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West Virginia Phonics--Good resource for teaching phonics

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West Virginia Phonics--Good resource for teaching phonics

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http://hickmank12.org/west-virginia-reading-first-explicit-phonics-lessons/

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https://www.amazon.com/Words-Their-Way-Struggling-Readers/dp/0135135214

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Create rituals and routines that help students identify as readers--book clubs, using GoodReads, using a reading interview protocol to understand how kids identify as readers.

Make sure kids are engaging in reading every day in my class.

Add discourse opportunities in class--shoe partners, birthday partners, etc.

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Using the following comprehension strategies and the examples from today and yesterday:
-Determine Importance
-Infer
-Ask Questions
-Activate and create schema
-Use sensory and emotional images
-Monitor for meaning
-Synthesize

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The website has video demonstrations, games, and lessons for the different levels. The website can be accessed by the access code in the back of the book.

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I am going to start using word associations for woods and helping kids to conceptually understand words using the current theme we are working on in class.

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Here is a lesson plan you could use for students needing work on phonological awareness, word recognition and phonics

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Use our current class text to point out the architecture of language

Start to incorporate oral reading for my struggling readers

Talk to my team about setting up a structure for word study--root words, compound words, prefixes and suffixes

See about purchasing Words Their Way, K-12 to help me understand word study more.

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Begin using visual representations of words--and making sure the words are being used in context.

Listen to kids read--set up a schedule to listen to at least 5 kids a week.

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Maybe some of these could be used as a warm up or a game? I think maybe some could be changed a bit to fit different grade levels...

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The Internet TESL Journal Matthew Wilson
educationaladvisor [at] gmail.com
Sendai Board of Education, (Sendai, Japan)

Introduction

Getting students to discover and practice the connections between letters and the sounds they represent should be an important part of any English class routine. The following activities can be adjusted to meet different levels and adapted to fit into any timeframe. Please note that not every activity you do in class has to be extremely challenging. Simple ideas that everybody is able to accomplish can work wonders with student confidence which, in turn, can increase motivation.

The following are ten activities that can assist you in practicing phonics at any point in your lesson:

Letters on the Board

At first, the teacher writes some letters on the board. The teacher reads out a word, one at a time, and asks the students to try and spell each word using only the letters on the board. It is always a good idea to stop after the first word in order to write the correct spelling on the board. This can then be used as a reference point for the students for successive words. After reading out five to ten words, go through the spellings of each word. Also, limit the number of vowel sounds you practice as the variety of sounds they represent can be really challenging for students, especially beginners.

Speed Reading

Write a number of words on the board. If necessary, go over the pronunciation of each word. Then read through a list of the same words at a good speed leaving out only one of the words. The students should be listening to you read the list of words while following along on the board. After you are finished, they tell you which word (words) you didn't read out. This activity can be targeted for a higher level by adjusting the vocabulary used, the speed you read, the number of words you leave off, or by doing additional tasks (e.g., like telling you which word you read wasn't on the board).

Battleship Phonics

This is based on the popular game Battleship. The teacher would draw a grid on the board with initial sounds written across the top, and medial and final sounds written together down the left side of the grid. You would let the students know that you have chosen a few squares as 'special squares' that they should seek out. They find these squares by volunteering to say a whole word made up of a letter at the top and the side of the grid. The intersection of this row and column highlights a particular square. The object is for the students to find all your designated special locations.

Phonics Bingo

Write a good number of sounds on the board, e.g., pha, ma, la, ga. The students would choose a designated number of sounds you wrote and write them on an available space for writing. You would then play this like bingo and read out the sounds one by one. The students can get bingo when they have three of their sounds chosen or all of their sounds chosen. It is a good idea to go over all of the sounds written on the board beforehand to help ease comprehension.

Criss-cross Phonics

All the students stand up. To begin, show a word or a picture. The first student to raise their hand gets called upon and if they can correctly say the first (or last) sound of that word they can sit down and choose if the people in their row, horizontally or vertically, can also sit down. Gradually, there are fewer and fewer students standing. When you no longer have rows to choose from, only individual students would sit. Words and images could also be written/drawn on the blackboard if the teacher had no time to prepare cards.

