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The modern world has grown increasingly interconnected.  Technology, global communication, and the speed of travel has made the world a much smaller place. Bilingualism and multilingualism in a globalized environment have become more important than ever. America’s student population is rapidly becoming more diverse, both racially and linguistically. Educators and schools in the K-12 space must recognize the need to adapt to a growing non-English speaking population that will need access to a quality long-term bilingual education.

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The vast majority of the United States educational system has adopted a transitional model of bilingual education and is a limited and flawed methodology. The current dominant curriculum of transitional bilingual education attempts to immediately transition a non-English speaker to communicating, reading, and writing in English as quickly as possible, yet does not place an importance on maintaining the culture and language of the foreign students. Current bilingual programs create a form of linguistic hegemony that perpetuates a form of systematic racial bias. The problem with this mode of bilingual education is that it fosters cultural assimilation and results in the atrophy of cultural identities.

Now, a study out of George Mason University reviewed eight million student records and found that transitional bilingual education was statistically significantly less effective than a long-term bilingual program that maintains instruction in both languages (Collier & Thomas, 2017). This study alone should warrant further exploration into making dual immersion programs the norm. With a growing Hispanic and language minority student population, educators need to reevaluate the current teaching curriculum to better address the needs of the fastest growing student demographic to remain competitive and to close achievement gaps. As the need for a new comprehensive bilingual education program grows, research and studies have outlined alternative methodologies that offer a new path.

References

Collier, V., & Thomas, W. (2017). Validating the power of bilingual schooling: Thirty-two years of large-scale, Longitudinal Research: Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 203-217. doi:10.1017/S0267190517000034

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This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref.

De Houwer, Annick and Ortega, Lourdes 2018. The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingualism.

Lucero, Audrey 2018. The Development of Bilingual Narrative Retelling Among Spanish-English Dual Language Learners Over Two Years. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, Vol. 49, Issue. 3, p. 607.

Akbar, Monika Dura, Lucia Gates, Ann Q. Ortega, Angel Roy, Mary K Santiago, Claudia Tellez, Jesus G and Villa, Elsa 2018. Sol y Agua: A Game-based Learning Platform to Engage Middle-school Students in STEM. p. 1.

Díaz Pérez, Wendy Fields, Donna Lee and Marsh, David 2018. Innovations and Challenges: Conceptualizing CLIL Practice. Theory Into Practice, Vol. 57, Issue. 3, p. 177.

SUBTIRELU, NICHOLAS CLOSE BOROWCZYK, MARGARET THORSON HERNÁNDEZ, RACHEL and VENEZIA, FRANCESCA 2019. Recognizing Whose Bilingualism? A Critical Policy Analysis of the Seal of Biliteracy. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 103, Issue. 2, p. 371.

Hélot, Christine and García, Ofelia 2019. The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning. p. 649.

Pratt, Kristen L. and Ernst-Slavit, Gisela 2019. Equity perspectives and restrictionist policies: Tensions in dual language bilingual education. Bilingual Research Journal, Vol. 42, Issue. 3, p. 356.

Howlett, Kristina M. and Young, Heather D. 2019. Handbook of Research on Engaging Immigrant Families and Promoting Academic Success for English Language Learners. p. 20.

Amanti, Cathy 2019. The (invisible) work of Dual Language Bilingual Education teachers. Bilingual Research Journal, Vol. 42, Issue. 4, p. 455.

Sampson, Carrie 2019. From a Lighthouse to a Foghorn: A School Board's Navigation toward Equity for English Learners. American Journal of Education, Vol. 125, Issue. 4, p. 521.

Quezada, Reyes and Alexandrowicz, Viviana 2019. Developing Culturally Proficient Teachers for Dual-Language Classrooms. Theory Into Practice, Vol. 58, Issue. 2, p. 185.

Sampson, Carrie 2019. "The State Pulled a Fast One on Us": A Critical Policy Analysis of State-Level Policies Affecting English Learners From District-Level Perspectives. Educational Policy, Vol. 33, Issue. 1, p. 158.

Meier, Gabriela 2020. Curriculum Integrated Language Teaching. p. 165.

Aguilar, Gladys Uccelli, Paola and Galloway, Emily Phillips 2020. Toward Biliteracy: Unpacking the Contribution of Mid‐adolescent Dual Language Learners' Spanish and English Academic Language Skills to English Reading Comprehension. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 54, Issue. 4, p. 1010.

Lightbown, Patsy M. and Spada, Nina 2020. Teaching and learning L2 in the classroom: It's about time. Language Teaching, Vol. 53, Issue. 4, p. 422.

Newcomer, Sarah N. 2020. "Who We Are Today": Latinx Youth Perspectives on the Possibilities of Being Bilingual and Bicultural. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, Vol. 19, Issue. 3, p. 193.

González-Carriedo, Ricardo Weiller, Karen and Boyd, Rossana 2020. "¡A Saltar!" Using movement to enhance the development of bilingualism. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, Vol. 10, Issue. 2, p. 47.

Robertson, Sally-Ann and Graven, Mellony 2020. Language as an including or excluding factor in mathematics teaching and learning. Mathematics Education Research Journal, Vol. 32, Issue. 1, p. 77.

Hood, Sally J. 2020. Two‐way immersion teacher preparation. Foreign Language Annals, Vol. 53, Issue. 1, p. 128.

Spencer, Trina D. Moran, Meghan Thompson, Marilyn S. Petersen, Douglas B. and Restrepo, M. Adelaida 2020. Early Efficacy of Multitiered Dual-Language Instruction: Promoting Preschoolers' Spanish and English Oral Language. AERA Open, Vol. 6, Issue. 1, p. 233285841989788.

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Validating the Power of Bilingual Schooling: Thirty-Two Years of Large-Scale, Longitudinal Research | Annual Review of Applied Linguistics | Cambridge Core

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Validating the Power of Bilingual Schooling: Thirty-Two Years of Large-Scale, Longitudinal Research - Volume 37

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Padlet Slide #3 Professional Association

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Padlet Slide #3 Professional Association

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The professional association I selected was The National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE). NABE (2017) released a publication that discussed the potential benefits and challenges of administering a dual language program. The article expresses that school districts are increasingly turning to dual language programs that facilitate the development of bilingualism and biliteracy. The article outlines some of the difficulties that educators have experienced in attempting to administer this alternative to transitional bilingual education.

References

Kelly, L. B. (2017) Promise and challenge in dual language programs. NABE Perspectives, 40(2), pp. 6-9. Retrieved from http://www.xcdsystem.com/nabe/files/NP_Vol40_Issue2_2017_R3.pdf

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The first article I would like to highlight is The Bilingual Teacher Shortage: A Vicious Cycle, published in Language Magaziine (2019). It can be summarized as follows:

·         Dual Language programs are gaining in popularity and are widely considered the most effective program for multilingual student success.

·         Prior English-only instruction has created a bilingual teacher shortage.

·         A “vicious cycle” is created when a no access to bilingual education means an inability to develop bilingual teachers.

·         A focused push toward a long term dual language program is important to facilitate a more equitable education system.

·         Two barriers were found that prevented to-be teachers from entering into bilingual teaching programs. 1.) Teachers were unaware of the option, and 2.) Spanish speakers were concerned about their academic Spanish as being too limited.

·         Bilingualism and alternative cultures must be viewed as an asset.

References

Briceno, A., Munoz-Munoz, E., and Rodriguez-Mojica, C. (2019) The bilingual teacher shortage: A vicious cycle. Language Magazine, 18(10), pp. 26-30. Retrieved from https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/06/14/the-bilingual-teacher-shortage-a-vicious-cycle/#:~:text=As%20a%20result%2C%20recruiting%20and,(Katz%2C%202004%2C%20p.

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Allison Briceño, Eduardo Muñoz-Muñoz, and Claudia Rodríguez-Mojica present reasons and suggest solutions for the chronic shortage of Spanish/English educators in California
It is an exciting time for bilingual education in California due to changing political tides and recent research. Proposition 58, which passed in November 2016 with 73% voter approval, repealed the limitations placed on bilingual education by Proposition 227 in 1998. The English Learner Roadmap, adopted by the California Board of Education in July 2017, recognizes both the importance of multilingual education and the assets that multilingual students and their families bring to schools. It requires schools to provide all students access to appropriate, challenging curriculum, including languages other than English.

Additionally, dual language (DL) programs are extremely popular and have emerged as the most effective programs for multilingual students' academic success (Lindholm-Leary and Hernández, 2011; