breed off Brazil, as well the coasts of central, southern and southeastern Africa (including Madagascar). Whale visits into Gulf of Mexico have been infrequent, but occurred in the gulf historically. In the South Atlantic, about 10% of world population of the species possibly migrate to the Gulf of Guinea. Comparison of songs between those at Cape Lopez and Abrolhos Archipelago indicate that trans-Atlantic mixings between western and southeastern populations occur.

A large population spreads across the Hawaiian Islands every winter, ranging from the island of Hawaii in the south to Kure Atoll in the north. These animals feed in areas ranging from the coast of California to the Bering Sea. Humpbacks were first observed in Hawaiian waters in the mid-19th century and might have gained a dominance over North Pacific right whales, as the right whales were hunted to near-extinction. A smaller portion of the north Pacific group migrates in winter to Bahia Banderas, a large bay on the west coast of Mexico in the Puerto Vallarta resort region.

A 2007 study identified seven individuals then wintering off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica as having traveled from the Antarctic-around 8,300 km (5,200 mi). Identified by their unique tail patterns, these animals made the longest documented mammalian migration. In Australia, two main migratory populations were identified, off the west and east coasts. These two populations are distinct, with only a few females in each generation crossing between the two groups.

In Panama and Costa Rica, humpback whales come from both the Southern Hemisphere (July-October with over 2,000 whales) and the Northern Hemisphere (December-March numbering about 300). South Pacific populations migrating off mainland New Zealand, Kermadec Islands, and Tasmania are increasing, but less rapidly than in Australian waters because of illegal whaling by the Soviet Union in the 1970s.

Some recolonizing habitats are confirmed, especially in the North and South Atlantic (e.g. English and Irish coasts, English Channel) to coasts in the north such as the North Sea and Wadden Sea, where the first confirmed sighting since 1755 was made in 2003, South Pacific (e.g. New Zealand coasts and Niue), pelagic islands of Chile such as Isla Salas y Gómez and Easter Island, where possibilities of undocumented wintering grounds have been considered, southern fiords of Chile and Peru (e.g. Gulf of Penas, Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel) and in Asia, such as in the Philippines, Babuyan Islands, Cagayan (the first modern mortality of the species in the nation was in 2007), Calayan and Pasaleng Bay, the Ryukyu Islands, the Volcano Islands in Japan, the Northern Mariana Islands recently again became stable/growing wintering grounds while the Marshall Islands, Vietnamese, Taiwanese and Chinese coasts show slow or no obvious recovery. In 2020, A whale was spotted wandering in the Saint Lawrence River at Montreal and a Migaloo in Australian waters.

Whales again migrate off Japanese archipelagos and into the Sea of Japan. Connections between these stocks and whales seen in the Sea of Okhotsk, on Kamchatka coasts and around the Commander Islands have been studied. Historical wintering distributions could have been much wider and more southerly distributed, as whales were seen in areas along the Batanes, Sulu and Celebes Seas including off Palawan, Luzon, Malaysia and Mindanao, with higher densities around today's Cape Eluanbi and Kenting National Park. Unconfirmed sightings have been reported near Borneo in modern times. The first confirmation in modern Taiwan was of a pair off Hualien in 1994, followed by a successful escape from entanglement off Taitung in 1999, and continuous sightings around Orchid Island in 2000. Few/none regularly migrate into Kenting National Park. In addition, despite sightings reported almost annually off Green and Orchid Islands, relatively short stays in these waters indicate recoveries as winter foraging has not occurred. Sightings, including of a cow-calf pair, have occurred along the east coast of Taiwan. Around Hong Kong, two documented sightings were recorded in 2009 and in 2016. One of the first documented sightings within the Yellow Sea was of a group of 3 or 4 individuals, including a cow/calf pair in Changhai County in October, 2015.

Since November 2015, whales gather around Hachijō-jima, far north from the known breeding areas in the Bonin Islands. All breeding activities except for giving births had been confirmed as of January, 2016. That makes Hachijo-jima the northernmost breeding ground in the world, north of breeding grounds such as Amami Ōshima, Midway Island, and Bermuda.

A non-migratory population in the Arabian Sea remains there year-round. More typical annual migrations cover up to 25,000 km (16,000 mi), making it one of the most-traveled mammalian species. Genetic studies and visual surveys indicate that the Arabian group is the most isolated of all humpback groups and is the most endangered, numbering possibly fewer than 100 animals. Within the Arabian Sea, Masirah Island and Gulf of Masirah, Halaniyat Islands and Kuria Muria Bay are hot spots for the species.

Whales were historically common in continental and marginal waters such as the Hallaniyat Islands, along Indian coasts, Persian Gulf and Gulf of Aden, and recent migrations into the gulf including by cow-calf pairs. It is unknown whether whales seen in the Red Sea originate in this population, however sightings increased since in 2006 even in the northern part of the sea such as in Gulf of Aqaba. Individuals may reach the Maldives, Sri Lanka, or further east. Humpbacks have been considered rather vagrant into Persian Gulf, however new studies indicate more regular presences can be expected.

Origins of whales occurring at Maldives are not clear either from Arabian or south Pacific populations, and overlaps are possible.

Humpbacks feed primarily in summer and live off fat reserves during winter. They feed only rarely and opportunistically in their wintering waters. The humpback is an energetic hunter, taking krill and small schooling fish such as juvenile Atlantic and Pacific salmon, herring, capelin and American sand lance, as well as Atlantic mackerel, pollock, haddock and Atlantic menhaden in the North Atlantic. They have been documented opportunistically feeding near fish hatcheries in Southeast Alaska, feasting on salmon fry released from the hatcheries. Krill and copepods are prey species in Australian and Antarctic waters.

A whale off Australia on the spring migration, feeding on krill by turning on its side and propelling through the krill

The humpback has the most diverse hunting repertoire of all baleen whales. Its most inventive technique is known as bubble net feeding; a group of whales dive up to 20 m (66 ft) below the surface and swim in a shrinking circle blowing air from their blowholes creating vertical cylinder-ring of bubbles that captures the prey above them. Humpbacks use two main behaviors to create bubble-netting; upward spirals and double loops. Upward spirals involve the whales blowing continuously as they circle towards the surface, creating a spiral of bubble. Double loops consist of a deep, long loop that corrals the prey followed by tail slaps (lobtailing) at the surface and then a smaller loop that serves to make the final capture of the prey. After the nets are created, humpbacks swimming into them with their mouth gaping and ready to shallow. Using network-based diffusion analysis, one study argued that whales learned lobtailing from other whales in the group over a period of 27 years in response to a change in the primary form of prey.

Visible scars indicate that killer whales (orcas) can prey upon juvenile humpbacks, though until recently hunting had never been witnessed and attacks were assumed to be superficial in nature. However, a 2014 study off Western Australia observed that when available in large numbers, young humpbacks can be attacked and sometimes killed by orcas. Moreover, mothers and (possibly related) adults escort neonates to deter such predation. The suggestion is that when humpbacks suffered near-extinction during the whaling era, orcas turned to other prey, but are now resuming their former practice. There is also evidence that humpback whales will defend against or attack killer whales who are attacking either humpback calves or juveniles as well as members of other species. The great white shark is another confirmed predator of the humpback whale. In 2020, Marine biologists Dines and Gennari et al., published a documented incident of a group of great white sharks exhibiting pack-like behavior to successfully attack and kill a live adult humpback whale. A second incident regarding great white sharks killing humpback whales was documented off the coast of South Africa. The shark recorded instigating the attack was a female nicknamed "Helen". Working alone, the shark attacked a 33 ft (10 m) emaciated and entangled humpback whale by attacking the whale's tail to cripple and bleed the whale before she managed to drown the whale by biting onto its head and pulling it underwater.

Humpback whales were hunted as early as the 18th century. By the 19th century, many nations (particularly the United States) were hunting the animal heavily in the Atlantic Ocean and to a lesser extent in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The late-19th-century introduction of the explosive harpoon allowed whalers to accelerate their take. This, along with hunting in the Antarctic Ocean beginning in 1904, sharply reduced whale populations. During the 20th century, over 200,000 humpbacks were taken, reducing the global population by over 90%. North Atlantic populations dropped to as low as 700 individuals.

In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was founded to oversee the industry. They imposed hunting regulations and created hunting seasons. To prevent extinction, IWC banned commercial humpback whaling in 1966. By then, the global population had been reduced to around 5,000. The ban has remained in force since 1966.

Prior to commercial whaling, populations could have reached 125,000. North Pacific kills alone are estimated at 28,000. The Soviet Union deliberately under-recorded its catches; the Soviets reported catching 2,820 between 1947 and 1972, but the true number was over 48,000.

As of 2004, hunting was restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island of Bequia in the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The take is not believed to threaten the local population. Japan had planned to kill 50 humpbacks in the 2007/08 season under its JARPA II research program. The announcement sparked global protests. After a visit to Tokyo by the IWC chair asking the Japanese for their co-operation in sorting out the differences between pro- and antiwhaling nations on the commission, the Japanese whaling fleet agreed to take no humpback whales during the two years it would take to reach a formal agreement.

In 2010, the IWC authorized Greenland's native population to hunt a few humpback whales for the following three years.

In Japan, humpback, minkes, sperm and many other smaller Odontoceti, including critically endangered species such as North Pacific right, western gray and northern fin, have been targets of illegal captures. The hunts use harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets, reporting them as cases of entanglement. Humpback meat can be found in markets. In one case, humpbacks of unknown quantities were illegally hunted in the Exclusive Economic Zones of anti-whaling nations such as off Mexico and South Africa.

Whale watching is the leisure activity of observing humpbacks in the wild. Participants watch from shore or on touring boats. Humpbacks are generally curious about nearby objects. Some individuals, referred to as "friendlies", approach whale-watching boats closely, often staying under or near the boat for many minutes. Because humpbacks are typically easily approachable, curious, identifiable as individuals and display many behaviors, they have become the mainstay of whale tourism around the world. Hawaii has used the concept of " ecotourism" to benefit from the species without killing them. This business brings in revenue of $20 million per year for the state's economy.

North Atlantic

North Pacific

Southern Hemisphere

Summer

New York, New England, Grand Manan Island, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, the northern St. Lawrence River, the Snaefellsnes peninsula in the west of Iceland.

Bahía Solano and Nuquí in Colombia, California, Alaska, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, Isla Iguana in Panama, Ecuador.

Antarctica.

Winter

Samaná Province of the Dominican Republic, the Bay of Biscay France, Mona Passage off the coast of Puerto Rico

Hawaii, Baja California Sur, the Bahía de Banderas off Puerto Vallarta, Ogasawara, Okinawa

Sydney, Byron Bay north of Sydney, Hervey Bay north of Brisbane, North and East of Cape Town, New Zealand especially Kaikoura, the Tongan islands, Victor Harbor and outlying beaches, Saint Helena in the South Atlantic.

In December 1883, a male humpback swam up the Firth of Tay in Scotland, past what was then the whaling port of Dundee. Harpooned during a failed hunt, it was found dead off of Stonehaven a week later. Its carcass was exhibited to the public by a local entrepreneur, John Woods, both locally and then as a touring exhibition that traveled to Edinburgh and London. The whale was dissected by Professor John Struthers, who wrote seven papers on its anatomy and an 1889 monograph on the humpback.

An albino humpback whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia became famous in local media because of its rare, all-white appearance. Migaloo is the only known Australian all-white specimen and is a true albino. First sighted in 1991, the whale was named for an indigenous Australian word for "white fella". To prevent sightseers approaching dangerously close, the Queensland government decreed a 500-m (1600-ft) exclusion zone around him.

Migaloo was last seen in June 2014 along the coast of Cape Byron in Australia. Migaloo has several physical characteristics that can be identified; his dorsal fin is somewhat hooked, and his tail flukes have a unique shape, with edges that are spiked along the lower trailing side.

In 1985, Humphrey swam into San Francisco Bay and then up the Sacramento River towards Rio Vista. Five years later, Humphrey returned and became stuck on a mudflat in San Francisco Bay immediately north of Sierra Point below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the Dakin Building. He was twice rescued by the Marine Mammal Center and other concerned groups in California. He was pulled off the mudflat with a large cargo net and the help of the US Coast Guard. Both times, he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a "sound net" in which people in a flotilla of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes, a Japanese fishing technique known as oikami. At the same time, the attractive sounds of humpback whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean. He was last sighted in the vicinity of the Farallon Islands in 1991.

Analyses of whale songs in the 1960s led to worldwide media interest and convinced the public that whales were highly intelligent, aiding the antiwhaling advocates.

The worldwide population is estimated at 84,000 and increasing. Regional estimates are 18,000-20,000 in the North Pacific, 12,000 in the North Atlantic and over 50,000 in the Southern Hemisphere, down from a pre whaling population of 125,000.

The NOAA is committed to protecting and recovering the humpback whale. NOAA enacted vessel speed restrictions which serve to protect the endangered North Atlantic right whale and many other species of whales. They respond to dead, injured, or entangled whales. They also educate whale watchers, tourists, and vessel operators on responsible viewing of the humpback whales. NOAA works to develop methods to reduce vessel strikes and reduce risk of entanglement in fishing gear. The NOAA's work will help reduce the number of humpback whale deaths.

In August 2008, the IUCN changed humpbacks' status from Vulnerable to Least Concern, although two subpopulations remain endangered. The United States is considering listing separate humpback populations, so smaller groups, such as North Pacific humpbacks, which are estimated to number 18,000-20,000 animals, might be delisted. This is made difficult by humpbacks' migrations, which can extend 5,157 miles (8,299 km) from Antarctica to Costa Rica. In Costa Rica, the Ballena Marine National Park is designed for humpback protection.

Areas where population data is limited and the species may be at higher risk include the Arabian Sea, the western North Pacific Ocean, the west coast of Africa and parts of Oceania.

The species was listed as vulnerable in 1996 and endangered as recently as 1988. Most monitored stocks have rebounded since the end of commercial whaling. In the North Atlantic stocks are believed to be approaching prehunting levels. However, the species is considered endangered in some countries, including the United States.

A 2008 US Department of Commerce analysis (SPLASH) noted that the many challenges to determining the recovery status included the lack of accurate population estimates, the unexpected complexity of population structures and their migration. The report was based on data collected from 2004 to 2006. At the time, the North Pacific population was some 18,302. The estimate is consistent with a moderate rate of recovery for a depleted population, although it was considered to be a "dramatic increase in abundance" from other post-1960s estimates. By comparison, Calambokidis et al. estimated 9,819, covering 1991-1993. This represents a 4% annual increase in population from 1993 to 2006. The sanctuary provided by US national parks, such as Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve and Cape Hatteras National Seashore, became major factors in population recovery.

Off the west coast of Canada, the Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area Reserve covers 3,400 square kilometres (1,300 sq mi). It is "a primary feeding habitat" of the North Pacific population. Their critical habitat overlaps with tanker shipping routes between Canada and its eastern trade partners. In 2005 the North Pacific population was listed as threatened under Canada's Species at Risk Act (SARA). On April 19, 2014 the Department of the Environment recommended an amendment to SARA to downgrade their status off the Pacific coast from "threatened" to "species of special concern". According to Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), the North Pacific humpback population increased at about 4% annually from 1992 to 2008. Although socioeconomic costs and benefits were considered in their decision to upgrade their status, according to the University of British Columbia's Marine Mammal Research Consortium's research director, the decision was based on biology, not politics.

Whaling no longer threatens the species, but individuals are vulnerable to collisions with ships, entanglement in fishing gear and noise pollution. Like other cetaceans, humpbacks can be injured by excessive noise. In the 19th century, two humpback whales were found dead near sites of repeated oceanic sub-bottom blasting, with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears.

Saxitoxin, a paralytic shellfish poisoning from contaminated mackerel, has been implicated in humpback whale deaths.

Whale researchers along the Atlantic Coast report that there have been more stranded whales with signs of vessel strikes and fishing gear entanglement in recent years than ever before. The NOAA recorded 88 stranded humpback whales between January 2016 and February 2019. This is more than double the number of whales stranded between 2013 and 2016. Because of the increase in stranded whales NOAA declared an unusual mortality event in April 2017. This declaration still stands. Virginia Beach aquarium's stranding response coordinator, Alexander Costidis says the conclusions are that the two causes of these unusual mortality events are vessel interactions and entanglements.

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29. ^ "大连长海又见鲸鱼一家亲！三条！四条微信-微大连（WeDalian）- 大连微信 - 大连微信导航 - 大连微信图文 - 大连微信图文检索 - 大连微信生活 - 大连微信活动 - 大连微网站". Archived from the original on 2016-06-02.

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31. Encyclopedia of Life & Peter Saundry. 2011. ^ Humpback whale. eds. C.Michael Hogan and C.J.Cleveland, Encyclopedia of Earth, National Council for Science and Environment, Washington, DC Archived 2011-09-09 at the Wayback Machine

32. ^ Overholtz, W.J.; Nicholas, J.R. (1979). "Apparent feeding by the fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus and humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, on the American sand lance, Ammodytes americanus, in the Northwest Atlantic". Fish. Bull. (77): 285-287.

33. ^ Whitehead, H. (1987). "Updated status of the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Canada". Canadian Field-Naturalist. 101 (2): 284-294.

34. ^ Meyer, T.L.; Cooper, R.A.; Langton, R.W. (1979). "Relative abundance, behavior and food habits of the American sand lance (Ammodytes americanus) from the Gulf of Maine". Fish. Bull. 77 (1): 243-253.

35. ^ Nemoto, T. (1959). "Food of baleen whales with reference to whale movements". Scientific Reports of the Whales Research Institute (14): 149-290.

36. Humpback Whale Recovery Team (1991). Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Marine Fisheries Service. p. 105.

37. ^ Allen, Jenny; Weinrich, Mason; Hoppitt, Will; Rendell, Luke (26 April 2013). "Network-Based Diffusion Analysis Reveals Cultural Transmission of Lobtail Feeding in Humpback Whales". Science. 340 (6131): 485-8. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..485A. doi:10.1126/science.1231976. PMID 23620054. S2CID 206546227.

38. ^ Clapham, P.J. (1996). "The social and reproductive biology of humpback whales: an ecological perspective". Mammal New Studies (Ferrari, Mizroch, et Al.) Show First Year Calf Mortality is 18-20%. Mortality Beyond the First Year is Still Being Studied. Review. 26 (1): 27-49. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.1996.tb00145.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-05.

39. ^ Dines, Sasha; Gennari, Enrico (September 9, 2020). "First observations of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) attacking a live humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)". Marine and Freshwater Research. 71 (9): 1205-1210. doi:10.1071/MF19291. S2CID 212969014. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 - via www.publish.csiro.au.

40. Breiwick JM, Mitchell E, Reeves RR (1983) Simulated population trajectories for northwest Atlantic humpback whales 1865-1980. ^ Fifth biennial Conference on Biology of Marine Mammals, Boston Abstract. p14

41. ^ Baker, CS; Perry, A; Bannister, JL; Weinrich, MT; Abernethy, RB; Calambokidis, J; Lien, J; Lambertsen, RH; Ramírez, JU (September 1993). "Abundant mitochondrial DNA variation and world-wide population structure in humpback whales". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 90 (17): 8239-8243. Bibcode:1993PNAS...90.8239B. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.17.8239. PMC . PMID 8367488. Before protection by international agreement in 1966, the world-wide population of humpback whales had been reduced by hunting to <5000, with some regional subpopulations reduced to <200...

42. ^ Prof. Alexey V. Yablokov (1997). "On the Soviet Whaling Falsification, 1947-1972". Whales Alive!. Cetacean Society International. 6 (4). Archived from the original on 2011-07-20.

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46. ^ Calambokidis, John; et al. (1997), Abundance and population structure of humpback whales in the North Pacific basin. Final Contract Report 50ABNF500113 to Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, CA, p. 72

47. ^ Order Amending Schedule 1 to the Species at Risk Act, 148, Canada: The Gazette, April 19, 2014, archived from the original on April 24, 2014

48. ^ Childerhouse, S.; Jackson, J.; Baker, C.S.; Gales, N.; Clapham, P.J.; Brownell, R.L. Jr. (2008). "Megaptera novaeangliae (Oceania subpopulation)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T132832A3463914.

Clapham, Phil (1996). Humpback Whales. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-296-5.

Clapham, Phil (2002). "Humpback Whale". Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1.

Dawbin, William H. (1966). The Seasonal Migratory Cycle of Humpback Whales. University of California Press.

Dawes, John; Campbell, Andrew (2008). Exploring the World of Aquatic Life. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-255-7.

Evans, Peter G.H.; Raga, Juan Antonio (6 December 2012). Marine Mammals: Biology and Conservation. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4615-0529-7.

Reeves, Randall R.; Stewart, Brent S.; Clapham, Phillip J.; Powell, James A. (2002). National Audubon Society guide to marine mammals of the world. Alfred A. Knopf.

Struthers, Sir John (1889). Memoir on the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale, Megaptera Longimana. Maclachlan and Stewart.

Best, P. B. (1993). "Increase rates in severely depleted stocks of baleen whales". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 50 (2): 169-186. doi:10.1006/jmsc.1993.1018.

Smith, T.D.; Allen, J.; Clapham, P.J.; Hammond, P.S.; Katona, S.; Larsen, F.; Lien, J.; Mattila, D.; Palsboll, P.J.; Sigurjonsson, J.; Stevick, P. T.; Oien, N. (1999). "An ocean-basin-wide mark-recapture study of the North Atlantic humpback whale". Marine Mammal Science. 15: 1-32. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00779.x. Archived from the original on 2021-06-23.

Franklin, T.; Franklin, W.; Brooks, L.; Harrison, P.; Baverstock, P.; Clapham, P. (2011). "Seasonal changes in pod characteristics of eastern Australian humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), Hervey Bay 1992-2005". Marine Mammal Science. 27 (3): E134-E152. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2010.00430.x.

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The humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae) is a species of baleen whale. It is one of the larger rorqual species, with adults ranging in length from 12-16 m (39-52 ft) and weighing around 25-30 t (28-33 short tons). The humpback has a distinctive body shape, with long pectoral fins and a knobbly head.

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National Geographic

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Humpback whales are found in every ocean in the world. Their Latin name, Megaptera novaeangliae, means "big wing of New England." It refers to their giant pectoral fins, which can grow up to 16 feet long, and their appearance off the coast of New England, where European whalers first encountered them. They have dark backs, light bellies, pleats on their throats, and a small hump in front of their dorsal fin, leading to the common name of "humpback."

Humpback whales are known for their magical songs, which travel for great distances through the world's oceans. These sequences of moans, howls, cries, and other noises are quite complex and often continue for hours on end. Scientists are studying these sounds to decipher their meaning. It is most likely that humpbacks sing to communicate with others and to attract potential mates. Humpback calves are known to "whisper" to their mothers.

Behavior and Parenting

These baleen whales are found near coastlines, feeding on tiny shrimp-like krill, plankton, and small fish. Humpbacks migrate annually from summer feeding grounds near the poles to warmer winter breeding waters closer to the Equator. Mothers and their young swim close together, often touching one another with their flippers with what appear to be gestures of affection. Females nurse their calves for almost a year, though it takes far longer than that for a humpback whale to reach full adulthood. Calves do not stop growing until they are ten years old.

Humpbacks are powerful swimmers, and they use their massive tail fin, called a fluke, to propel themselves through the water and sometimes completely out of it. These whales, like others, regularly leap from the water, landing with a tremendous splash. Scientists aren't sure if this breaching behavior serves some purpose, such as cleaning pests from the whale's skin, or whether whales simply do it for fun. A favorite of whale watchers, they also slap the water with their flukes and pectoral fins, rise nose-first out of the water (called "spyhopping"), and do penducle throws, a behavior unique to this species in which they raise their entire rear torso and tail out of the water, twist, and slam their lower half down onto the ocean surface. Rarer displays include flaping their fins like wings and occasionally gathering in "super groups" of as many as 200, though scientists don't know why.

Conservation

Humpback whale numbers were severely reduced before the 1985 ban on commercial whaling, but the numbers in many population groups have since improved. Today, the biggest threats to humpback whales are collisions with ships and entanglement in fishing gear.

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Humpback whales are found in every ocean in the world. Their Latin name, Megaptera novaeangliae, means "big wing of New England." It refers to their giant pectoral fins, which can grow up to 16 feet long, and their appearance off the coast of New England, where European whalers first encountered them.

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Ocean.Org - Facts & Pictures

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PUBLICATIONS

Calambokidis, J., G.H Steiger, J.M Straley, L.M. Herman, S. Cerchio, D.R. Salden, J. Urbán R., J.K. Jacobsen, O. von Ziegesar, K.C. Balcomb, C.M. Gabriele, M.E. Dahlheim, S. Uchida, G. Ellis, Y. Miyamura, P. Ladrón de Guevara P., M. Yamaguchi, F. Sato, S.A. Mizroch, L. Schlender, K. Rasmussen, J. Barlow and T.J. Quinn II. 2001. Movements and population structure of humpback whales in the north Pacific. Marine Mammal Science 17:769-794. [PDF]

Smith, J.N., A.W. Goldizen, R. A. Dunlop, and M.J. Noad. 2008. Songs of male humpback whales ( Megaptera novaeangliae) are involved in intersexual interactions. Animal Behaviour 76: 467-477.

Corkeron, P.J., and R.C. Connor. 2000. Why do baleen whales migrate? Marine Mammal Science 15:1228-1245.

Baird, R.W. 2003. Update COSEWIC status report on the humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae in Canada in COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa: 1-25. [PDF]

Steiger, G.H., J. Calambokidis, J.M. Straley, L.M. Herman, S. Cerchio, D.R. Salden J. Urbán R., J.K. Jacobsen, O. von Ziegesar, K.C. Balcomb, C.M. Gabriele, M.E. Dahlheim, S. Uchida, J.K.B. Ford, P.P. Ladrón de Guevara, M. Yamaguchi and J. Barlow. 2008. Geographic variation in killer whale attacks on humpback whales in the North Pacific: implications for predation pressure. Endangered Species Research 4:247-256.[PDF]

Calambokidis, J., E. A. Falcone, T.J. Quinn, A.M. Burdin, P.J. Clapham, J.K.B. Ford, C.M. Gabriele, R. LeDuc, D. Mattila, L. Rojas-Bracho, J.M. Straley, B.L. Taylor, J. Urbán R., D. Weller, B.H. Witteveen, M. Yamaguchi, A. Bendlin, D. Camacho, K. Flynn, A. Havron, J. Huggins, and N.Maloney. 2008. SPLASH: Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpback Whales in the North Pacific. Final report for Contract AB133F-03-RP-00078. Cascadia Research, Olympia, Washington. 57pp. [PDF]

Jefferson, T.A., M.A. Webber, and R. L Pitman. 2008. Humpback whale - Megatera novaengliae. In: Marine Mammals of the World. A comprehensive guide to their identification. Academic Press, London. pp 66-69.

Calambokidis, J., G.H. Steiger, K. Rasmussen, J. Urban R., K.C. Balcomb, P. L. de Guevara P., M. Salinas Z., J.K. Jacobsen, C.S. Baker, L.M. Herman, S. Cerchio and J.D. Darling. 2000. Migratory destinations of humpback whales that feed off California, Oregon and Washington. Marine Ecology Progress Series 192: 295-304.[PDF]

Clapham, P.J. Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae. In: Perrin, W.F., Würsig, B. and Thewissen, J.G.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press, San Diego. pp 589-591.

Darling, J.D., M.E. Jones and C.P. Nicklin. 2006. Humpback whale songs: Do they organize males during the breeding season? Behaviour 143(9): 1051-1101.

Rasmussen, K., D.M. Palacios, J. Calambokidis, M.T. Saborio, L. Dalla Rosa, E.R. Secchi, G.H. Steiger, J.M. Allen and G.S. Stone. 2007. Southern hemisphere humpback whales wintering off Central America: Insights from water temperature into the longest mammalian migration. Biology Letters 3(3): 302-305. [PDF]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Calambokidis, J., G.H Steiger, J.M Straley, L.M. Herman, S. Cerchio, D.R. Salden, J. Urbán R., J.K. Jacobsen, O. von Ziegesar, K.C. Balcomb, C.M. Gabriele, M.E. Dahlheim, S. Uchida, G. Ellis, Y. Miyamura, P. Ladrón de Guevara P., M. Yamaguchi, F. Sato, S.A. Mizroch, L. Schlender, K. Rasmussen, J. Barlow and T.J.

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Youtube

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40 Ton Humpback Whale Leaps Entirely Out of the Water!  A Video by Craig Capehart

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Wikipedia

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The orca or killer whale ( Orcinus orca) is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family, of which it is the largest member. It is recognizable by its black-and-white patterned body. A cosmopolitan species, orcas can be found in all of the world's oceans in a variety of marine environments, from Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas; they are absent only from the Baltic and Black seas, and some areas of the Arctic Ocean.

Orcas have a diverse diet, although individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey. Some feed exclusively on fish, while others hunt marine mammals such as seals and other species of dolphin. They have been known to attack baleen whale calves, and even adult blue whales. Orcas are apex predators, as they have no natural predators. They are highly social; some populations are composed of very stable matrilineal family groups (pods) which are the most stable of any animal species. Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviours, which are often specific to a particular group and passed across generations, have been described as manifestations of animal culture.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses the orca's conservation status as data deficient because of the likelihood that two or more orca types are separate species. Some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to prey depletion, habitat loss, pollution (by PCBs), capture for marine mammal parks, and conflicts with human fisheries. In late 2005, the southern resident orcas, which swim in British Columbia and Washington state waters, were placed on the U.S. Endangered Species list.

Wild orcas are not considered a threat to humans, and no fatal attack on humans has ever been documented. There have been cases of captive orcas killing or injuring their handlers at marine theme parks. Orcas feature strongly in the mythologies of indigenous cultures, and their reputation in different cultures ranges from being the souls of humans to merciless killers.

Orcas have been commonly referred to as "killer whales", despite being a type of dolphin. Since the 1960s, the use of "orca" instead of "killer whale" has steadily grown in common use.

The genus name Orcinus means "of the kingdom of the dead", or "belonging to Orcus". Ancient Romans originally used orca (pl. orcae) for these animals, possibly borrowing Ancient Greek ( óryx), which referred (among other things) to a whale species. As part of the family Delphinidae, the species is more closely related to other oceanic dolphins than to other whales.

They are sometimes referred to as "blackfish", a name also used for other whale species. "Grampus" is a former name for the species, but is now seldom used. This meaning of "grampus" should not be confused with the genus , whose only member is Risso's dolphin.

Taxonomy and evolution

Orcinus orca is the only recognized extant species in the genus , and one of many animal species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Konrad Gessner wrote the first scientific description of an orca in his Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura of 1558, part of the larger Historia animalium, based on examination of a dead stranded animal in the Bay of Greifswald that had attracted a great deal of local interest.

The orca is one of 35 species in the oceanic dolphin family, which first appeared about 11 million years ago. The orca lineage probably branched off shortly thereafter. Although it has morphological similarities with the false orca, the pygmy orca and the pilot whales, a study of cytochrome b gene sequences indicates that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin dolphins of the genus . However, a more recent (2018) study places the orca as a sister taxon to the Lissodelphininae, a clade that includes Lagenorhynchus and Cephalorhynchus. In contrast, a 2019 phylogenetic study found the orca to be the second most basal member of the Delphinidae, with only the Atlantic white-sided dolphin ( Leucopleurus acutus) being more basal.

The three to five types of orcas may be distinct enough to be considered different races, subspecies, or possibly even species (see Species problem). The IUCN reported in 2008, "The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review, and it is likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least subspecies over the next few years." Although large variation in the ecological distinctiveness of different orca groups complicate simple differentiation into types, research off the west coast of Canada and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s identified the following three types:

Resident: These are the most commonly sighted of the three populations in the coastal waters of the northeast Pacific. Residents' diets consist primarily of fish and sometimes squid, and they live in complex and cohesive family groups called pods. Female residents characteristically have rounded dorsal fin tips that terminate in a sharp corner. They visit the same areas consistently. British Columbia and Washington resident populations are amongst the most intensively studied marine mammals anywhere in the world. Researchers have identified and named over 300 orcas over the past 30 years.

Transient or Bigg's: The diets of these whales consist almost exclusively of marine mammals. Transients generally travel in small groups, usually of two to six animals, and have less persistent family bonds than residents. Transients vocalize in less variable and less complex dialects. Female transients are characterized by more triangular and pointed dorsal fins than those of residents. The grey or white area around the dorsal fin, known as the "saddle patch", often contains some black colouring in residents. However, the saddle patches of transients are solid and uniformly grey. Transients roam widely along the coast; some individuals have been sighted in both southern Alaska and California. Transients are also referred to as Bigg's orca in honour of cetologist Michael Bigg. The term has become increasingly common and may eventually replace the transient label.

Offshore: A third population of orcas in the northeast Pacific was discovered in 1988, when a humpback whale researcher observed them in open water. As their name suggests, they travel far from shore and feed primarily on schooling fish. However, because they have large, scarred and nicked dorsal fins resembling those of mammal-hunting transients, it may be that they also eat mammals and sharks. They have mostly been encountered off the west coast of Vancouver Island and near Haida Gwaii. Offshores typically congregate in groups of 20-75, with occasional sightings of larger groups of up to 200. Little is known about their habits, but they are genetically distinct from residents and transients. Offshores appear to be smaller than the others, and females are characterized by dorsal fin tips that are continuously rounded.

Transients and residents live in the same areas, but avoid each other.

Other populations have not been as well studied, although specialized fish and mammal eating orcas have been distinguished elsewhere. In addition, separate populations of "generalist" (fish- and mammal-eating) and "specialist" (mammal-eating) orcas have been identified off northwestern Europe. As with residents and transients, the lifestyle of these whales appears to reflect their diet; fish-eating orcas in Alaska and Norway have resident-like social structures, while mammal-eating orcas in Argentina and the Crozet Islands behave more like transients.

Three types have been documented in the Antarctic. Two dwarf species, named Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis, were described during the 1980s by Soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status, and linking these directly to the types described below is difficult.

Type A looks like a "typical" orca, a large, black-and-white form with a medium-sized white eye patch, living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales.

Type B is smaller than type A. It has a large white eye patch. Most of the dark parts of its body are medium grey instead of black, although it has a dark grey patch called a "dorsal cape" stretching back from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin. The white areas are stained slightly yellow. It feeds mostly on seals.

Type C is the smallest and lives in larger groups than the others. Its eye patch is distinctively slanted forwards, rather than parallel to the body axis. Like type B, it is primarily white and medium grey, with a dark grey dorsal cape and yellow-tinged patches. Its only observed prey is the Antarctic cod.

Type D was identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass stranding in New Zealand and six at-sea sightings since 2004. The first video record of this type was made in 2014 between the Kerguelen and Crozet Islands, and again in 2017 off the coast of Cape Horn, Chile. It is recognizable by its small white eye patch, narrower and shorter than usual dorsal fin, bulbous head (similar to a pilot whale), and smaller teeth. Its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub-Antarctic waters between latitudes 40°S and 60°S. Although its diet is not determined, it likely includes fish, as determined by photographs around longline vessels, where Type D orcas appeared to be preying on Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides).

Types B and C live close to the ice pack, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types. Mitochondrial DNA sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged separate species. More recently, complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the two Antarctic groups that eat seals and fish should be recognized as distinct species, as should the North Pacific transients, leaving the others as subspecies pending additional data. Advanced methods that sequenced the entire mitochondrial genome revealed systematic differences in DNA between different populations. A 2019 study of Type D orcas also found them to be distinct from other populations and possibly even a unique species. Mammal-eating orcas in different regions were long thought likely to be closely related, but genetic testing has refuted this hypothesis.

There are seven identified ecotypes inhabiting isolated ecological niches. Of three orca ecotypes in the Antarctic, one preys on minke whales, the second on seals and penguins, and the third on fish. Another ecotype lives in the eastern North Atlantic, while the three Northeast Pacific ecotypes are labelled the transient, resident and offshore populations described above. Research has supported a proposal to reclassify the Antarctic seal- and fish-eating populations and the North Pacific transients as a distinct species, leaving the remaining ecotypes as subspecies. The first split in the orca population, between the North Pacific transients and the rest, occurred an estimated 700,000 years ago. Such a designation would mean that each new species becomes subject to separate conservation assessments.

Appearance and morphology

Orcas are the largest extant members of the dolphin family. Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26 ft) long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons). Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) and weighing about 3 to 4 tonnes (3.0 to 3.9 long tons; 3.3 to 4.4 short tons). Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg (400 lb) and are about 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long. The skeleton of the orca is of the typical delphinid structure, but more robust. Its integument, unlike that of most other dolphin species, is characterized by a well-developed dermal layer with a dense network of fascicles of collagen fibres.

The orca typically has a sharply contrasted black-and-white body; being mostly black on the upper side and white on the underside. The entire lower jaw is white and from here, the colouration stretches across the underside to the genital area; narrowing between the flippers then widening some and extending into lateral flank patches close to the end. The tail fluke is also white on the underside while the eyes have white patches behind them and a grey or white "saddle patch" exists behind the dorsal fin and across the back. Males and females also have different patterns of black and white skin in their genital areas. Juveniles have a yellowish colour. Antarctic orcas may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Both albino and melanistic orcas have been documented. Being the most distinctively pigmented cetacean, adult orcas are seldom confused with any other species. When seen from a distance, juveniles can be confused with false orcas or Risso's dolphins.

Orca pectoral fins are large and rounded, resembling paddles, with those of males significantly larger than those of females. Dorsal fins also exhibit sexual dimorphism, with those of males about 1.8 m (5.9 ft) high, more than twice the size of the female's, with the male's fin more like a tall, elongated isosceles triangle, whereas the female's is shorter and more curved. In the skull, adult males have longer lower jaws than females, as well as larger occipital crests. The snout is blunt and lacks the beak of other species. The orca's teeth are very strong, and its jaws exert a powerful grip; the upper teeth fall into the gaps between the lower teeth when the mouth is closed. The firm middle and back teeth hold prey in place, while the front teeth are inclined slightly forward and outward to protect them from powerful jerking movements.

Orcas have good eyesight above and below the water, excellent hearing, and a good sense of touch. They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities, detecting the location and characteristics of prey and other objects in the water by emitting clicks and listening for echoes, as do other members of the dolphin family. The mean body temperature of the orca is 36 to 38 °C (97 to 100 °F). Like most marine mammals, orcas have a layer of insulating blubber ranging from 7.6 to 10 cm (3.0 to 3.9 in) thick beneath the skin. The pulse is about 60 heartbeats per minute when the orca is at the surface, dropping to 30 beats/min when submerged.

An individual orca can often be identified from its dorsal fin and saddle patch. Variations such as nicks, scratches, and tears on the dorsal fin and the pattern of white or grey in the saddle patch are unique. Published directories contain identifying photographs and names for hundreds of North Pacific animals. Photographic identification has enabled the local population of orcas to be counted each year rather than estimated, and has enabled great insight into life cycles and social structures.

Range and habitat

Orcas are found in all oceans and most seas. Due to their enormous range, numbers, and density, relative distribution is difficult to estimate, but they clearly prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments. Areas which serve as major study sites for the species include the coasts of Iceland, Norway, the Valdes Peninsula of Argentina, the Crozet Islands, New Zealand and parts of the west coast of North America, from California to Alaska.

Systematic surveys indicate the highest densities of orcas (>0.40 individuals per 100 km ²) in the northeast Atlantic around the Norwegian coast, in the north Pacific along the Aleutian Islands, the Gulf of Alaska and in the Southern Ocean off much of the coast of Antarctica. They are considered "common" (0.20-0.40 individuals per 100 km ²) in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, in the North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and the Faroe Islands. High densities have also been reported but not quantified in the western North Pacific around the Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and the Commander Islands and in the Southern Hemisphere off southern Brazil and the tip of southern Africa. They are reported as seasonally common in the Canadian Arctic, including Baffin Bay between Greenland and Nunavut, as well as Tasmania and Macquarie Island. Regularly occurring or distinct populations exist off Northwest Europe, California, Patagonia, the Crozet Islands, Marion Island, southern Australia and New Zealand. The northwest Atlantic population of at least 67 individuals ranges from Labrador and Newfoundland to New England with sightings to Cape Cod and Long Island.

Information for offshore regions and warmer waters is more scarce, but widespread sightings indicate that the orca can survive in most water temperatures. They have been sighted, though more infrequently, in the Mediterranean, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Banderas Bay on Mexico's west coast and the Caribbean. Over 50 individual whales have been documented in the northern Indian Ocean, including two individuals that were sighted in the Persian Gulf in 2008 and off Sri Lanka in 2015. Those orcas may occasionally enter the Red Sea through the Gulf of Aden. The modern status of the species along coastal mainland China and its vicinity is unknown. Recorded sightings have been made from almost the entire shoreline. A wide-ranging population is likely to exist in the central Pacific, with some sightings off Hawaii. Distinct populations may also exist off the west coast of tropical Africa, and Papua New Guinea. In the Mediterranean, orcas are considered "visitors", likely from the North Atlantic, and sightings become less frequent further east. However, a small year-round population is known to exist in the Strait of Gibraltar, mostly on the Atlantic side. Orcas also appear to regularly occur off the Galápagos Islands.

In the Antarctic, orcas range up to the edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic. However, orcas are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters, and do not approach the pack ice in the summer. With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait, their range now extends deep into the northwest Atlantic. Occasionally, orcas swim into freshwater rivers. They have been documented 100 mi (160 km) up the Columbia River in the United States. They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan.

Migration patterns are poorly understood. Each summer, the same individuals appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. Despite decades of research, where these animals go for the rest of the year remains unknown. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California.

Population

Worldwide population estimates are uncertain, but recent consensus suggests a minimum of 50,000 (2006). Local estimates include roughly 25,000 in the Antarctic, 8,500 in the tropical Pacific, 2,250-2,700 off the cooler northeast Pacific and 500-1,500 off Norway. Japan's Fisheries Agency estimated in the 2000s that 2,321 orcas were in the seas around Japan.

Orcas are apex predators, meaning that they themselves have no natural predators. They are sometimes called "wolves of the sea", because they hunt in groups like wolf packs. Orcas hunt varied prey including fish, cephalopods, mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles. Different populations or ecotypes may specialize, and some can have a dramatic impact on prey species. However, whales in tropical areas appear to have more generalized diets due to lower food productivity. Orcas spend most of their time at shallow depths, but occasionally dive several hundred metres depending on their prey.

Fish-eating orcas prey on around 30 species of fish. Some populations in the Norwegian and Greenland sea specialize in herring and follow that fish's autumnal migration to the Norwegian coast. Salmon account for 96% of northeast Pacific residents' diet, including 65% of large, fatty Chinook. Chum salmon are also eaten, but smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not a significant food item. Depletion of specific prey species in an area is, therefore, cause for concern for local populations, despite the high diversity of prey. On average, an orca eats 227 kilograms (500 lb) each day. While salmon are usually hunted by an individual whale or a small group, herring are often caught using carousel feeding: the orcas force the herring into a tight ball by releasing bursts of bubbles or flashing their white undersides. They then slap the ball with their tail flukes, stunning or killing up to 15 fish at a time, then eating them one by one. Carousel feeding has only been documented in the Norwegian orca population, as well as some oceanic dolphin species.

In New Zealand, sharks and rays appear to be important prey, including eagle rays, long-tail and short-tail stingrays, common threshers, smooth hammerheads, blue sharks, basking sharks, and shortfin makos. With sharks, orcas may herd them to the surface and strike them with their tail flukes, while bottom-dwelling rays are cornered, pinned to the ground and taken to the surface. In other parts of the world, orcas have preyed on broadnose sevengill sharks, small whale sharks and even great white sharks. Competition between orcas and white sharks is probable in regions where their diets overlap. The arrival of orcas in an area can cause white sharks to flee and forage elsewhere. Orcas appear to target the liver of sharks. A pair of male orcas, Port and Starboard, have become well-known for hunting great whites and other sharks off the South African coast.

Mammals and birds

Orcas are sophisticated and effective predators of marine mammals. Thirty-two cetacean species have been recorded as prey, from observing orca feeding activity, examining the stomach contents of dead orcas, and seeing scars on the bodies of surviving prey animals. Groups even attack larger cetaceans such as minke whales, grey whales, and, rarely, sperm whales or blue whales. In cases where blue whales are attacked, as many as 50 orcas will join the hunt to successfully kill the larger whale, taking turns trying to harass and drown the blue whale in groups of six to eight to attack when one group becomes exhausted. Predation by orcas on whale calves in high-productivity, high-latitude areas may account for great whale migrations during breeding season to low-productivity tropical waters where orcas are scarcer.

Hunting a large whale usually takes several hours. Orcas generally attack young or weak animals. When hunting a young whale, a group chases it and its mother to exhaustion. Eventually, they separate the pair and surround the calf, drowning it by keeping it from surfacing, and may consume only its jaw and tongue. Pods of female sperm whales sometimes protect themselves by forming a protective circle around their calves with their flukes facing outwards, using them to repel the attackers. Rarely, large orca pods can overwhelm adult female sperm whales, but the ability to overcome an adult bull is not recorded. A once controversial claim that orca pods can also prey upon a fully grown blue whale- Balaenoptera musculus, the largest animal to have ever existed-has been verified in a 2019 event documented at the Bremer Marine Park, off the southern coast of Australia.

Prior to the advent of industrial whaling, great whales may have been the major food source for orcas. The introduction of modern whaling techniques may have aided orcas by the sound of exploding harpoons indicating the availability of prey to scavenge, and compressed air inflation of whale carcasses causing them to float, thus exposing them to scavenging. However, the devastation of great whale populations by unfettered whaling has possibly reduced their availability for orcas, and caused them to expand their consumption of smaller marine mammals, thus contributing to the decline of these as well.

Other marine mammal prey species include nearly 20 species of seal, sea lion and fur seal. Walruses and sea otters are less frequently taken. Often, to avoid injury, orcas disable their prey before killing and eating it. This may involve throwing it in the air, slapping it with their tails, ramming it, or breaching and landing on it. In the Aleutian Islands, a decline in sea otter populations in the 1990s was controversially attributed by some scientists to orca predation, although with no direct evidence. The decline of sea otters followed a decline in harbour seal and Steller sea lion populations, the orca's preferred prey, which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey, now decimated by industrial whaling.

In steeply banked beaches off Península Valdés, Argentina, and the Crozet Islands, orcas feed on South American sea lions and southern elephant seals in shallow water, even beaching temporarily to grab prey before wriggling back to the sea. Beaching, usually fatal to cetaceans, is not an instinctive behaviour, and can require years of practice for the young. Orcas can then release the animal near juvenile whales, allowing the younger whales to practice the difficult capture technique on the now-weakened prey. "Wave-hunting" orcas "spy-hop" to locate Weddell seals, crabeater seals, leopard seals, and penguins resting on ice floes, and then swim in groups to create waves that wash over the floe. This washes the prey into the water, where other orcas lie in wait.

Orcas have also been observed preying on terrestrial mammals, such as deer swimming between islands off the northwest coast of North America. Orca cannibalism has also been reported based on analysis of stomach contents, but this is likely to be the result of scavenging remains dumped by whalers. One orca was also attacked by its companions after being shot. Although resident orcas have never been observed to eat other marine mammals, they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason.

Orcas in many areas may prey on cormorants and gulls. A captive orca at Marineland of Canada discovered it could regurgitate fish onto the surface, attracting sea gulls, and then eat the birds. Four others then learned to copy the behaviour.

Day-to-day orca behaviour generally consists of foraging, travelling, resting and socializing. Orcas frequently engage in surface behaviour such as breaching (jumping completely out of the water) and tail-slapping. These activities may have a variety of purposes, such as courtship, communication, dislodging parasites, or play. Spyhopping is a behaviour in which a whale holds its head above water to view its surroundings. Resident orcas swim alongside porpoises and other dolphins.

Social structure

Orcas are notable for their complex societies. Only elephants and higher primates live in comparably complex social structures. Due to orcas' complex social bonds, many marine experts have concerns about how humane it is to keep them in captivity.

Resident orcas in the eastern North Pacific live in particularly complex and stable social groups. Unlike any other known mammal social structure, resident whales live with their mothers for their entire lives. These family groups are based on matrilines consisting of the eldest female (matriarch) and her sons and daughters, and the descendants of her daughters, etc. The average size of a matriline is 5.5 animals. Because females can reach age 90, as many as four generations travel together. These matrilineal groups are highly stable. Individuals separate for only a few hours at a time, to mate or forage. With one exception, an orca named Luna, no permanent separation of an individual from a resident matriline has been recorded.

Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods, usually consisting of one to four matrilines. Unlike matrilines, pods may separate for weeks or months at a time. DNA testing indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods. Clans, the next level of resident social structure, are composed of pods with similar dialects, and common but older maternal heritage. Clan ranges overlap, mingling pods from different clans. The highest association layer is the community, which consists of pods that regularly associate with each other but share no maternal relations or dialects.