Missing Sound

Draw or show an image on the blackboard. Beside the image, write all but one of the sounds. For example, there is a picture of a dog on the board, you write 'og' beside it and the students have to provide you with the missing sound, not the letter. This can be made into a group contest or a simple whole-class exercise where you would give the class time to think of the answer and get everyone to say the answer at the same time.

Two Sounds

Good to practice sound distinction. Have two words on the board representing the two different sounds you would like to practice, e.g., MEN, MAN. You would then show the students pictures and get them to put those words under the appropriate column. For example, you show a picture of a pen, the students should write 'pen' under the MEN column. (If you are dealing with beginners, they could just mark their choice with an 'X' under the column instead of asking them to write out the words. You would, however, have to give numbers before every word to help everybody keep track of choices.)

Beginning/Middle/End

Students copy down the chart you provided on the board which is divided into three sections. You can label the three sections, 'beginning', 'middle' and 'end' in English or the native language of your students. You would focus on a specific sound and read out words containing that sound. The students would have to decide if that sound was found in the beginning, middle or end of the word by writing the sound in that appropriate column. This is a good listening activity with some implications for positive phonics reinforcement.

Ball and Cap Game

The students pass around a hat and a ball. When the music stops, the student with the hat must take out a piece of paper with a letter or letters written on it then read out its sound, not the letter name. The student with the ball must guess the letter(s). In lieu of music, the teacher can simply have his back turned and call out "stop".

Pen and Eraser

Students have a pen and an eraser in front of them. You have two sounds you would like to practice, e.g., 'f' and 'v' sounds, and designate one sound for the pen and one sound for the eraser. When you say a word beginning with one of those sounds, the students should pick up the appropriate object (for upper levels, the sound can be in any part of the word not just the beginning). If you say a word not incorporating one of the sounds, the students should make a big X with their arms. This can evolve into a pair contest with one pen and one eraser for every two students. The students would aim to be the quickest to pick up the object after you read out a word.

Concluding Remarks

Matching sounds to letters and letters to sounds can be quite a tricky and daunting task when students are learning English. Activities such as these are simple to initiate, easily adaptable, and are good ways to practice and enforce English phonics.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XIV, No. 4, April 2008
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Wilson-PhonicsActivities.html

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Ten Simple Phonics Activities Requiring Little Preparation

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The Internet TESL Journal Matthew Wilsoneducationaladvisor [at] gmail.comSendai Board of Education, (Sendai, Japan) Getting students to discover and practice the connections between letters and the sounds they represent should be an important part of any English class routine. The following activities can be adjusted to meet different levels and adapted to fit into any timeframe.

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Neat game to harness the competitive side of students!
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1042/game_instructions.pdf

http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1042/study_sheet.pdf

http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1042/definition_chart.pdf

http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1042/game_chart.pdf

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Classroom Strategies
Guided Reading
Vocabulary Development
Synonyms and Antonyms
Example:
The text: The student will board the bus.
The reader's guess:  The student will ride the bus.
Have the student read out loud so the teacher can correct them
Read along with a skilled reader

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Here are 2 websites that Kim shared with me that are pretty awesome!  http://achievethecore.org/page/887/fluency-packet-for-the-6-8-grade-band

http://treasures.macmillanmh.com/california/teachers/building-reading-and-writing-skills/student-fluency-passages

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https://d3jc3ahdjad7x7.cloudfront.net/M4v0uulmHat0zR7xXVSiuPPQzBP0oknH.pdf

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Here is a link to some general information about phonics at the adolescent level.

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Decoding is the ability to correctly decipher and identify a word from a string of letters. Students who struggle with decoding are at a disadvantage, but explicit instruction can help them learn this skill.

Decoding or word identification refers to the ability to correctly decipher a particular word out of a group of letters. Two of the skills involved in decoding or word identification are phonemic awareness and phonics. Phonemic awareness is the understanding that spoken words are made up of individual units of sound. These units of sound are called phonemes. ¹

Adolescents who are phonemically aware, for example, understand that three phonemes, /k/, /a/, and /t/, form the word cat. Students understand that the word fish also has three phonemes because s and h together make the distinct sound, /sh/. Phonemic awareness also includes the ability to identify and manipulate these individual units of sound. ² For example, phonemically aware students can make a new word out of weather by removing and replacing the first consonant sound with another consonant sound (e.g., feather).

