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1. Here is benefit number one of this GMO plant.
2. Here is benefit number two of this GMO plants.

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1. Here is a drawback of this GMO plant.
2. Here is a disadvantage this GMO plant has.

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1. Fact number one
2. Fact number two

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Based on the pros and cons, here is an opinionated statement about this GMO plant.

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1. Here is benefit number one of this GMO animal.
2. Here is benefit number two of this GMO animal.

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1. Here is a drawback of this GMO animal.
2. Here is a disadvantage this GMO animal has.

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1. Fact number one
2. Fact number two

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Based on the pros and cons, here is an opinionated statement about this GMO animal.

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1. Here is benefit number one of this genetic modification to humans.
2. Here is benefit number two of this genetic modification to humans.

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1. Here is a drawback of this genetic modification.
2. Here is a disadvantage of this genetic modification.

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1. Fact number one
2. Fact number two

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Based on the pros and cons, here is an opinionated statement about using this genetic modification on humans.

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Feed Your Mind Main Page en Español (Spanish)
Am I eating foods that come from GMO crops?

It is very likely you are eating foods and food products that are made with ingredients that come from GMO crops. Many GMO crops are used to make ingredients that Americans eat such as cornstarch, corn syrup, corn oil, soybean oil, canola oil, or granulated sugar. A few fresh fruit and vegetables are available in GMO varieties, including potatoes, summer squash, apples, papayas, and pink pineapples. Although GMOs are in a lot of the foods we eat, most of the GMO crops grown in the United States are used for animal food.

To make it easier for consumers to know if the foods they eat contain GMO ingredients, the U.S. Department of Agriculture maintains a list of bioengineered foods available throughout the world. Additionally, you will start seeing the "bioengineered" label on some of the foods we eat because of the new National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard.

GMOs, Farm to Table

What GMO crops are in the United States?
Corn:
Corn is the most commonly grown crop in the United States, and most of it is GMO. Most GMO corn is created to resist insect pests or tolerate herbicides. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn is a GMO corn that produces proteins that are toxic to certain insect pests but not to humans, pets, livestock, or other animals. These are the same types of proteins that organic farmers use to control insect pests, and they do not harm beneficial insects, such as ladybugs. GMO Bt corn reduces the need for spraying insecticides while still preventing insect damage. While a lot of GMO corn goes into processed foods and drinks, most of it is used to feed livestock, like cows, and poultry, like chickens.
Soybean:
Most soy grown in the United States is GMO soy. Most GMO soy is used for food for animals, predominantly poultry and livestock, and making soybean oil. It is also used as ingredients (lecithin, emulsifiers, and proteins) in processed foods.
Cotton:
GMO cotton was created to be resistant to bollworms and helped revive the Alabama cotton industry. GMO cotton not only provides a reliable source of cotton for the textile industry, it is also used to make cottonseed oil, which is used in packaged foods and in many restaurants for frying. GMO cottonseed meal and hulls are also used in food for animals.
Potato:
Some GMO potatoes were developed to resist insect pests and disease. In addition, some GMO potato varieties have been developed to resist bruising and browning that can occur when potatoes are packaged, stored, and transported, or even cut in your kitchen. While browning does not change the quality of the potato, it often leads to food being unnecessarily thrown away because people mistakenly believe browned food is spoiled.
Papaya:
By the 1990s, ringspot virus disease had nearly wiped out Hawaii's papaya crop, and in the process almost destroyed the papaya industry in Hawaii. A GMO papaya, named the Rainbow papaya, was created to resist ringspot virus. This GMO saved papaya farming on the Hawaiian Islands.
Summer Squash:
GMO summer squash is resistant to some plant viruses. Squash was one of the first GMOs on the market, but it is not widely grown.
Canola:
GMO canola is used mostly to make cooking oil and margarine. Canola seed meal can also be used in food for animals. Canola oil is used in many packaged foods to improve food consistency. Most GMO canola is resistant to herbicides and helps farmers to more easily control weeds in their fields.
Alfalfa:
GMO alfalfa is primarily used to feed cattle-mostly dairy cows. Most GMO alfalfa is resistant to herbicides, allowing farmers to spray the crops to protect them against destructive weeds that can reduce alfalfa production and lower the nutritional quality of the hay.
Apple:
A few varieties of GMO apples were developed to resist browning after being cut. This helps cut down on food waste, as many consumers think brown apples are spoiled.
Sugar Beet:
Sugar beets are used to make granulated sugar. More than half the granulated sugar packaged for grocery store shelves is made from GMO sugar beets. Because GMO sugar beets are resistant to herbicides, growing GMO sugar beets helps farmers control weeds in their fields.
Pink Pineapple:
The GMO pink pineapple was developed to have pink flesh by increasing the levels of lycopene. Lycopene is naturally found in pineapples, and it is the pigment that makes tomatoes red and watermelons pink.