Transient pods are smaller than resident pods, typically consisting of an adult female and one or two of her offspring. Males typically maintain stronger relationships with their mothers than other females. These bonds can extend well into adulthood. Unlike residents, extended or permanent separation of transient offspring from natal matrilines is common, with juveniles and adults of both sexes participating. Some males become "rovers" and do not form long-term associations, occasionally joining groups that contain reproductive females. As in resident clans, transient community members share an acoustic repertoire, although regional differences in vocalizations have been noted.

Orcas of the same sex and age group may engage in physical contact and synchronous surfacing. These behaviours do not occur randomly among individuals in a pod, providing evidence of "friendships".

Vocalizations

Like all cetaceans, orcas depend heavily on underwater sound for orientation, feeding, and communication. They produce three categories of sounds: clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Clicks are believed to be used primarily for navigation and discriminating prey and other objects in the surrounding environment, but are also commonly heard during social interactions.

Northeast Pacific resident groups tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters. Residents feed primarily on Chinook and chum salmon, which are insensitive to orca calls (inferred from the audiogram of Atlantic salmon). In contrast, the marine mammal prey of transients hear whale calls well and thus transients are typically silent. Vocal behaviour in these whales is mainly limited to surfacing activities and milling (slow swimming with no apparent direction) after a kill.

All members of a resident pod use similar calls, known collectively as a dialect. Dialects are composed of specific numbers and types of discrete, repetitive calls. They are complex and stable over time. Call patterns and structure are distinctive within matrilines. Newborns produce calls similar to their mothers, but have a more limited repertoire. Individuals likely learn their dialect through contact with pod members. Family-specific calls have been observed more frequently in the days following a calf's birth, which may help the calf learn them. Dialects are probably an important means of maintaining group identity and cohesiveness. Similarity in dialects likely reflects the degree of relatedness between pods, with variation growing over time. When pods meet, dominant call types decrease and subset call types increase. The use of both call types is called biphonation. The increased subset call types may be the distinguishing factor between pods and inter-pod relations.

Dialects also distinguish types. Resident dialects contain seven to 17 (mean = 11) distinctive call types. All members of the North American west coast transient community express the same basic dialect, although minor regional variation in call types is evident. Preliminary research indicates offshore orcas have group-specific dialects unlike those of residents and transients.

Norwegian and Icelandic herring-eating orcas appear to have different vocalizations for activities like hunting. A population that live in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica have 28 complex burst-pulse and whistle calls.

Intelligence

Orcas have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals (after sperm whales, which have the largest brain of any animal). They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent, although defining and measuring "intelligence" is difficult in a species whose environment and behavioural strategies are very different from those of humans.

Orcas imitate others, and seem to deliberately teach skills to their kin. Off the Crozet Islands, mothers push their calves onto the beach, waiting to pull the youngster back if needed.

People who have interacted closely with orcas offer numerous anecdotes demonstrating the whales' curiosity, playfulness, and ability to solve problems. Alaskan orcas have not only learned how to steal fish from longlines, but have also overcome a variety of techniques designed to stop them, such as the use of unbaited lines as decoys. Once, fishermen placed their boats several miles apart, taking turns retrieving small amounts of their catch, in the hope that the whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal the catch as it was being retrieved. A researcher described what happened next:

It worked really well for a while. Then the whales split into two groups. It didn't even take them an hour to figure it out. They were so thrilled when they figured out what was going on, that we were playing games. They were breaching by the boats.

In other anecdotes, researchers describe incidents in which wild orcas playfully tease humans by repeatedly moving objects the humans are trying to reach, or suddenly start to toss around a chunk of ice after a human throws a snowball.

The orca's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviours from generation to generation have been described as a form of animal culture.

The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales ( Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties.

Female orcas begin to mature at around the age of 10 and reach peak fertility around 20, experiencing periods of polyestrous cycling separated by non-cycling periods of three to 16 months. Females can often breed until age 40, followed by a rapid decrease in fertility. Orcas are among the few animals that undergo menopause and live for decades after they have finished breeding. The lifespans of wild females average 50 to 80 years. Some are claimed to have lived substantially longer: Granny (J2) was estimated by some researchers to have been as old as 105 years at the time of her death, though a biopsy sample indicated her age as 65 to 80 years. It is thought that orcas held in captivity tend to have shorter lives than those in the wild, although this is subject to scientific debate.

Males mate with females from other pods, which prevents inbreeding. Gestation varies from 15 to 18 months. Mothers usually calve a single offspring about once every five years. In resident pods, births occur at any time of year, although winter is the most common. Mortality is extremely high during the first seven months of life, when 37-50% of all calves die. Weaning begins at about 12 months of age, and is complete by two years. According to observations in several regions, all male and female pod members participate in the care of the young.

Males sexually mature at the age of 15, but do not typically reproduce until age 21. Wild males live around 29 years on average, with a maximum of about 60 years. One male, known as Old Tom, was reportedly spotted every winter between the 1840s and 1930 off New South Wales, Australia, which would have made him up to 90 years old. Examination of his teeth indicated he died around age 35, but this method of age determination is now believed to be inaccurate for older animals. One male known to researchers in the Pacific Northwest (identified as J1) was estimated to have been 59 years old when he died in 2010. Orcas are unique among cetaceans, as their caudal sections elongate with age, making their heads relatively shorter.

Infanticide, once thought to occur only in captive orcas, was observed in wild populations by researchers off British Columbia on December 2, 2016. In this incident, an adult male killed the calf of a female within the same pod, with the adult male's mother also joining in the assault. It is theorized that the male killed the young calf in order to mate with its mother (something that occurs in other carnivore species), while the male's mother supported the breeding opportunity for her son. The attack ended when the calf's mother struck and injured the attacking male. Such behaviour matches that of many smaller dolphin species, such as the bottlenose dolphin.

Conservation

In 2008, the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) changed its assessment of the orca's conservation status from conservation dependent to data deficient, recognizing that one or more orca types may actually be separate, endangered species. Depletion of prey species, pollution, large-scale oil spills, and habitat disturbance caused by noise and conflicts with boats are the most significant worldwide threats. In January 2020, the first orca in England and Wales since 2001 was found dead with a large fragment of plastic in its stomach.

Like other animals at the highest trophic levels, the orca is particularly at risk of poisoning from bioaccumulation of toxins, including Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). European harbour seals have problems in reproductive and immune functions associated with high levels of PCBs and related contaminants, and a survey off the Washington coast found PCB levels in orcas were higher than levels that had caused health problems in harbour seals. Blubber samples in the Norwegian Arctic show higher levels of PCBs, pesticides and brominated flame-retardants than in polar bears. A 2018 study published in found that global orca populations are poised to dramatically decline due such toxic pollution.

In the Pacific Northwest, wild salmon stocks, a main resident food source, have declined dramatically in recent years. In the Puget Sound region, only 75 whales remain with few births over the last few years. On the west coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, seal and sea lion populations have also substantially declined.

In 2005, the United States government listed the southern resident community as an endangered population under the Endangered Species Act. This community comprises three pods which live mostly in the Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound in British Columbia and Washington. They do not breed outside of their community, which was once estimated at around 200 animals and later shrank to around 90. In October 2008, the annual survey revealed seven were missing and presumed dead, reducing the count to 83. This is potentially the largest decline in the population in the past 10 years. These deaths can be attributed to declines in Chinook salmon.

Scientist Ken Balcomb has extensively studied orcas since 1976; he is the research biologist responsible for discovering U.S. Navy sonar may harm orcas. He studied orcas from the Center for Whale Research, located in Friday Harbor, Washington. He was also able to study orcas from "his home porch perched above Puget Sound, where the animals hunt and play in summer months". In May 2003, Balcomb (along with other whale watchers near the Puget Sound coastline) noticed uncharacteristic behaviour displayed by the orcas. The whales seemed "agitated and were moving haphazardly, attempting to lift their heads free of the water" to escape the sound of the sonars. "Balcomb confirmed at the time that strange underwater pinging noises detected with underwater microphones were sonar. The sound originated from a U.S. Navy frigate 12 miles (19 kilometres) distant, Balcomb said." The impact of sonar waves on orcas is potentially life-threatening. Three years prior to Balcomb's discovery, research in the Bahamas showed 14 beaked whales washed up on the shore. These whales were beached on the day U.S. Navy destroyers were activated into sonar exercise. Of the 14 whales beached, six of them died. These six dead whales were studied, and CAT scans of two of the whale heads showed hemorrhaging around the brain and the ears, which is consistent with decompression sickness.

Another conservation concern was made public in September 2008 when the Canadian government decided it was not necessary to enforce further protections (including the Species at Risk Act in place to protect endangered animals along with their habitats) for orcas aside from the laws already in place. In response to this decision, six environmental groups sued the federal government, claiming orcas were facing many threats on the British Columbia Coast and the federal government did nothing to protect them from these threats. A legal and scientific nonprofit organization, Ecojustice, led the lawsuit and represented the David Suzuki Foundation, Environmental Defence, Greenpeace Canada, International Fund for Animal Welfare, the Raincoast Conservation Foundation, and the Wilderness Committee. Many scientists involved in this lawsuit, including Bill Wareham, a marine scientist with the David Suzuki Foundation, noted increased boat traffic, water toxic wastes, and low salmon population as major threats, putting approximately 87 orcas on the British Columbia Coast in danger.

Underwater noise from shipping, drilling, and other human activities is a significant concern in some key orca habitats, including Johnstone Strait and Haro Strait. In the mid-1990s, loud underwater noises from salmon farms were used to deter seals. Orcas also avoided the surrounding waters. High-intensity sonar used by the Navy disturbs orcas along with other marine mammals. Orcas are popular with whale watchers, which may stress the whales and alter their behaviour, particularly if boats approach too closely or block their lines of travel.

The Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected orcas in Prince William Sound and Alaska's Kenai Fjords region. Eleven members (about half) of one resident pod disappeared in the following year. The spill damaged salmon and other prey populations, which in turn damaged local orcas. By 2009, scientists estimated the AT1 transient population (considered part of a larger population of 346 transients), numbered only seven individuals and had not reproduced since the spill. This population is expected to die out.

Orcas are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning international trade (including in parts/derivatives) is regulated.

Relationship with humans

Indigenous cultures

The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast feature orcas throughout their art, history, spirituality and religion. The Haida regarded orcas as the most powerful animals in the ocean, and their mythology tells of orcas living in houses and towns under the sea. According to these myths, they took on human form when submerged, and humans who drowned went to live with them. For the Kwakwaka'wakw, the orca was regarded as the ruler of the undersea world, with sea lions for slaves and dolphins for warriors. In Nuu-chah-nulth and Kwakwaka'wakw mythology, orcas may embody the souls of deceased chiefs. The Tlingit of southeastern Alaska regarded the orca as custodian of the sea and a benefactor of humans.

The Maritime Archaic people of Newfoundland also had great respect for orcas, as evidenced by stone carvings found in a 4,000-year-old burial at the Port au Choix Archaeological Site.[195][196]

In the tales and beliefs of the Siberian Yupik people, orcas are said to appear as wolves in winter, and wolves as orcas in summer.[197][198][199][200] Orcas are believed to assist their hunters in driving walrus.[201] Reverence is expressed in several forms: the boat represents the animal, and a wooden carving hung from the hunter's belt.[199] Small sacrifices such as tobacco or meat are strewn into the sea for them.[201][200]

Indigenous Ainu tribe often referred to orcas in their folklore and myth as Repun Kamuy (God of Sea/Offshore) to bring fortunes (whales) to the coasts, and there had been traditional funerals for stranded or deceased orcas akin to funerals for other animals such as brown bears.[202]

"Killer" stereotype

In Western cultures, orcas were historically feared as dangerous, savage predators. The first written description of an orca was given by Pliny the Elder circa AD 70, who wrote, "Orcas (the appearance of which no image can express, other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth) are the enemy of [other kinds of whale]... they charge and pierce them like warships ramming."[204]

Of the very few confirmed attacks on humans by wild orcas, none have been fatal.[205] In one instance, orcas tried to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the Terra Nova Expedition were standing.[206] The sled dogs' barking is speculated to have sounded enough like seal calls to trigger the orca's hunting curiosity. In the 1970s, a surfer in California was bitten, and in 2005, a boy in Alaska who was splashing in a region frequented by harbour seals was bumped by an orca that apparently misidentified him as prey.[207] Unlike wild orcas, captive orcas have made nearly two dozen attacks on humans since the 1970s, some of which have been fatal.[208][209]

Competition with fishermen also led to orcas being regarded as pests. In the waters of the Pacific Northwest and Iceland, the shooting of orcas was accepted and even encouraged by governments. As an indication of the intensity of shooting that occurred until fairly recently, about 25% of the orcas captured in Puget Sound for aquariums through 1970 bore bullet scars. The U.S. Navy claimed to have deliberately killed hundreds of orcas in Icelandic waters in 1956 with machine guns, rockets, and depth charges.[211][212]

From July to October 2020 there were at least forty reliable reports of orcas attacking boats off the Atlantic coast of Portugal and Spain, unusual and unprecedented behaviour. The nudging, biting and ramming attacks, on medium-size sailing boats sailing at moderate speed, concentrated on the rudder, with some impacts on the hull. A small group of orcas are believed to be responsible, with three juveniles which have been named black Gladis, white Gladis and grey Gladis, identified as present in most attacks. While the incidents were terrifying, no people were injured. The Portuguese coastguard banned small sailing vessels from a region where several incidents had been reported. It is thought that the behaviour is playful, rather than aggressive or vengeful.[213]

Modern Western attitudes

Western attitudes towards orcas have changed dramatically in recent decades. In the mid-1960s and early 1970s, orcas came to much greater public and scientific awareness, starting with the first live-capture and display of an orca known as Moby Doll, a resident harpooned off Saturna Island in 1964. So little was known at the time, it was nearly two months before the whale's keepers discovered what food (fish) it was willing to eat. To the surprise of those who saw him, Moby Doll was a docile, non-aggressive whale who made no attempts to attack humans.