According to the National Reading Panel report ³, direct instruction in phonemic awareness is most beneficial when offered to young children. Kamil (2003) ⁴ arrived at similar conclusions in his review of the literature, stating that phonemic awareness instruction is most effective in supporting reading improvement if it is provided in kindergarten and first grade. In fact, most children gather some level of awareness of phonemes before their adolescent years. If this awareness has not been fully developed and exercised, however, middle and high school students may experience difficulty with phonemic awareness when they encounter words that are unfamiliar to them. Research has found that instruction in decoding, word recognition, and spelling help improve phonemic awareness for students who have difficulty understanding how to blend sounds to articulate unfamiliar words. ⁵

Phonics is the understanding of the relationship between the letters in written words and the sounds of these words when spoken. ⁶ Students use this understanding as the basis for learning to read and write. Phonics helps students to recognize familiar words and decode new ones, providing these students a predictable, rules-based system for reading. ⁷

What do good readers do?

Good readers have a conscious understanding of the individual sounds, or phonemes, within spoken words and how these sounds are manipulated to form words. ⁸ In a spoken word, phonemes are the smallest parts of sound that make a difference in meaning. For example, changing the first phoneme in the word map from /m/ to /k/ changes the word from map to cap. Successful readers manipulate the blending and segmentation of phonemes used in speech and use this knowledge to support their ability to read new words and to learn to spell words. Adolescent readers make many of these sound connections at the syllable level and decode new sounds using word chunks or syllables, such as re-, pro-, -tion, -ment, that are already familiar to them. ⁹

Readers with strong phonics skills are able to use their knowledge of letters and their sounds to pronounce unknown words. This ability allows readers to listen to the pronunciation of an unknown word and match the pronounced word to one that they recognize in their receptive (listening) and productive (speaking) vocabularies. Readers with strong phonics skills rely on these skills to decode quickly unknown words that they encounter while reading. ¹⁰

What challenges do adolescent readers face regarding decoding?

Content-area teachers need to be aware of the literacy challenges faced by adolescent readers with decoding problems. These struggling readers need more intensive intervention in order to remediate their reading difficulties. To provide some perspective on the scope of the problem, some researchers estimate that approximately 10% of adolescents struggle with word identification skills. ¹¹ Although this percentage may not seem that large on the surface, it is important to realize that this estimate is for the population of all adolescents and that when talking specifically about struggling readers this estimate is likely to be much higher ¹²; with this in mind, reading or literacy specialists, together with others in their schools, serve as an important resource to more systematically address the needs of these students. This section aims to provide some useful background for content-area teachers regarding the challenges faced by adolescent readers struggling with decoding skills.

Based on their research, Shaywitz et al. (1999) ¹³ asserted that students who are unsuccessful in reading words that are unfamiliar to them may also struggle with poor phonemic awareness skills. This is especially problematic for adolescent readers with dyslexia and those who encounter many words that are new to them as they read content-area texts. Studies involving adolescents with dyslexia have revealed that an individual's lack of phonemic awareness represents the specific cognitive deficit responsible for dyslexia. ¹⁴ Without sufficient awareness of the sounds that make these new words, adolescent readers are unable to move to other levels of literacy, such as phonics or fluency. More simply put, phonemic awareness has been found to mediate word identification in all readers; therefore, this phonological skill deserves the attention of educators in middle and high schools.

Struggling with phonics negatively affects students' reading comprehension skills, vocabulary knowledge, and reading fluency. Adolescents with weak phonics skills lack effective strategies for decoding unknown multi-syllabic words. Even words used by students when conversing with others can be the same words these students are unable to sound out when presented with the words in print. As a result, these words remain unknown to them in print. ¹⁵ At grade five and beyond, students encounter 10,000 or more new words a year in their grade-level and content-area texts, and most of these words are multi-syllabic. ¹⁶ Not surprisingly, the inability to decode multi-syllabic words negatively influences readers' comprehension. Readers whose poor phonics skills prevent them from reading grade-level text independently cannot build their reading vocabularies at the same rate as their peers.