What about animals that eat food made from GMO crops?

Similarly, the DNA from GMO animal food does not make it into the meat, eggs, or milk from the animal. Research shows that foods like eggs, dairy products, and meat that come from animals that eat GMO food are equal in nutritional value, safety, and quality to foods made from animals that eat only non-GMO food.

Learn more about GMO Crops and Food for Animals.

Who makes sure animal food is safe?

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the primary regulatory agency responsible for ensuring the safety of GMO and non-GMO food for animals. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine manages this responsibility. FDA requires that all food for animals, like food for human foods, be safe for animals to eat, be produced under clean conditions, contain no harmful substances, and be accurately labeled.

Are there GMO animals in the food supply?

Yes. FDA has approved an application allowing the sale of the AquAdvantage Salmon to consumers. The AquAdvantage Salmon has been genetically modified to reach an important growth point faster. FDA has also approved an alteration in the GalSafe pig for human food consumption and potential therapeutic uses. The GalSafe pig was developed to be free of detectable alpha-gal sugar on its cell surfaces. People with Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) may have allergic reactions to alpha-gal sugar found in red meat (e.g., beef, pork, and lamb). FDA has determined that food from the AquAdvantage Salmon and the GalSafe pig are as safe and nutritious to eat as food from non-GMO salmon and pigs.

Are GMOs used to make anything besides food?

When you hear the term "GMO" you probably think of food. However, techniques used to create GMOs are important in creating some medicines as well. In fact, genetic engineering, which is the process used to create GMOs, was first used to make human insulin, a medicine used to treat diabetes. Medicines developed through genetic engineering go through an in-depth FDA approval process. All medicines must be proven to be safe and effective before they are approved for human use. GMOs are also used in the textile industry. Some GMO cotton plants are used to create cotton fiber that is then used to make fabric for clothing and other materials.
How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States

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Many GMO crops are used to make ingredients that Americans eat such as cornstarch, corn syrup, corn oil, soybean oil, canola oil, or granulated sugar.

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A genetically modified organism contains DNA that has been altered using genetic engineering. Genetically modified animals are mainly used for research purposes, while genetically modified plants are common in today’s food supply.

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Hunger is a major world crisis for which a solution has not yet been found. Since their advent, genetically modified crops have been hailed as the key to solving world hunger.

Subjects

Biology, Health, Conservation, Social Studies, Economics

Image

Tearless GM Onion

GM crops may be modified to improve yield, enhance nutrition, or better adapt to environmental conditions. They can even be altered to resist pests or eliminate unwanted effects, like this type of onion that doesn't cause people to tear up when chopped.

Photograph by Redux Pictures LLC

Hunger is one of the greatest global challenges of the 21st century. Despite some improvements within the last two decades, global hunger is again on the rise, with 2016 data indicating that more than 800 million people around the world suffer from malnutrition. Children under five years of age represent 150 million of those affected, and for roughly three million of these children every year, the struggle ends in death. When faced with such staggering statistics, it is natural to wish for one simple solution to prevent these deaths and rid the world of hunger. Use of genetically modified (GM) crops is among the proposed solutions-but is it truly a viable solution?

GM crops are plants that have been modified, using genetic engineering, to alter their DNA sequences to provide some beneficial trait. For example, genetic engineering can improve crop yield, resulting in greater production of the target crop. Scientists can also engineer pest-resistant crops, helping local farmers better withstand environmental challenges that might otherwise wipe out a whole season of produce. Crops can even be engineered to be more nutritious, providing critical vitamins to populations that struggle to get specific nutrients needed for healthy living.

However, GM seeds are produced primarily by only a few large companies who own the intellectual property for the genetic variations. A transition to GM crops would closely align global food production with the activities of a few key companies. From an economic standpoint, that poses a risk to long-term food security by creating the potential for a single-point failure. If that company failed, then the crop it provides would not be available to the people who depend on that crop.

Moreover, a large proportion of those affected by malnutrition are small farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, where use of GM crops is less common. Since attitudes toward GM crops tend to correlate with education levels and access to information about the technology, there is a concern that sub-Saharan African farmers may be hesitant to adopt GM crops. More generally, public perception of GM foods is plagued by concerns of safety, from the potential for allergic response to the possible transfer of foreign DNA to non-GM plants in the area. None of these concerns are backed by evidence, but they persist nonetheless.