Between 1964 and 1976, 50 orcas from the Pacific Northwest were captured for display in aquaria, and public interest in the animals grew. In the 1970s, research pioneered by Michael Bigg led to the discovery of the species' complex social structure, its use of vocal communication, and its extraordinarily stable mother-offspring bonds. Through photo-identification techniques, individuals were named and tracked over decades.

Bigg's techniques also revealed the Pacific Northwest population was in the low hundreds rather than the thousands that had been previously assumed. The southern resident community alone had lost 48 of its members to captivity; by 1976, only 80 remained. In the Pacific Northwest, the species that had unthinkingly been targeted became a cultural icon within a few decades.[183]

The public's growing appreciation also led to growing opposition to whale-keeping in aquarium. Only one whale has been taken in North American waters since 1976. In recent years, the extent of the public's interest in orcas has manifested itself in several high-profile efforts surrounding individuals. Following the success of the 1993 film Free Willy, the movie's captive star Keiko was returned to the coast of his native Iceland in 2002. The director of the International Marine Mammal Project for the Earth Island Institute, David Phillips, led the efforts to return Keiko to the Iceland waters.[217] Keiko however did not adapt to the harsh climate of the Arctic Ocean, and died a year into his release after contracting pneumonia, at the age of 27.[218] In 2002, the orphan Springer was discovered in Puget Sound, Washington. She became the first whale to be successfully reintegrated into a wild pod after human intervention, crystallizing decades of research into the vocal behaviour and social structure of the region's orcas.[219] The saving of Springer raised hopes that another young orca named Luna, which had become separated from his pod, could be returned to it. However, his case was marked by controversy about whether and how to intervene, and in 2006, Luna was killed by a boat propeller.[220]

Whaling

The earlier of known records of commercial hunting of orcas date to the 18th century in Japan. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the global whaling industry caught immense numbers of baleen and sperm whales, but largely ignored orcas because of their limited amounts of recoverable oil, their smaller populations, and the difficulty of taking them. Once the stocks of larger species were depleted, orcas were targeted by commercial whalers in the mid-20th century. Between 1954 and 1997, Japan took 1,178 orcas (although the Ministry of the Environment claims that there had been domestic catches of about 1,600 whales between late 1940s to 1960s[221]) and Norway took 987. Extensive hunting of orcas, including an Antarctic catch of 916 in 1979-80 alone, prompted the International Whaling Commission to recommend a ban on commercial hunting of the species pending further research. Today, no country carries out a substantial hunt, although Indonesia and Greenland permit small subsistence hunts (see Aboriginal whaling). Other than commercial hunts, orcas were hunted along Japanese coasts out of public concern for potential conflicts with fisheries. Such cases include a semi-resident male-female pair in Akashi Strait and Harimanada being killed in the Seto Inland Sea in 1957,[223][224] the killing of five whales from a pod of 11 members that swam into Tokyo Bay in 1970,[225] and a catch record in southern Taiwan in the 1990s.[74][226]

Cooperation with humans

Orcas have helped humans hunting other whales.[227] One well-known example was the orcas of Eden, Australia, including the male known as Old Tom. Whalers more often considered them a nuisance, however, as orcas would gather to scavenge meat from the whalers' catch.[227] Some populations, such as in Alaska's Prince William Sound, may have been reduced significantly by whalers shooting them in retaliation.[18]

Whale watching

Whale watching continues to increase in popularity, but may have some problematic impacts on orcas. Exposure to exhaust gases from large amounts of vessel traffic is causing concern for the overall health of the 75 remaining southern resident orcas (SRKWs) left as of early 2019.[228] This population is followed by approximately 20 vessels for 12 hours a day during the months May-September.[229] Researchers discovered that these vessels are in the line of sight for these whales for 98-99.5% of daylight hours.[229] With so many vessels, the air quality around these whales deteriorates and impacts their health. Air pollutants that bind with exhaust fumes are responsible for the activation of the cytochrome P450 1A gene family.[229] Researchers have successfully identified this gene in skin biopsies of live whales and also the lungs of deceased whales. A direct correlation between activation of this gene and the air pollutants can not be made because there are other known factors that will induce the same gene. Vessels can have either wet or dry exhaust systems, with wet exhaust systems leaving more pollutants in the water due to various gas solubility. A modelling study determined that the lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level (LOAEL) of exhaust pollutants was about 12% of the human dose.[229]

As a response to this, in 2017 boats off the British Columbia coast now have a minimum approach distance of 200 metres compared to the previous 100 metres. This new rule complements Washington State's minimum approach zone of 180 metres that has been in effect since 2011. If a whale approaches a vessel it must be placed in neutral until the whale passes. The World Health Organization has set air quality standards in an effort to control the emissions produced by these vessels.[230]

Captivity

The orca's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks. From 1976 to 1997, 55 whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, 19 from Japan, and three from Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s, and by 1999, about 40% of the 48 animals on display in the world were captive-born.

Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity. In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60-90% of captive males. Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s.[b] That said, a 2015 study coauthored by staff at SeaWorld and the Minnesota Zoo suggested no significant difference in survivorship between free-ranging and captive orcas.[169] However, in the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average, and up to 70-80 years in rare cases. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average, and up to 50-60 years.[232] Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat, and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behaviour, see above.[233] Wild orcas may travel up to 160 kilometres (100 mi) in a day, and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity.[155] Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress.[208] Between 1991 and 2010, the bull orca known as Tilikum was involved in the death of three people, and was featured in the critically acclaimed 2013 film Blackfish.[234] Tilikum lived at SeaWorld from 1992 until his death in 2017.[235][236]

In March 2016, SeaWorld announced that they would be ending their orca breeding program and their theatrical shows.[237] As of 2020, theatrical shows featuring orcas are still ongoing.[238]

1. ^ According to Baird, killer whales prefer harbour seals to sea lions and porpoises in some areas.

2. ^ Although there are examples of killer whales living longer, including several over 30 years old, and two captive orcas (Corky II and Lolita) are in their mid-40s.

References

1. ^ Mead, J.G.; Brownell, R. L. Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723-743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.

2. Reeves, R.; Pitman, R.L.; Ford, J.K.B. (2017). "Orcinus orca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T15421A50368125. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T15421A50368125.en.

3. Best, P.B. 2007 ^ Whales and Dolphins of the Southern African Subregion ISBN 978-0-521-89710-5

4. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin). Vol. v.1 (10th ed.). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824. Archived from the original on March 25, 2017.

5. (Baird 2002). Status of Killer Whales in Canada Archived November 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Contract report to the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada. Also published as Status of Killer Whales, Orcinus orca, in Canada Archived July 14, 2010, at the Wayback Machine The Canadian Field-Naturalist 115 (4) (2001), 676-701. Retrieved January 26, 2010.

6. Pitman, Robert L.; Ensor, Paul (2003). "Three forms of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Antarctic waters" (PDF). Journal of Cetacean Research and Management. 5 (2): 131-139. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 27, 2020.

7. Ford, J.K.B.; Ellis, G.M.; Barrett-Lennard, L.G.; Morton, A.B.; Palm, R.S.; Balcomb, K.C. (1998). "Dietary specialization in two sympatric populations of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in coastal British Columbia and adjacent waters". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 76 (8): 1456-1471. doi:10.1139/z98-089.

8. ^ Ford J.K.B. and, G.M. Ellis. 1999. Transients: Mammal-hunting killer whales of British Columbia, Washington, and Southeastern Alaska. UBC Press, Vancouver.

9. ^ Dahlheim, M.E.; Schulman-Janiger, A.; Black, N.; Ternullo, R.; Balcomb, K.C. (2008). "Eastern temperate North Pacific offshore killer whales (Orcinus orca): Occurrence, movements, and insights into feeding ecology". Marine Mammal Science. 24 (3): 719-729. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00206.x. Archived from the original on October 13, 2010.

10. ^ Barrett-Lennard LG, Ellis GM. 2001. Population structure and genetic variability in northeastern Pacific killer whales: Towards an assessment of population viability. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat, Ottawa, Canada.

11. Bourton, Jody. ^ Two killer whale types found in UK waters Archived January 14, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Earth News, BBC, January 5, 2010. Retrieved February 23, 2010.

12. ^ Waite, J.M.; Friday, N.A.; Moore, S.E. (2002). "Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) distribution and abundance in the central and southeastern Bering Sea, July 1999 and June 2000". Marine Mammal Science. 18 (3): 779-786. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01073.x. Archived from the original on September 15, 2020.

13. ^ Evans, W. E.; Yablokov, A. V.; Bowles, A. E. (1982). "Geographic Variation in the Color Pattern of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca)" (PDF). Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 32: 687-694. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 13, 2011.

14. Pitman, Robert L.; Durban, John W.; Greenfelder, Michael; Guinet, Christophe; Jorgensen, Morton; Olson, Paula A.; Plana, Jordi; Tixier, Paul; Towers, Jared R. (August 7, 2010). "Observations of a distinctive morphotype of killer whale (Orcinus orca), type D, from subantarctic waters". Polar Biology. 34 (2): 303-306. doi:10.1007/s00300-010-0871-3. S2CID 20734772. Archived from the original on September 15, 2020.

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16. N. W. Kasting, S. A. L. Adderly, T. Safford, K. G. Hewlett (1989). "Thermoregulation in Beluga (^ Delphinapterus luecas) and Killer (Orcinus orca) Whales"

17. M. P. Spencer, T. A. Gornall, 3rd, and T. C. Poulter (1967). ^ Respiratory and cardiac activity of killer whales Archived June 11, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.

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25. ^ Towers, Jared R; Tixier, Paul; Ross, Katherine A; Bennett, John; Arnould, John P Y; Pitman, Robert L; Durban, John W; Northridge, Simon (January 2019). "Movements and dive behaviour of a toothfish-depredating killer and sperm whale". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 76 (1): 298-311. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsy118. S2CID 91256980. The killer whale dove >750 m on five occasions while depredating (maximum: 1087 m), but these deep dives were always followed by long periods (3.9-4.6 h) of shallow (<100 m) diving.

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32. ^ Ford, J. K. B.; Reeves R. R. (2008). "Fight or flight: antipredator strategies of baleen whales" (PDF). Mammal Review. 38 (1): 50-86. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.573.6671. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2008.00118.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 22, 2017.

33. ^ Santos, Marcos Cesar de Oliveira & Netto, Denis Ferreira (2005). "Killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation on a franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia blainvillei) in Brazilian waters". Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals. 4 (1): 69-72. doi:10.5597/lajam00072.

34. ^ Fox, Alex. "More Than 50 Orcas Hunt and Kill Blue Whale Off Australian Coast". Smithsonian Magazine.

35. ^ Pitman, Robert L.; et al. (2001). "Killer Whale Predation on Sperm Whales: Observations and Implications". Marine Mammal Science. 17 (3): 494-507. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01000.x. Archived from the original on December 11, 2015.

36. ^ Springer, A. M. (2003). "Sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific Ocean: An ongoing legacy of industrial whaling?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (21): 12223-12228. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10012223S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1635156100. PMC . PMID 14526101.

37. ^ Visser, Ingrid N.; Smith, Thomas G.; Bullock, Ian D.; Green, Geoffrey D.; Carlsson, Olle G. L.; Imberti, Santiago (2008). "Antarctic peninsula killer whales (Orcinus orca) hunt seals and a penguin on floating ice" (PDF). Marine Mammal Science. 24 (1): 225-234. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2007.00163.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 31, 2011.

38. ^ Ford, J. K. B.; Ellis, G. M.; Balcomb, K. C. (1999). Killer Whales: The Natural History and Genealogy of Orcinus orca in British Columbia and Washington State. University of British Columbia Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0774804691.

39. ^ Weiss, M. N.; et al. (2021). "Age and sex influence social interactions, but not associations, within a killer whale pod". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 288 (1953). doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.0617. hdl:10871/125706. PMC 8206696. PMID 34130498.

40. Kremers, D.; Lemasson, A.; Almunia, J. & Wanker, R. (2012). "Vocal sharing and individual acoustic distinctiveness within a group of captive orcas (Orcinus orca)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 126 (4): 433-445. doi:10.1037/a0028858. PMID 22866769.

41. ^ Filatova, Olga A.; Fedutin, Ivan D.; Burdin, Alexandr M.; Hoyt, Erich (2007). "The structure of the discrete call repertoire of killer whales Orcinus orca from Southeast Kamchatka" (PDF). Bioacoustics. 16 (3): 261-280. doi:10.1080/09524622.2007.9753581. S2CID 56304541. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 15, 2011.

42. ^ Weiß, Brigitte M.; Ladich, Friedrich; Spong, Paul; Symonds, Helena (2006). "Vocal behaviour of resident killer whale matrilines with newborn calves: The role of family signatures" (PDF). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 119 (1): 627-35. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..119..627W. doi:10.1121/1.2130934. PMID 16454316. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2011.

43. Spear, Kevin. ^ Killer whales: How smart are they? Archived September 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Orlando Sentinel, March 7, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2010

44. Associated Press. Whale Attack Renews Captive Animal Debate Archived March 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine CBS News, March 1, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2010

45. Pitman, Robert L. ^ Scientist Has 'Snowball Fight' With a Killer Whale Archived September 15, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Live Science, February 6, 2009. Retrieved March 7, 2010

46. ^ Rendell, Luke; Hal Whitehead (2001). "Culture in whales and dolphins". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 24 (2): 309-324. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0100396X. PMID 11530544. S2CID 24052064. Archived from the original on May 30, 2010.

47. ^ Bowden, DM; Williams, DD (1984). "Aging". Advances in Veterinary Science and Comparative Medicine. 28: 305-41. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-039228-5.50015-2. ISBN 9780120392285. PMID 6395674.

48. Robeck, Todd R.; Willis, Kevin; Scarpuzzi, Michael R.; O'Brien, Justine K. (September 29, 2015). "Comparisons of life-history parameters between free-ranging and captive killer whale (Orcinus orca) populations for application toward species management". Journal of Mammalogy. 96 (5): 1055-1070. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyv113. PMC . PMID 26937049. Archived from the original on April 23, 2019.

49. Mitchell, E. and Baker, A. N. (1980). Age of reputedly old Killer Whale, ^ Orcinus orca, 'Old Tom' from Eden, Twofold Bay, Australia, in: W. F. Perrin and A. C. Myrick Jr (eds.): Age determination of toothed whales and sirenians, pp. 143-154 Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. (Special Issue 3), cited in Know the Killer Whale, The Dolphin's Encyclopaedia. Retrieved January 27, 2010

50. Olesiuk, Peter F.; Ellis, Graeme M. and Ford, John K. B. (2005). ^ Life History and Population Dynamics of Northern Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) in British Columbia Archived April 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Research Document 2005/045, Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. p. 33. Retrieved January 27, 2010

51. ^ "First stranded Orca found in almost 20 years in the Wash". BBC News. January 14, 2020. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020.

52. M. L. Lyke, Granny's Struggle: When Granny is gone, will her story be the last chapter? Archived September 15, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Seattle Post Intelligencer, October 14, 2006

53. ^ Williams, Rob (2002). "Behavioural responses of male killer whales to a 'leapfrogging' vessel" (PDF). Journal of Cetacean Resource Management. 4 (3): 305-310. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 6, 2014.

54. ^ The orphan boy with his sister, p. 156 in Rubcova, E. S. (1954). Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes, Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Original data: Е.С. Рубцова: Материалы по языку и фольклору эскимосов (чаплинский диалект). Академия Наук СССР. Москва-Ленинград, 1954

55. Menovshchikov, G. A. (1962). ^ Grammar of the language of Asian Eskimos. Vol. I., pp. 439, 441. Moscow and Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Original data: Г. А. Меновщиков: Грамматиκа языка азиатских эскимосов. Часть первая. Академия Наук СССР. Москва-Ленинград, 1962

56. Ковалева, Ирина & Богословская, Людмила (December 3, 2002). Животные и отражение их прихода к человеку в самых разных текстах (in Russian). Эхо Москвы. Арсенал. Archived from the original on May 5, 2008. A radio interview with Russian scientists about man and animal, examples taken especially from Asian Eskimos

57. ^ Gaius Plinius Secundus. Historia Naturalis 9.5.12 Archived September 15, 2020, at the Wayback Machine (Latin), in Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius: Into the Roman World Archived May 24, 2012, at archive.today. (See also an English translation Archived June 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley, 1855.) Retrieved February 19, 2010.

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Further reading

Ford, John K. B. (2002). "Killer Whale". Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 669-675. ISBN 0-12-551340-2.

Ford, John K. B.; Ellis, Graeme M.; Balcomb, Kenneth C. (2000). Killer Whales (Second ed.). Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0800-2.

Ford, John K. B.; Ellis, Graeme M. (2006). "Selective foraging by fish-eating killer whales Orcinus orca in British Columbia". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 316: 185-199. Bibcode:2006MEPS..316..185F. doi:10.3354/meps316185.

Francis, Daniel; Hewlett, Gil (2007). Operation Orca: Springer, Luna and the Struggle to Save West Coast Killer Whales. Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55017-426-7.

Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; Hoffmann, Robert S. (1996). Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, part 3. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. ISBN 978-1-886106-81-9.

Hoyt, Erich (August 1984). "The Whales Called "Killer"". National Geographic. Vol. 166, no. 2. pp. 220-237. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.

NMFS (2005). "Conservation Plan for Southern Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca)" (PDF). Seattle, U.S.: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Northwest Regional Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008.

Obee, Bruce; Ellis, Graeme (1992). Elaine Jones (ed.). Guardians of the Whales: The Quest to Study Whales in the Wild. North Vancouver, British Columbia: Whitecap Books. ISBN 978-1-55110-034-0.

Hoyt, Erich (1998), Orca: The Whale Called Killer Camden House Publishing, ISBN 978-0-920656-25-9

Kirkevold, B. C.; J. S. Lockard (1986). Behavioral Biology of Killer Whales. Alan R. Liss Inc. ISBN 978-0-8451-3100-8.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The orca or killer whale ( Orcinus orca) is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family, of which it is the largest member. It is recognizable by its black-and-white patterned body.

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National Geographic

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Common Name:

Orca (Killer Whale)

Scientific Name:

Orcinus orca

Average Life Span In The Wild:

50 to 80 years

Size relative to a bus:

Orcas, or killer whales, are the largest of the dolphins and one of the world's most powerful predators. They're immediately recognizable by their distinctive black-and-white coloring. Smart and social, orcas make a wide variety of communicative sounds, and each pod has distinctive noises that its members will recognize even at a distance. They use echolocation to communicate and hunt, making sounds that travel underwater until they encounter objects, then bounce back, revealing their location, size, and shape.

Hunting and Diet

Though they often frequent cold, coastal waters, orcas can be found from the polar regions to the Equator. They're at the top of the food chain and have very diverse diets, feasting on fish, penguins, and marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, and even whales, employing teeth that can be four inches long. They are known to grab seals right off the ice. They also eat fish, squid, and seabirds.

Orcas hunt in deadly pods, family groups of up to 40 individuals. There appear to be both resident and transient pod populations of orcas. These different groups may prey on different animals and use different techniques to catch them. Resident pods tend to prefer fish, while transient pods target marine mammals. All pods use effective, cooperative hunting techniques that some liken to the behavior of wolf packs.

Orcas are protective of their young, and other adolescent females often assist the mother in caring for them. Mothers give birth every three to ten years, after a 17-month pregnancy. They give birth to one baby at a time, which may nurse for up to two years. In most cases, the bond between juvenile and mother will eventually weaken, and the young orca will go its own way, but in some pods, the juvenile may stay with the pod it was born into its entire life.

Orcas in Captivity

Orcas are highly intelligent, social mammals that have long been a part of marine park entertainment, performing shows for audiences. However, it's become increasingly clear that orcas do not thrive in captivity.

They have evolved to swim up to 40 miles a day, foraging for food and exercising. They dive 100 to 500 feet, several times a day, every day. Whether they're born in the wild or in captivity, all orcas born have the same innate drive to swim far and dive deep. Artificial enclosures in captivity cannon offer that kind of range to orcas, contributing to boredom and stress. Orcas have been seen to develop stereotypies, also known as zoochosis-repetitive patterns of activity that have no obvious function, which range from self-mutilation to rocking and swaying. Usually related to stress and inappropriate habitats, stereotypic behavior has been documented in orcas in scientific research since the late 1980s.

In the wild, orcas live in tight-knit family groups that share a sophisticated, unique culture that is passed down through generations, research has shown. In captivity, orcas are kept in artificial social groups. Captive-born orcas are often transferred between facilities, breaking up social relationships. The stress of social disruption is compounded by the fact that orcas in captivity don't have the ability to escape conflict with other orcas, or to engage in natural swimming behaviors in pools.

In 2013, the documentary film Blackfish laid bare the psychological toll of captivity, through the story of a wild-caught orca named Tilikum who had killed two trainers at SeaWorld Orlando. The film included testimony from former SeaWorld trainers and cetacean specialists, who argued that Tilikum's stress directly led to his aggression towards humans.

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Orcas: Killer whales are the larges dolphin species

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Common Name: Orca (Killer Whale) Scientific Name: Orcinus orca Average Life Span In The Wild: 50 to 80 years Size relative to a bus: Orcas, or killer whales, are the largest of the dolphins and one of the world's most powerful predators. They're immediately recognizable by their distinctive black-and-white coloring.

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Seaworld

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killer whale whales orca orcas shamu infobook book index main home menu mainpage homepage menupage animal animals info information facts seaworld busch gardens discovery cove

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KILLER WHALES (Orcinus orca) - Animal InfoBook

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KILLER WHALES (Orcinus orca) - InfoBook...Discover animal, environmental, and zoological career facts as you explore in-depth topic coverage via SeaWorld, Busch Gardens, and Discovery Cove's on-line information books.

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NOAA Research

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What We Do

Conservation & Management

All killer whales are protected under the MMPA and the Southern Resident population is listed as an endangered species under the ESA. We have focused our conservation efforts to help rebuild endangered and depleted populations on the West Coast and Alaska. Targeted management actions taken to secure protections for these whales and their habitat include:

Protecting killer whale habitat

Implementing coast-wide salmon recovery actions

Collaborating with partners on mitigating contaminants

Preventing oil spills and improving response preparation

Minimizing whale watching harassment and reducing vessel impacts

Learn more about our conservation efforts

Science

Our research projects have discovered new aspects of killer whale biology, behavior, and ecology and helped us better understand the threats killer whales' face. This research is especially important in rebuilding endangered and depleted populations and informing management decisions. Our work includes:

Collecting prey and fecal samples to learn about diet and health

Aerial photogrammetry to assess body condition and reproduction

Measuring the response of animals to sound using digital acoustic recording tags

Measuring pollutant transfer from mothers to offspring

Measuring energy costs to generate sounds

Learn more about our research

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Populations

Killer whales were once considered monotypic (belonging to one species), but many lines of evidence show that several distinct lineages, or even subspecies, of killer whales exist.

There are three main types of killer whales in the North Pacific: Resident, Transient, and Offshore. Each ecotype differs in appearance, diet, habitat, genetics, and behavior. While all three types share at least part of their habitats, they are not known to interbreed with each other.

