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Dependent on three things:

1. Whether or not they feel the person is deserving of help

2. The competence of the bystander

3. The relationship between the bystander and the victim

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5 characteristics that affect bystanders (Latané and Darley)

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5 characteristics that affect bystanders (Latané and Darley)

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1. Emergencies involve threat of harm or actual harm

2. Emergencies are unusual and rare

3. The type of action required in an emergency differs from situation to situation

4. Emergencies cannot be predicted or expected

5. Emergencies require immediate action

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On Friday, March 13, 1964, 28-year-old Genovese was returning home from work. As she approached her apartment entrance, she was attacked and stabbed by Winston Moseley. Even though Kitty called for help, nobody called the police to report the incident. The attack first began at 3:20 AM, but it was not until 3:50 AM that someone first contacted police.

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The results showed that helping was very high. The cane victim received help on 62 out of the 65 trials, and the drunk victim received help on 19 out of 38 trials. On 60% of the 81 trials where help was given, more than one person offered help. Once one person had started to help, there were no differences on the number of extra helpers that appeared. The race of the victims made no significant difference to helping behaviour, but there was a slight tendency for same-race helping in the drunken condition.

90% of helpers were male.

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There were 4450 men and women travelling on the New York underground between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. on weekdays during April and June 1968. The participants were 45% black and 55% white. There was 43 people on average in each carriage. Two particular trains were selected as they didn't make any stops for 7.5 minutes. On each trial, two males and two females, boarded the train using different doors, they collected data for 103 trials. The female confederates sat outside the critical area and recorded data while the male model and victim remained standing. The victim always stood next to a pole in the centre of the critical area. As the train passed the first station (70 seconds in), the victim staggered forward and collapsed. If he received no help by the time the train slowed to a stop, the model helped him to his feet.  Six to eight trials were run on any given day.

The four victims were males, aged between 26 and 35, three white, one black, all identically dressed. On 38 trials the victims smelled of alcohol and carried a bottle wrapped tightly in a brown bag (drunk condition),

On the remaining 65 trials they appeared sober and carried a black cane (cane condition).

The 4 different model conditions:

Model stood in critical area and waited until passing the fourth station before assisting the victim (70 seconds after the collapse).

Model stood in critical area and waited until passing the sixth station before assisting the victim (150 seconds after the collapse).

Model stood in middle of the compartment, adjacent to critical area and waited until passing the fourth station.

Model stood in adjacent area and waited until passing the sixth station.

On each trial the race, sex and location of every passenger were noted as well as if they were seated or standing, in the critical area, together with the total number of passengers and the total number who came to the victims assistance. A second observer recorded comments made by nearby passengers.

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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the type of victim (drunk or ill) who gained most help. Furthermore to investigate the race of the victim which gained most help, the speed of helping, frequency of helping and the race of the helper. The study also investigated the impact of a model and the size of the groups people were in.

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Here is a video which explains the bystander effect in more detail.

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Latané and Darley came up with the term 'bystander effect' after conducting experiments inspired by the murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964. It shows how people don't offer help to other people in social situations, especially when there are lots of people around. The main idea is that the more people there are, the less likely we are to help as it doesn't feel personal to us.