Whether based on legitimate concerns or lack of scientific information and understanding, local rejection of GM crops has the potential to derail efforts to use these crops as a tool against malnutrition. However, there are case stories for success: Adoption of GM cotton in India has improved family income and, as a result, reduced hunger.

While there are these controversies and complexities that pose challenges for the use of GM foods, these are secondary to a larger issue. We already live in a world that produces enough food to feed everyone. Thus, hunger results from inequity, not food shortage. Unequal distribution of quality food among communities suffering from poverty is the primary culprit in today's world hunger, not abundance or quantity of food stocks. For those suffering from malnutrition, access to quality food depends on a variety of political, environmental, and socioeconomic factors-most notably, armed conflict and natural disasters.

When viewed through this lens, GM crops may have a role to play in combatting global hunger, but merely increasing crop production or nutritional value (via any method) will not solve the larger problem of inequity in access to food. For example, farmers whose livelihoods depend on production of commercial crops rather than food staples may be able to increase their income by growing GM crops, affording them the financial resources to purchase more or higher-quality food. Moreover, GM crops might better withstand certain natural disasters, such as drought. However, since data shows that political unrest is the primary driver of hunger, it is unclear whether these farmers would be able to sell their products or use their income on nutritional food sources within a country plagued by conflict.

Unfortunately, GM foods are not the cure-all to hunger the world needs. The path to eradicating global hunger is more complex than any one solution and is in fact far more complex than only addressing food quantity or quality. The United Nations Global Goals for Sustainable Development address world hunger in Goal 2: Zero Hunger, which aims to "end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture." This goal lays the foundation to combatting world hunger via a multipronged approach, including political action and reduction of violence, agricultural and technical innovations, efforts to end poverty, and educational initiatives. Luckily, with allies such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Programme, this grand challenge may be achievable-and maybe GM foods will play a role, but they cannot be relied upon as a magical solution.

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Are Genetically Modified Crops the Answer to World Hunger?

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Hunger is a major world crisis for which a solution has not yet been found. Since their advent, genetically modified crops have been hailed as the key to solving world hunger.

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animal biotechnology: A broad range of technologies using scientific and engineering principles applied to animals used for food, medicine, diagnostic, health, and other biological applications.

autosomal: Any of the chromosomes except the sex (X or Y) chromosomes.

Boroola fecundity (FecB) gene: A single major autosomal gene for fecundity in Merino sheep.

bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE): A progressive neurological disease in cattle caused by a transmissible agent known as a prion.

Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD): A progressive neurological disease in humans caused by a transmissible agent known as a prion.

EGF: Epidermal growth factor, which is a growth factor involved in cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation.

estrogen receptor (ESR) gene: One of the major genes affecting the phenotype of litter size in pigs.

genetically modified (transgenic) livestock: Livestock whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering methods.

germ-line: The germ cells of the individual that produce the sperm or the eggs.

growth hormone (GH): A peptide hormone that is involved in regulating growth, cell division, and regeneration.

IGF-I: Insulin-like growth factor-I, which is a growth factor involved in neonatal growth and anabolic growth in adults.

lactoferrin: An iron-binding protein of milk that has antimicrobial activity, especially in the newborn.

leptin: A protein hormone involved in regulating energy intake, appetite, and metabolism.

lysostaphin: An enzyme that acts as an antimicrobial against the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus.

mad cow disease: A progressive neurological disease in cattle caused by a transmissible agent known as a prion. This is the same disease as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).

nutriceutical protein: A food protein that provides both health and medical benefits.

omega-3 fatty acids: Unsaturated fatty acids that are essential for normal metabolism.

phytase: An enzyme that breaks down phytic acid into inorganic phosphorus that is bio-available to the animal.

prion: A protein in a misfolded from, which acts as an infectious agent to cause diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE; also known as mad cow disease) in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease in humans.

spider silk: The protein fiber that is produced from the web glands of spiders.

Staphylococcus aureus: A gram-positive bacterium that is a major causative agent of mastitis in cattle.

TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-beta, is a growth factor that is involved in proliferation and cell differentiation.

transgene: A segment of DNA that has been isolated from one organism and transferred to a different organism.

transgenesis: The process of transferring an exogenous DNA segment or gene (transgene) to an animal so that it is able to pass the transgene on to all of the offspring.

transgenic animal: An animal that has stably incorporated engineered DNA into its germ-line. Such an organism is able to pass the transgene on to all the offspring. It should be stressed that all the cells of a transgenic individual contain the transgene. Also, the original transgenic individual had the foreign DNA inserted into the one-cell embryo via a laboratory technique, such as pronuclear injection.

transgenic: The term for a genetically modified or genetically engineered organism. It could be a microbe, plant, or animal.

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The production of transgenic livestock has the opportunity to significantly improve human health, enhance nutrition, protect the environment, increase animal welfare, and decrease livestock disease.

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The Personal Genetics Education Project raises awareness and sparks conversation about the potential benefits as well as the ethical, legal, and social implications of personal genetics. We strive to be inclusive of all voices in these discussions, regardless of socioeconomic or educational background, cultural or religious affiliation, and ethnic or personal identity.

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The move by Chinese scientists could spark a biomedical duel between China and the United States.

A Chinese group has become the first to inject a person with cells that contain genes edited using the revolutionary CRISPR-Cas9 technique.

On 28 October, a team led by oncologist Lu You at Sichuan University in Chengdu delivered the modified cells into a patient with aggressive lung cancer as part of a clinical trial at the West China Hospital, also in Chengdu.

Earlier clinical trials using cells edited with a different technique have excited clinicians. The introduction of CRISPR, which is simpler and more efficient than other techniques, will probably accelerate the race to get gene-edited cells into the clinic across the world, says Carl June, who specializes in immunotherapy at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and led one of the earlier studies.

"I think this is going to trigger 'Sputnik 2.0', a biomedical duel on progress between China and the United States, which is important since competition usually improves the end product," he says.

June is the scientific adviser for a planned US trial that will use CRISPR to target three genes in participants' cells, with the goal of treating various cancers. He expects the trial to start in early 2017. And in March 2017, a group at Peking University in Beijing hopes to start three clinical trials using CRISPR against bladder, prostate and renal-cell cancers. Those trials do not yet have approval or funding.

Lu's trial received ethical approval from a hospital review board in July. Injections into participants were supposed to begin in August but the date was pushed back, Lu says, because culturing and amplifying the cells took longer than expected and then the team ran into China's October holidays.

The researchers removed immune cells from the recipient's blood and then disabled a gene in them using CRISPR-Cas9, which combines a DNA-cutting enzyme with a molecular guide that can be programmed to tell the enzyme precisely where to cut. The disabled gene codes for the protein PD-1, which normally puts the brakes on a cell's immune response: cancers take advantage of that function to proliferate.

Lu's team then cultured the edited cells, increasing their number, and injected them back into the patient, who has metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer. The hope is that, without PD-1, the edited cells will attack and defeat the cancer.

Lu says that the treatment went smoothly, and that the participant will get a second injection, but declined to give details because of patient confidentiality. The team plans to treat a total of ten people, who will each receive either two, three or four injections. It is primarily a safety trial, and participants will be monitored for six months to determine whether the injections are causing serious adverse effects. Lu's team will also watch them beyond that time to see if they seem to be benefiting from the treatment.

Other oncologists are excited about CRISPR's entry onto the cancer scene. "The technology to be able to do this is incredible," says Naiyer Rizvi of Columbia University Medical Center in New York City. Antonio Russo of Palermo University in Italy notes that antibodies that neutralize PD-1 have successfully put lung cancer in check, boding well for a CRISPR-enabled attack on the protein. "It's an exciting strategy," he says. "The rationale is strong."

But Rizvi questions whether this particular trial will succeed. The process of extracting, genetically modifying and multiplying cells is "a huge undertaking and not very scalable", he says. "Unless it shows a large gain in efficacy, it will be hard to justify moving forward." He doubts it will be superior to the use of antibodies, which can be expanded to unlimited quantities in the clinic. Lu says that this question is being evaluated in the trial, but that it's too early to say which approach is better.

About this article

Further reading

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CRISPR gene-editing tested in a person for the first time

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The move by Chinese scientists could spark a biomedical duel between China and the United States. A Chinese group has become the first to inject a person with cells that contain genes edited using the revolutionary CRISPR-Cas9 technique.

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Editorial - Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology (2020) Volume 4, Issue 2

Benefits of genetic engineering for human welfare

Department of Biotechnology, Walchand Centre for Biotechnology, Solapur, India

*Corresponding Author:

Kulkarni M
Department of Biotechnology
Walchand Centre for Biotchnology
Solapur, India
E-mail: [email protected]

Accepted date: August 04, 2020

Editorial

"Genetic Engineering or recombinant DNA technology is a strategy utilizing which the hereditary synthesis of a cell can be modified." Genetic manipulation, genetic modification or genetic alterations, broadly it is categorized as genetic engineering. Today there are so many applications are enhancing particularly in this domain. Genetic Engineering has huge applications in field of Environmental Science, Medicine, Food Industry, Agriculture and so on. Genetic engineering mainly focused on Gene isolation, Gene modification, Gene removal and Gene recombination. With all this the final aim of genetic engineering is to improvise the life of human being [ 1, 2].

Application of Genetic Engineering
Food Industry
Genetically modified (GE) food supplements have had their DNA changed utilizing genes from different plants or creatures. Researchers take the quality for an ideal attribute in one plant or creature, and they embed that quality into a cell of another plant or creature. Hereditarily changed nourishments are gotten from hereditarily adjusted creatures, or transgenic crops. Hereditary building has brought about various improved characteristics in transgenic plants by hereditary adjustment. Benefits of genetically modified food are as follows: more nutritious food, tastier food, Disease- and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental resources (such as water and fertilizer), Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life etc. [ 3].
Medicine
In medication, genetic engineering has been utilized to massproduce insulin, human development hormones, follistim (for rewarding infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic variables, immunizations, and numerous different medications. Pharming involves the use of genetic engineering technique to insert genes into host animals or plants resulting in expression of useful pharmaceuticals products. The recombinant proteins produced by pharming acts as drugs for various human diseases. These therapeutic products can be directly injected into the bodies of the patient to treat the disease and deficiency. Vaccine and gene therapy has made a remarkable achievement to overcome consequences of several critical and pandemic diseases. This all medicinal miracles are possible because of genetic engineering.
Application in Environment
Genetic engineering is by using of microorganisms, plants, animals for the restoration of the environment. Genetic engineering is actively involved in the development of microorganisms and biocatalysts for remediation of contaminated environments, and in development of eco-friendly processes such as developing recombinant strain for bio-fuel production etc. Genetically modified organisms are used in clearing up of oil spills which is a major environmental hazard. Increased level of carbon dioxide is directly linked to global warming and greenhouse effect. So efforts are being made to reduce the atmospheric CO ₂ concentration. In this context, the enzyme ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (RUBP-case) which is closely linked with CO ₂ fixation is being designed in a manner which results in increased photosynthetic efficiency. New strains of microalgae like mutants of Anacystis nidulans and Oocystis sp are being developed which can tolerate high concentrations of CO ₂.
Crop improvement and transgenesis
Transgenic plants can be designed to produce a variety of useful compounds, like therapeutic products and metabolites. Recently transgenic crops with combined traits like herbicide tolerant and insect resistant has been developed.
Improvement of animals through transgenesis
Genetic Engineering includes the acquaintance of transgene into animal with improve the attribute of transgenic animals. Transgenic animals in this manner at long last express the attribute of the presented quality. Transgenic animals are additionally made to contemplate the capacity of various qualities to create legitimate treatment of diseases [ 4].

References

1. http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000002BI/P001357/M021491/ET/1501755083geneticengineeringetextpathshaala(corrected.pdf

2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002432.htm#:~:text=Genetic%20engineering%20allows%20scientists%20to,plant%20or%20animal%20into%20another.&text=Another%20name%20for%20this%20is,desired%20traits%20and%20breeding%20them.

3. https://geneticeducation.co.in/what-is-genetic-engineering-definition-types-process-and-application/

4. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/genetic-engineering/applications-genetic-engineering/top-4-applications-of-genetic-engineering/37350

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Benefits of genetic engineering for human welfare

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Editorial - Journal of Genetics and Molecular Biology (2020) Volume 4, Issue 2 Department of Biotechnology, Walchand Centre for Biotechnology, Solapur, India *Corresponding Author: Kulkarni M Department of Biotechnology Walchand Centre for Biotchnology Solapur, India E-mail: [email protected] Accepted date: August 04, 2020 "Genetic Engineering or recombinant DNA technology is a strategy utilizing which the hereditary synthesis of a cell can be modified."

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Gene therapy uses sections of DNA (usually genes) to treat or prevent disease.

The DNA is carefully selected to correct the effect of a mutated gene that is causing disease.

The technique was first developed in 1972 but has, so far, had limited success in treating human diseases.

Gene therapy may be a promising treatment option for some genetic diseases, including muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis.

There are two different types of gene therapy depending on which types of cells are treated:

Somatic gene therapy: transfer of a section of DNA to any cell of the body that doesn't produce sperm or eggs. Effects of gene therapy will not be passed onto the patient's children.

Germline gene therapy: transfer of a section of DNA to cells that produce eggs or sperm. Effects of gene therapy will be passed onto the patient's children and subsequent generations.

Gene therapy techniques

There are several techniques for carrying out gene therapy. These include:
Gene augmentation therapy

This is used to treat diseases caused by a mutation that stops a gene from producing a functioning product, such as a protein.