How can instruction help adolescent students with decoding?

Adolescents with decoding difficulties need more intensive practice and instructional time to develop their reading skills more thoroughly. Specifically decoding instruction should emphasize syllable patterns and morphology. This instruction would be, in general, most appropriately delivered by a reading specialist, and content-area instructors should focus on referring adolescent students with difficulties in phonemic awareness and/or phonics to a reading specialist for formal assessment of their reading skills. The following section focuses on instructional approaches that can strengthen phonics and phonemic awareness skills and provides examples on how they can be incorporated into classroom instruction.

For struggling adolescent students with decoding difficulties, the reading specialist should integrate phonemic awareness and phonics instruction as a support to the classroom lessons and texts that are assigned. Although there is little research on adolescents and phonemic awareness, recommendations for instructing adolescent students who struggle with phonemic awareness and phonics can be derived from research involving students with dyslexia ¹⁷ and adult beginning readers. ¹⁸

Both phonics and phonemic awareness instruction should occur within the context of an integrated approach to developing students' comprehension and use of academic language (that is, the language used in educational settings) and should focus on only one or two skills or strategies at a time. ¹⁹ Important components of academic language are the vocabulary used to communicate concepts within a particular discipline (specialized academic vocabulary such as osmosis and perimeter) and the vocabulary used across disciplines to express precisely ideas and information (non-specialized academic vocabulary such as examine and cause). Academic vocabulary is distinguished from the "everyday" vocabulary that is used to communicate on a less formal level outside of the classroom. ²⁰ For example, the non-specialized academic vocabulary words examine and cause contrast with the everyday vocabulary words look at and make.

The following research-based recommendations provide context for how phonemic awareness and phonics instruction can be directly taught to explicitly build these skills or primarily aimed at strengthening these skills by incorporating them into activities that also build other literacy components such as vocabulary. It is not envisioned that content-area instructors will focus on these phonemic awareness and phonics skills during their instruction but it may help instructors gain a clearer sense of where struggling readers might have difficulties.

Modeling phonemic awareness skills when introducing new vocabulary

Phonemic awareness skills can be strengthened through instruction when introducing new vocabulary. To develop these skills, the reading specialist should provide instruction with a focus on identification of rhyming words, blending of isolated sounds to form words, and segmentation of a word into its individual sounds. ²¹ While this instruction is not intended to be delivered in the content-area classroom, it could be appropriate in the English language arts class. For example, when teaching the conventions of poetry, English language arts teachers can read aloud poems that rhyme and draw students' attention to the rhyming words. They can also ask students to identify the particular syllable or syllables within the words that are responsible for the rhyme.

Instruction can also emphasize specialized academic vocabulary for words that change meaning when one phoneme is substituted for another and emphasize these changes when introducing new vocabulary. For example, a teacher can demonstrate how deleting the phoneme /r/ from the word revolution results in the word evolution and likewise demonstrate how adding the phoneme/r/ to the word evolution results in the word revolution. Segmenting words into their phoneme units helps develop students' awareness of the relationship between sound and meaning. Follow-up discussion of the phonological and semantic similarities and differences between words such as revolution and evolution will help students not only develop phonological awareness but also extend their vocabulary knowledge. ²²

Providing instruction in phonics strategies helps students articulate and identify multi-syllabic words

Research on phonics indicates that certain phonics instructional strategies improve the reading abilities of both younger and older readers. ²³ Although research has suggested that phonics instruction is useful for all students ²⁴, those with weak phonological skills tend to benefit most from this type of instruction. ²⁵

Multi-syllabic words are especially important, as these words encompass most of the new vocabulary encountered by adolescents in their reading. Multi-syllabic words also provide much of the new information in content-area texts. ²⁶ Teaching word analysis strategies for decoding multi-syllabic words helps adolescent readers decode other unknown words, build a sight-word vocabulary, and learn how to spell words. ²⁷

When selecting vocabulary words to teach, teachers should focus on multi-syllabic, high frequency, specialized and non-specialized academic words and on sound patterns that are difficult for struggling readers. Examples of multi-syllabic words found in content-area reading are circumference, geographical, parameter, imperative, and simultaneous.