Killer whales in Alaska. Credit: NOAA Fisheries/Holly Fearnbach

Resident Killer Whales

Resident killer whales have rounded dorsal fins and a wide variety of saddle patch markings (the white patch behind their dorsal fins). They range from California to Russia and live in large groups. Four populations of Resident killer whales occur in the Pacific Northwest:

Southern Residents

Northern Residents

Southern Alaska Residents

Western Alaska North Pacific Residents

Resident killer whales usually eat different varieties of fish, primarily salmon. Southern Resident killer whales prefer Chinook salmon, some of which are endangered.

Transient Killer Whales

Transient killer whales have straighter dorsal fins and have primarily solid white saddle patches. They live throughout the coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest in small groups. Transient killer whales' diets are more varied and can include squid and other marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, porpoises, dolphins, and other whale species.

Offshore Killer Whales

Offshore killer whales have rounded dorsal fins, a variety of saddle patch patterns, and are generally smaller than the other types of killer whales. They are seen in large groups and have the largest range that can occur up to 9 miles offshore. Offshore killer whales eat fish, including sharks.

Other Populations

In addition to the three ecotypes, distinct populations of killer whales exist throughout the world. Populations are smaller groups within each type of killer whale. For example, there are four different populations of Resident killer whales. Each population has its own unique diet, behaviors, social structure, and habitat.

Killer Whale Social Structure and Behavior

Outside of the North Pacific, other populations of killer whales also have specialized diets. Off the coast of Norway, killer whales feed mainly on herring and other schooling fish. In waters off New Zealand, some killer whales eat stingrays and sharks. In Antarctic waters, killer whales eat minke whales, seals, or Antarctic toothfish. In contrast to killer whales in the North Pacific where specialized diets are characteristic of different ecotypes, killer whales in the Northeast Atlantic are believed to eat both herring and seals.

Killer whales are highly social and individual whales tend to stay in their original pods. Pods typically consist of two to 15 animals, but larger groups sometimes form for temporary social interaction, mating, or seasonal availability of food. Pods differ in size due to behavioral differences, the availability of food, and the number of whales living in a given area.

Pod members communicate with each other through underwater sounds such as clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Each pod in the Pacific Northwest possesses a unique set of sounds that are learned and culturally transmitted among individuals. These sounds help keep groups together and serve as family badges.

Pods also work together to hunt. They use a coordinated hunting strategy and work as a team to catch prey.

Maps and GIS data for black abalone, bocaccio, Chinook salmon, chum salmon, coho salmon, eulachon, green sturgeon, humpback whale, killer whale, leatherback turtle, sockeye salmon, steelhead trout, Steller sea lion, and yelloweye rockfish.

Tracks the implementation of recovery actions from Endangered Species Act (ESA) recovery plans.

Displays spatial data for marine and anadromous species listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the West Coast Region. The core datasets are ESA-listed species' ranges and critical habitat.

In this study, scientists present the first assessment of killer whale predation on belugas in Cook Inlet.

Documents

The Southern Resident killer whale Distinct Population Segment was first listed as Endangered in...

The Species in the Spotlight initiative is a concerted agency-wide effort to spotlight and save...

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The killer whale is the largest member of the dolphin family. The population of Southern Resident killer whales in the Pacific Northwest is one of the most critically endangered marine mammals. Learn about our work to protect and conserve killer whales.

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A to Z Animals

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Killer Whale

Killer Whales (orca) are found in all the worlds oceans both hot and cold from the freezing waters of the North and South poles to tropical seas. The killer whale is the biggest member of the dolphin family, and there are about 5 different species of killer whale in the oceans.

Killer whales hunt in groups called pods that normally contain from 6 to 40 killer whales. The killer whales hunt larger fish, seal and sea lion and often sea birds and mammals.

Killer whales are sadly hunted worldwide for their meat and whale blubber, which is used as an old form of fuel. Due to whaling bans in recent years, the killer whale population can begin to recover again.

The killer whale is a dominant hunter but gets it name from the amount of meat it eats rather than having an aggressive temperament. Some killer whales are known to be relatively acrobatic naturally, although the majority are trained in zoos and aquariums.

The killer whale has a top speed of around 30 miles an hour but can travel at 26 mph for long periods of time. It is common for killer whale to swim more than 50 miles without stopping.

Killer whales are large, stocky animals that have a large dorsal fin, with the black and white markings of the killer whale being their most distinctive feature. Male killer whales are bigger than female killer whales with male killer whales growing to around 8 meters in length. Female killer whales are slightly smaller than the male killer whales with the female killer whales growing to around 7 meters in length.

Killer whales today are considered to be an endangered species due to habitat loss and hunting from humans. Although killer whales are not generally seen as a great threat to humans, there have been a number of instances, particularly in marine parks, where the killer whale has attacked its trainer.

The killer whale is often referred to as the wolf of the sea, as killer whales are dominant predators and hunt in packs in a similar way to wolves on land. Typically, an average killer whale will eat over 200 kg of food every day which includes over 20 different species of marine mammal and more than 30 different species of large fish.

As with their dolphin cousins, killer whales are extremely vocal animals and communicate between one another using clicks and whistles in a process known as echolocation. Killer whales are known to at their most vocal and noisy when the killer whales are hunting and the killer whales are much calmer and quieter when they are resting. Killer whales are known to use different sounds when the killer whales are participating in different activities.

Female killer whales give birth to one baby killer whale roughly once every five years. Female killer whales do not reach sexual maturity until they are about 15 years old, and the gestation period is thought be roughly 18 months long. Baby killer whales are born with a yellowish tint to the white parts of the baby killer whales skin, which fades into the brilliant white colour as the baby killer whale gets older. Mother killer whales look after their calves for the first couple of years of life. Baby killer whales feed only on their mothers milk until they are about a year old, when the baby killer whale will begin to solid food.

Killer whales can live until they are 60 years old but this is thought to depend strongly on the will of the killer whale. By means of comparison, killer whales that are kept in captivity will often not live longer than 25 years but in the wild killer whales live for much longer.

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Killer Whales (orca) are found in all the worlds oceans both hot and cold from the freezing waters of the North and South poles to tropical seas. The killer whale is the biggest member of the dolphin family, and there are about 5 different species of killer...

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A to Z Animals

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Minke Whale

There are two recognised subspecies of minke whale, the common minke whale and the larger Antarctic minke whale, both however are classified as baleen whales meaning that minke whales filter food from the water rather than biting it.

The common minke whale (dwarf minke whale) is generally found in the North Atlantic Ocean and also parts of the North Pacific Ocean. The common minke whale (dwarf minke whale) is the smaller of the two minke whale subspecies with adult common minke whales reaching about 5 m in length.

The Antarctic minke whale is found inhabiting the frozen Antarctic waters but the Antarctic minke has also been known to venture into the Southern Atlantic Ocean and occasionally the Southern Pacific Ocean. The Antarctic minke whale is the larger of the two minke whale subspecies, and at around double the size of the common minke whale, some adult Antarctic minke whales grow to more than 10 meters in length!

Despite the clear division of the two minke whale species territories, it is not uncommon for the common minke whale to be found in the waters of the southern hemisphere although the Antarctic minke whale is rarely found too far north. The reason behind this is thought to be because the common minke whale can survive in more temperate waters, where the Antarctic minke whale prefers to inhabit the more frozen ones.

The minke whale has a carnivorous diet, as the minke whales filters to water in the oceans to extract nutrients from it. Amongst the most common minke whale meals are krill and plankton, but minke whales will often eat small fish and crabs. As the minke whale is a type of baleen whale, the minke whale does not have teeth as such. The tiny bristle like teeth in the mouth of the minke whale means that the minke whale cannot really bite down on food, so the minke whale uses its teeth to filter food particles out of the water.

Minke whales tend to breed in the late winter to early spring, with minke whale breeding occurring near the surface of warmer waters. The gestation period is about 10 months and the calf is born near the surface of warm, shallow waters. The newborn minke whale calf is able to swim to the surface of the water within 10 seconds for its first breath with a little help from its mother who uses her flippers to guide the minke whale calf to the surface. Minke whales calves are usually able to swim within their first half and hour of life.

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There are two recognised subspecies of minke whale, the common minke whale and the larger Antarctic minke whale, both however are classified as baleen whales meaning that minke whales filter food from the water rather than biting it.The common minke whale...

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Wikipedia

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The minke whale , or lesser rorqual, is a type of baleen whale. The two species of minke whale are the common (or northern) minke whale and the Antarctic (or southern) minke whale.

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Enchanted Learning

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The minke whale is a small baleen whale with 50-70 throat grooves. It is the smallest baleen whale. Minke whales grow to be about 25-30 feet (7.8-9 m) long, weighing about 6-7.5 tons (5.4-6.8 tonnes). Minke whales have a characteristic white band on each flipper, contrasting with its very dark gray top color.

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Whale World

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Minke Whale - Genus Balaenoptera

Description

The Minke whale is the second smallest of the baleen category. They aren't likely to be more than 35 feet long or to weigh more than 5.5 tons. They feature two blowholes and they are black and white in color. Other characteristics include two flippers that are very long, a dorsal fin that is small, and ridges around the back close to the tail.

Behavior

You won't find the Minke Whale to be very social. Many of them tend to live alone. Others have a partner or a group of three. It is very rare except during migration that you will see more than that together. We know a great deal about them due to the high numbers. They tend to attract very large crowds of waters. In some locations there are cruise ships that take people out to see them.

The Minke Whales in these areas have become very familiar with the ships. They will circle close around them which give the passengers on board a chance to witness these amazing creatures up close in their natural environment. They are also believed to be very curious so they may even be watching the people in return.

Diet/Feeding

The Minke Whale features as many as 70 grooves in the throat area. This helps them with the process of scooping up water and materials from the water. They can then filter out what isn't food for them. Their diet primarily consists of krill, small fish, herring, and cod. They move along about 6 miles per hour when they are feeding and about 24 miles per hour when they aren't.

Distribution

The Minke Whale has been spotted in all the oceans but they prefer temperate and boreal waters. They do tend to like the areas surrounding them though and it isn't uncommon to find them where there are thick layers of ice. They also found in the tropical and subtropical regions.

Reproduction

They mature much earlier than other whales at about three years. The baby is born 10 months after conception takes place. These calves are approximately 9 feet long and can weigh up to 1,000 pounds.

Human Interaction

Due to the small size, whaling used to not be a problem for the Minke Whale. Hunters like the trophy size whales and this isn't one of them. However, in the past several decades the number of them being killed due to hunting has reaches new heights. It is believed that this is a direct cause of so many other types of whales no longer being legal to hunt. Therefore they have to kill many more of them to get the same quantity of meat as they would with larger ones.

Conservation

There are more Minke Whales than any other in the class of baleen. There are approximately 800,000 of them out there. However, they problem is that they only have a life expectancy of 50 years. This is drastically less than most other species of whales in the wild. There isn't much done in the way of conservation for them at this point in time. There are simply too many other types of whales that are at risk for such efforts to be focused upon.

A close eye is watched over them though to make sure they don't end up dropping dramatically in numbers. Early intervention can take place through conservation efforts if necessary. One thing we have learned through whale conservation efforts is that it can take a long time to get the numbers back up if we allow them to get too low.

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The Minke whale is the second smallest of the baleen category. They aren't likely to be more than 35 feet long or to weigh more than 5.5 tons. They feature two blowholes and they are black and white in color.

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NewsEla  - Read articles on Whales

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Read Works Articles  - Read articles on Whales - class code LH7V6M

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ReadWorks is an edtech nonprofit organization that is committed to helping to solve America's reading comprehension crisis.

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Enjoy hearing how Humpback Whales communicate

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There are many resources in this page. Type in your specific whale to find our more.

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whales - Kiddle - visual search engine for kids

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whales - Kiddle - visual search engine for kids

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How do right whales size up? North Atlantic right whales ( Eubalaena glacialis) are big, but they're not the biggest whales. That distinction goes to the blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus), the largest animal on Earth. The ( Orcinus orca) size of up to 31 feet (9.4 meters) makes it the largest dolphin. The sperm whale ( Physeter macrocephalus), on the other hand, may not be the biggest whale, but it has the biggest brain to have ever existed on Earth. A comparison chart of whale sizes helps put it all in perspective!

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What is the Largest Whale? A Cetacea Size Comparison Chart.

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How do right whales size up? North Atlantic right whales ( Eubalaena glacialis) are big, but they're not the biggest whales. That distinction goes to the blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus), the largest animal on Earth. The ( Orcinus orca) size of up to 31 feet (9.4 meters) makes it the largest dolphin.