This therapy adds DNA containing a functional version of the lost gene back into the cell.

The new gene produces a functioning product at sufficient levels to replace the protein that was originally missing.

This is only successful if the effects of the disease are reversible or have not resulted in lasting damage to the body.

For example, this can be used to treat loss of function disorders such as cystic fibrosis by introducing a functional copy of the gene to correct the disease (see illustration below).

Gene inhibition therapy

Suitable for the treatment of infectious diseases, cancer and inherited disease caused by inappropriate gene activity.

The aim is to introduce a gene whose product either:

inhibits the expression of another gene

interferes with the activity of the product of another gene.

The basis of this therapy is to eliminate the activity of a gene that encourages the growth of disease-related cells.

For example, cancer is sometimes the result of the over-activation of an oncogene (gene which stimulates cell growth). So, by eliminating the activity of that oncogene through gene inhibition therapy, it is possible to prevent further cell growth and stop the cancer in its tracks.

Killing of specific cells

Suitable for diseases such as cancer that can be treated by destroying certain groups of cells.

The aim is to insert DNA into a diseased cell that causes that cell to die.

This can be achieved in one of two ways:

the inserted DNA contains a "suicide" gene that produces a highly toxic product which kills the diseased cell

the inserted DNA causes expression of a protein that marks the cells so that the diseased cells are attacked by the body's natural immune system.

It is essential with this method that the inserted DNA is targeted appropriately to avoid the death of cells that are functioning normally.

How is DNA transfer done?

A section of DNA/gene containing instructions for making a useful protein is packaged within a vector, usually a virus, bacterium or plasmid.

The vector acts as a vehicle to carry the new DNA into the cells of a patient with a genetic disease.

Once inside the cells of the patient, the DNA/gene is expressed by the cell's normal machinery leading to production of the therapeutic protein and treatment of the patient's disease.

Challenges of gene therapy

Delivering the gene to the right place and switching it on:

it is crucial that the new gene reaches the right cell

delivering a gene into the wrong cell would be inefficient and could also cause health problems for the patient

even once the right cell has been targeted the gene has to be turned on

cells sometimes obstruct this process by shutting down genes that are showing unusual activity.

Avoiding the immune response:

The role of the immune system is to fight off intruders.

Sometimes new genes introduced by gene therapy are considered potentially-harmful intruders.

This can spark an immune response in the patient, that could be harmful to them.

Scientists therefore have the challenge of finding a way to deliver genes without the immune system 'noticing'.

This is usually by using vectors that are less likely to trigger an immune response.

Making sure the new gene doesn't disrupt the function of other genes:

Ideally, a new gene introduced by gene therapy will integrate itself into the genome of the patient and continue working for the rest of their lives.

There is a risk that the new gene will insert itself into the path of another gene, disrupting its activity.

This could have damaging effects, for example, if it interferes with an important gene involved in regulating cell division, it could result in cancer.

The cost of gene therapy:

Many genetic disorders that can be targeted with gene therapy are extremely rare.

Gene therapy therefore often requires an individual, case-by-case approach. This may be effective, but may also be very expensive.

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Gene therapy uses sections of DNA (usually genes) to treat or prevent disease. The DNA is carefully selected to correct the effect of a mutated gene that is causing disease. The technique was first developed in 1972 but has, so far, had limited success in treating human diseases.

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GMOs are organisms that have had their characteristics changed through the modification of their DNA.

GMO stands for genetically modified organism.

Genetically modified (GM) organisms are organisms that have had their genomes changed in a way that does not happen naturally.

By changing an organism's genome we can change its characteristics.

Any organism could be genetically modified, but laws restrict the creation of genetically modified humans, and the production and distribution of other GMOs is tightly regulated.

Common examples of GMOs are GM crops used in agriculture and GM model organisms used in medical research.

How do we make GMOs?

To create a GMO, we change specific characteristics by using lab techniques to delete or alter particular sections of DNA.

We can also change an organism's characteristics by introducing new pieces of DNA into their genomes. This could be:

DNA taken from the same species

DNA taken from a different species

DNA made synthetically in the lab.

The process of creating GMOs is called genetic modification or genetic engineering.

There are several techniques that can be used to modify a genome:

'Agrobacterium-mediated' genetic modification is a technique used to introduce new DNA into a plant genome using a modified microbe.

'Gene targeting' is a technique used to introduce new DNA into selected regions of a genome through a process called homologous recombination.

'Genome editing' is a technique used to change selected regions of a genome using enzymes designed to cut specific DNA sequences.

Why do we make GMOs?

GMOs are generally made for medical, environmental, or commercial reasons.

GM white mushrooms have had a gene that normally causes them to go brown altered so it no longer functions. These mushrooms take longer to go brown, prolonging their shelf-life.

GM bacteria have been developed that have had a gene for insulin added to their genome. These bacteria produce large quantities of insulin as they grow, which is then extracted and used by people with diabetes to control their blood sugar levels.

The Acer1 gene is thought to be involved in skin diseases like psoriasis. GM mice have been made where the Acer1 gene no longer functions to study what it normally does. These mice have hair loss and are less able to control heat and water loss from their skin.

What is not a GMO?

The genomes of organisms change naturally over time, for example:

when organisms mate, offspring get bits of DNA from both parents

mutations arise as a result of mistakes when DNA is copied

environmental factors like UV radiation can create changes in DNA.

These changes to the DNA are not 'genetic modifications' as they happen naturally.

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GMOs are organisms that have had their characteristics changed through the modification of their DNA. GMO stands for genetically modified organism. Genetically modified (GM) organisms are organisms that have had their genomes changed in a way that does not happen naturally. By changing an organism's genome we can change its characteristics.

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DES MOINES - A plan to have Iowa State University students eat genetically modified bananas has been delayed, apparently because of issues in shipping the fruit.

The bananas, created by an Australian scientist, contain a gene that is supposed to help people living in Africa produce vitamin A. Proponents say the gene came from a different type of banana and is safe to eat. But opponents contend the trial could expose volunteers to unknown dangers.

An ISU scientist had planned to feed the bananas to a dozen students during last fall's semester. But that didn't happen, a university spokeswoman confirmed last month. The spokeswoman said she didn't know why the trial was delayed or when or whether it would resume.

James Dale, the Australian scientist who developed the bananas, said in an e-mail to The Des Moines Register this weekend that he still hopes to complete the trial by midyear.

"Importantly, the nutrition study will go forward, but not until all of us are satisfied that the banana material meets quality standards," he wrote. "As you might imagine, given how you see bananas ripen in your own home, it has been a challenge shipping bananas from Australia to the U.S. and having them arrive in good condition."

Iowa State researchers sent an e-mail to students last summer seeking a dozen female volunteers for the study. Food science professor Wendy White said then that the volunteers would be paid $900 to eat the equivalent of three bananas each as part of a short-term, prescribed diet. Just one of the bananas would be the genetically modified type. Blood tests would be used to determine the body's reaction.

White said more than 500 students responded to the query, and 12 were selected.

The proposed trial has become a prominent topic in the long-running debate over genetically modified foods. Many scientists say such plants can safely include important nutrients, pest-prevention qualities or other attributes. But skeptics worry that genetically modified foods could be dangerous and uncontrollable, and they often portray the supporters as trying to quietly slip the products into public consumption.

Last month, the group African Centre for Biosafety decried the plan to eventually ship the genetically modified bananas to Uganda and other African countries. "Just because the GM banana has been developed in Australia and is being tested in the U.S. does not make it super!" Ugandan activist Bridget Mugambe wrote in a news release. "Ugandans know what is super because we have been eating homegrown GM-free bananas for centuries. This GM banana is an insult to our food, to our culture, to us a nation, and we strongly condemn it."

The group's director, Mariam Mayet of South Africa, said last week that she was unsure what to make of the delay in the trial or of Iowa State's lack of response to an open letter her group sent about the matter.

"How are we to interpret this silence? Disregard and disrespect? Dismissal perhaps?" Mayet wrote in an email to the Register. "... We would have expected not only a response, but greater transparency on the part of Iowa State - a willingness to share information and relevant and important bio-safety data pertaining to the trials."

She said she was puzzled by the claim that bananas are hard to transport, given how routinely they are shipped to grocery stores every day.

White said the goal of her research is to help people in Africa increase their production of vitamin A. "In Uganda and other African countries, vitamin A deficiency is a major contributor to deaths in childhood from infectious diseases," she wrote in a statement released by the university in July. "Wouldn't it be great if these bananas could prevent preschool kids from dying from diarrhea, malaria or measles?"

The scientist said the new type of banana includes a gene taken from another banana species, which naturally produces large amounts of beta-carotene. When people eat beta-carotene, their bodies turn it into vitamin A.

Residents of Uganda and nearby countries don't favor the type of sweet banana that naturally carries the extra beta-carotene, White said. So researchers have put the gene into a less-sweet type of banana that east Africans often use in cooking. White added that the new banana has no seeds, so there is no danger that the genetically modified plant would escape into nature.