As mentioned earlier, for those students who continue to struggle with phonics and phonemic awareness skills, more focused instruction should primarily be delivered by reading specialists after the reading skills of these struggling students have been formally assessed and their areas of difficulties identified. Listed below are some suggested guidelines for how phonics instruction could be delivered for difficult academic vocabulary and sound patterns:

Take time before lessons to determine the content-area words with which students may struggle.

When introducing these words, articulate each syllable slowly (e.g., e-co-sys-tem), pausing slightly between the syllables. ²⁸ Repeat this articulation several times.

Point out patterns in the pronunciation and spelling of prefixes, suffixes, and vowels in selected words (e.g., rac-ism, sex-ism, age-ism, etc.).²⁹

Point out similarities and differences among words that belong to "word families" (e.g., define, definitely, definition).³⁰

Model using new or difficult words in different contexts.³¹

Provide opportunities for students to practice using new or difficult words and reinforce correct pronunciation and usage.³²

Ask open-ended questions that require students to respond using the new or difficult words (e.g., Do you think racism, sexism, or ageism is more prevalent in our society? Why?).³³

Use direct, explicit, and systematic instruction to teach phonemic awareness and phonics skills

Scientific research supports the use of direct, explicit, and systematic instruction for teaching phonemic awareness and phonics. ³⁴ Examples of steps that could be used by teachers are listed below; however, note that for adolescent students this instruction is most appropriately delivered by a reading specialist rather than a content-area instructor:

1. Explain, demonstrate, and model the skill or strategy with content-area words and within the context of the subject matter students are currently learning.

2. Guide students to practice the skill or strategy and provide corrective feedback (or informing the student of their incorrect practice and giving them the correct information).³⁵

3. Provide time for independent or peer-collaborative practice of the skill or strategy.

4. Repeat these instructional steps until students are able to apply the skill or strategy independently in their reading and writing.³⁶

As you may have noticed, teachers could take advantage of some of the suggestions above to introduce new vocabulary that their students may encounter in the content-area classes they teach. When introducing new vocabulary words that have common prefixes, suffixes, or roots, teachers can instruct students in the meanings of these word parts and how to use this knowledge to decipher new words. Teachers can begin with vocabulary that they are currently teaching and then extend instruction to non-specialized academic vocabulary and specialized vocabulary from other disciplines. For example, teachers can teach students the meaning of the prefix poly when teaching the words polygon and polyhedron. At the same time, they can teach students how to apply knowledge of these prefixes to decipher the meanings of other words that begin with the prefix (e.g., polytheism, polygraph, polygamy, etc.). ³⁷

Provide extra time for phonemic awareness and phonics instruction and opportunities for students to practice using new skills when reading

Adolescent readers who struggle with decoding need extra time to decode each word and to apply their higher order thinking skills to comprehend fully the text that they read. ³⁸ These students will need extra time for reading in the classroom and outside of class. For adolescent students who struggle with decoding, they should be referred to the reading specialist on staff to more intensively address their reading needs. As an aid, content-area teachers may consider taping instructional lessons and passing on these tapes to struggling readers to review at their own pace. ³⁹

What do we still need to know?

Much more research needs to be conducted with adolescent students in the areas of phonemic awareness and phonics. Investigation of students' phonological skills has typically occurred in the primary and elementary grades. With both young children and adolescents, however, there are still many questions that need to be answered. For example, research is needed to study whether or not small group settings are the most effective teaching environment for phonemic awareness for older students. In addition, researchers have paid little attention to the possible connections between phonics instruction and motivation. It is important to better understand how adolescents' levels of motivation influence their reading ability. ⁴⁰ Finally, additional research is needed to determine how decoding and fluency skills relate to reading difficulties faced by some older students.

More key literacy components
References
References

Click the "References" link above to hide these references.

Archer, A., M. Gleason, and V. Vachon, Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2003. 26: p. 89-101.