Dale said Iowa State was chosen to conduct the trial because no independent Australian lab was available to do the work and analyze the results.

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is supporting the project financially.

Jim Lorenzen, a senior program officer for the Gates Foundation, said the foundation expects the research to continue. "The Gates Foundation continues to support the Banana21 project, which is helping find ways to tackle vitamin A deficiency. We look forward to seeing the Iowa trial move forward after the project has completed the necessary due diligence," he wrote in a prepared statement sent to the Register.

Iowa State University has said that before the trial begins, details of how it would be conducted would be posted on a federal website, clinicaltrials.gov. As of Monday, the trial was not registered there.

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DES MOINES - A plan to have Iowa State University students eat genetically modified bananas has been delayed, apparently because of issues in shipping the fruit. The bananas, created by an Australian scientist, contain a gene that is supposed to help people living in Africa produce vitamin A.

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To develop techniques for DNA sequencing, scientists began by sequencing the genomes of small, simple organisms. As techniques improved it became possible to sequence the genomes of more complex organisms, such as the human genome. Now, we have a large catalogue of genomes that have been sequenced that we can study and compare.

1976

Bacteriophage MS2
Common name: Bacteriophage MS2

What is it? A single-stranded RNA virus that infects the family of bacteria that includes E. coli.

Why was it sequenced? This was the first genome to be completely sequenced.

Who sequenced it: Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology at the University of Ghent, Belgium.

How many bases? 3,569 (one of the smallest genomes known)

How many chromosomes? 1

PhiX174

1995

Haemophilus influenza
Common name: Haemophilus influenza

Methanococcus jannaschii
​Common name: Methanococcus jannaschii

What is it? A heat-loving, methane-producing, single-celled organism.

Why was it sequenced? This was the first archaeon to be sequenced.

Who sequenced it? Craig Venter and his team at The Institute for Genomic Research in Rockville, Maryland, USA.

How many bases? 1.7 million

How many chromosomes? 1 circular chromosome

1996

What is it? A species of yeast used in winemaking, baking and brewing.

Why was it sequenced? This was the first fungi to be sequenced.

Who sequenced it? The International Collaboration for the Yeast Genome Sequencing.

How many bases? 12.1 million

How many chromosomes? 32

1998

2000

2001

Why was it sequenced? Understanding the human genome will help us to improve human health.

Who sequenced it? The Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) and Celera Genomics.

How many bases? 3.2 billion

How many chromosomes? 23

2002

Why was it sequenced? Over 95 per cent of the mouse genome is similar to our own, so studying it is really useful for discovering more about human health and disease.

Who sequenced it? The Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium (the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, The Whitehead Center for Genome Research, The Whitehead Center for Genome Research and The Genome Institute at Washington University in St Louis and The Broad Institute at MIT).

How many bases? 3.48 billion

How many chromosomes? 20

What is it? It is a flying insect which feeds on the blood of animals.

Why was it sequenced? This species of mosquito is the principal vector of malaria, which kills over 1 million people each year.

Who s equenced it? Celera Genomics, USA and Genoscope, France.

How many bases? 278 million

How many chromosomes? 5

Common name: Rice

What is it? Rice is a staple food for millions of people across the globe.

Why was it sequenced? Rice is one of the most important crops so it is important to understand its genetics.

Who sequenced it? The Beijing Genomics Institute, Zhejiang University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China.

How many bases? 374 million

How many chromosomes? 12

2004

What is it? It is a recent ancestor of the domestic chicken.

Why was it sequenced? This is the first egg-laying animal to have its genome sequenced.

Who sequenced it? The International Chicken Genome Sequencing Consortium.

How many bases? 1 billion

How many chromosomes? 78

2005

What is it? Chimpanzee is one of the great apes along with gorilla, orangutan, bonobo and human.

Why was it sequenced? It was the first non-human primate genome to be sequenced.

Who sequenced it? The Chimpanzee Genome Project (Broad Institute at MIT and The Genome Institute at Washington University in St Louis).

How many bases? 3.3 billion

Number of chromosomes: 23

2010

What is it? Is a small frog native to Africa.

Why was it sequenced? Xenopus is a model organism commonly used to study early development.

Who sequenced it? The US Department of Energy's Joint Genome Institute and the University of California.

How many bases? 1.5 million

Number of chromosomes: 10

2013

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Timeline: Organisms that have had their genomes sequenced

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To develop techniques for DNA sequencing, scientists began by sequencing the genomes of small, simple organisms. As techniques improved it became possible to sequence the genomes of more complex organisms, such as the human genome. Now, we have a large catalogue of genomes that have been sequenced that we can study and compare.