Bailey, A.L. and F.A. Butler, An evidentiary framework for operationalizing academic language for broad application to K-12 education: A design document. 2003, CRESST/University of California, Los Angeles: Los Angeles.

Bertelson, P., et al., Metaphonological abilities of adult illiterates: New evidence of heterogeneity. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 1989. 1(3): p. 239-250.

Bhattarya, A. and L. Ehri, Graphosyllabic analysis helps adolescent struggling readers read and spell words. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2004. 37: p. 331-348.

Blevins, W., Teaching phonics and word study in the intermediate grades. 2001, New York: Scholastic.

Curtis, M.E., Adolescents who struggle with word identification: Research and practice, in Adolescent literacy research and practice, T.L. Jetton and J.A. Dole, Editors. 2004, The Guilford Press: New York. p. 119-134.

Curtis, M.E. and A.M. Longo, When adolescents can�t read: Methods and materials that work. 1999, Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Curtis, M.E. and L. McCart, Fun ways to promote poor readers� word recognition. Journal of Reading, 1992. 35: p. 398-399.

Curtis, M.E. and M.B. Chmelka, Modifying the Laubauch way to reading program for use with adolescents with LDs. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 1994. 9: p. 38-43.

Foorman, B.R., et al., The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1998. 90: p. 37-55.

Graham, S., K.R. Harris, and C. Loynachan, The basic spelling vocabulary list. Journal of Educational Research, 1993. 86: p. 363-368.

Greenberg, D., L.C. Ehri, and D. Perin, Are word-reading processes the same or different in adult literacy students and third-fifth graders matched for reading level? Journal of Educational Psychology, 1997. 89(2): p. 262-275.

Hoover, W.A., The importance of phonemic awareness in learning to read. SEDL Letter, 2002. 14(3): p. 9-12.

Juel, C. and C. Minden-Cupp, Learning to read words: Linguistic units and instructional strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 2000. 35: p. 458-492.

Kamil, M., Adolescents and literacy: Reading for the 21st century. 2003, Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Leach, J., H. Scarborough, and L. Rescorla, Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2003. 95: p. 211-224.

Liberman, I.Y. and D. Shankweiler, Phonology and beginning to read: A tutorial, in Learning to read: basic research and its implications, L. Rieben and C.A. Perfetti, Editors. 1991, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ.

Moats, L.C., When older kids can�t read. Educational Leadership, 2001. 58(6): p. 36-40.

Moore, D.W., et al., Adolescent literacy: A position statement for the Commission on Adolescent Literacy of the International Reading Association. 1999, Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 3.

Mory, E., Feedback research, in Handbook of research for educational communications and technology, D.H. Jonassen, Editor. 1996, Simon and Schuster MacMillan: New York. p. 919-956.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. 2004, Government Printing Office: Washington, DC. http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org.

Nokes, J.D. and J.A. Dole, Helping adolescent readers through explicit strategy instruction, in Adolescent literacy research and practice, T.L. Jetton and J.A. Dole, Editors. 2004, The Guilford Press: New York. p. 162-182.

Partnership for Reading, Put reading first: The research building blocks of reading instruction (2nd ed). 2003, Retrieved May 1, 2005, from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/PFRbooklet.pdf.

Schleppegrell, M., Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education, 2001. 12(4): p. 431-459.

Scliar-Cabral, L., et al., The awareness of phonemes: So close-so far away. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 1997. 13(38): p. 211-240.

Shaywitz, S.E., Dyslexia. Scientific American, 1996. 275: p. 98-104.

Shaywitz, S.E., et al., Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut longitudinal study at adolescence. Pediatrics, 1999. 104: p. 1351-1359.

Snow, C.E., M.S. Burns, and P. Griffin, eds. Preventing reading difficulties in young children. 1998, National Academies Press: Washington, DC.

Torgesen, J., Lessons learned from research on interventions for students who have difficulty learning to read, in The voice of evidence in reading research, P. McCardle and V. Chhabra, Editors. 2004, Paul H. Brookes Publishing: Baltimore, MD.

Wagner, R.K. and J. Torgesen, The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 1987. 101: p. 192-212.

References

Archer, A., M. Gleason, and V. Vachon, Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2003. 26: p. 89-101.

Bailey, A.L. and F.A. Butler, An evidentiary framework for operationalizing academic language for broad application to K-12 education: A design document. 2003, CRESST/University of California, Los Angeles: Los Angeles.

Bertelson, P., et al., Metaphonological abilities of adult illiterates: New evidence of heterogeneity. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 1989. 1(3): p. 239-250.

Bhattarya, A. and L. Ehri, Graphosyllabic analysis helps adolescent struggling readers read and spell words. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2004. 37: p. 331-348.

Blevins, W., Teaching phonics and word study in the intermediate grades. 2001, New York: Scholastic.

Curtis, M.E., Adolescents who struggle with word identification: Research and practice, in Adolescent literacy research and practice, T.L. Jetton and J.A. Dole, Editors. 2004, The Guilford Press: New York. p. 119-134.

Curtis, M.E. and A.M. Longo, When adolescents can�t read: Methods and materials that work. 1999, Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Curtis, M.E. and L. McCart, Fun ways to promote poor readers� word recognition. Journal of Reading, 1992. 35: p. 398-399.

Curtis, M.E. and M.B. Chmelka, Modifying the Laubauch way to reading program for use with adolescents with LDs. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 1994. 9: p. 38-43.

Foorman, B.R., et al., The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1998. 90: p. 37-55.

Graham, S., K.R. Harris, and C. Loynachan, The basic spelling vocabulary list. Journal of Educational Research, 1993. 86: p. 363-368.

Greenberg, D., L.C. Ehri, and D. Perin, Are word-reading processes the same or different in adult literacy students and third-fifth graders matched for reading level? Journal of Educational Psychology, 1997. 89(2): p. 262-275.

Hoover, W.A., The importance of phonemic awareness in learning to read. SEDL Letter, 2002. 14(3): p. 9-12.

Juel, C. and C. Minden-Cupp, Learning to read words: Linguistic units and instructional strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 2000. 35: p. 458-492.

Kamil, M., Adolescents and literacy: Reading for the 21st century. 2003, Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Leach, J., H. Scarborough, and L. Rescorla, Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2003. 95: p. 211-224.

Liberman, I.Y. and D. Shankweiler, Phonology and beginning to read: A tutorial, in Learning to read: basic research and its implications, L. Rieben and C.A. Perfetti, Editors. 1991, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ.

Moats, L.C., When older kids can�t read. Educational Leadership, 2001. 58(6): p. 36-40.

Moore, D.W., et al., Adolescent literacy: A position statement for the Commission on Adolescent Literacy of the International Reading Association. 1999, Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 3.

Mory, E., Feedback research, in Handbook of research for educational communications and technology, D.H. Jonassen, Editor. 1996, Simon and Schuster MacMillan: New York. p. 919-956.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. 2004, Government Printing Office: Washington, DC. http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org.

Nokes, J.D. and J.A. Dole, Helping adolescent readers through explicit strategy instruction, in Adolescent literacy research and practice, T.L. Jetton and J.A. Dole, Editors. 2004, The Guilford Press: New York. p. 162-182.

Partnership for Reading, Put reading first: The research building blocks of reading instruction (2nd ed). 2003, Retrieved May 1, 2005, from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/PFRbooklet.pdf.

Schleppegrell, M., Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education, 2001. 12(4): p. 431-459.

Scliar-Cabral, L., et al., The awareness of phonemes: So close-so far away. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 1997. 13(38): p. 211-240.

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Endnotes

Click the "Endnotes" link above to hide these endnotes.

1. Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

2. Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

3. NICHD (2004)

4. Kamil (2003)

5. NICHD (2004); Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

6. NICHD (2004)

7. NICHD (2004); Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004)

8. Hoover (2002)

9. Bhattarya and Ehri (2004)

10. Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004); Bhattarya and Ehri (2004)

11. Curtis (2004); Curtis and Chmelka (1994); Moats (2001)

12. Leach, Scarborough, and Rescorla (2003)

13. Shaywitz et al. (1999)

14. Torgesen (2004); Liberman and Shankweiler (1991); Shaywitz (1996); Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

15. Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004); Curtis (2004); Moats (2001)

16. Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

17. Torgesen (2004); Shaywitz et al. (1999); Liberman and Shankweiler (1991); Shaywitz (1996); Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

18. Bertelson et al. (1989); Greenberg, Ehri, and Perin (1997); Scliar-Cabral et al. (1997)

19. NICHD (2004)

20. Bailey and Butler (2003); Schleppegrell (2001)

21. Moore et al. (1999); Shaywitz et al. (1999)

22. Moore et al. (1999); Shaywitz et al. (1999)

23. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Curtis and Longo (1999)

24. Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998)

25. Moats (2001); Foorman et al. (1998); Juel and Minden-Cupp (2000)

26. Kamil (2003); Curtis (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

27. Torgesen (2004); Moats (2001); Curtis and Longo (1999)

28. Curtis (2004); Curtis and Chmelka (1994); Curtis and McCart (1992)

29. Bhattarya and Ehri (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

30. Moats (2004)

31. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

32. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

33. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

34. Kamil (2003); Shaywitz et al. (1999); Curtis (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003); NAS (2003); Nokes and Dole (2004); Partnership for Reading (2005)

35. Mory (1996)

36. Moats (2001); Foorman et al. (1998); Juel and Minden-Cupp (2000)

37. Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

38. Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

39. Shaywitz et al. (1999)

40. NICHD (2004); Hoover (2002); Blevins (2001)

Endnotes

1. Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

2. Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

3. NICHD (2004)

4. Kamil (2003)

5. NICHD (2004); Kamil (2003); Hoover (2002)

6. NICHD (2004)

7. NICHD (2004); Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004)

8. Hoover (2002)

9. Bhattarya and Ehri (2004)

10. Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004); Bhattarya and Ehri (2004)

11. Curtis (2004); Curtis and Chmelka (1994); Moats (2001)

12. Leach, Scarborough, and Rescorla (2003)

13. Shaywitz et al. (1999)

14. Torgesen (2004); Liberman and Shankweiler (1991); Shaywitz (1996); Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

15. Kamil (2003); Torgesen (2004); Curtis (2004); Moats (2001)

16. Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

17. Torgesen (2004); Shaywitz et al. (1999); Liberman and Shankweiler (1991); Shaywitz (1996); Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

18. Bertelson et al. (1989); Greenberg, Ehri, and Perin (1997); Scliar-Cabral et al. (1997)

19. NICHD (2004)

20. Bailey and Butler (2003); Schleppegrell (2001)

21. Moore et al. (1999); Shaywitz et al. (1999)

22. Moore et al. (1999); Shaywitz et al. (1999)

23. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Curtis and Longo (1999)

24. Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998)

25. Moats (2001); Foorman et al. (1998); Juel and Minden-Cupp (2000)

26. Kamil (2003); Curtis (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

27. Torgesen (2004); Moats (2001); Curtis and Longo (1999)

28. Curtis (2004); Curtis and Chmelka (1994); Curtis and McCart (1992)

29. Bhattarya and Ehri (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

30. Moats (2004)

31. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

32. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

33. Curtis (2004); Blevins (2001); Graham, Harris, and Loynachan (1993)

34. Kamil (2003); Shaywitz et al. (1999); Curtis (2004); Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003); NAS (2003); Nokes and Dole (2004); Partnership for Reading (2005)

35. Mory (1996)

36. Moats (2001); Foorman et al. (1998); Juel and Minden-Cupp (2000)

37. Archer, Gleason, and Vachon (2003)

38. Wagner and Torgesen (1987)

39. Shaywitz et al. (1999)

40. NICHD (2004); Hoover (2002); Blevins (2001)

National Institute for Literacy. (2007). Adapted from What Content-Area Teachers Should Know About Adolescent Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/publications/adolescent_literacy07.pdf

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Decoding is the ability to correctly decipher and identify a word from a string of letters. Students who struggle with decoding are at a disadvantage, but explicit instruction can help them learn this skill. Decoding or word identification refers to the ability to correctly decipher a particular word out of a group of letters.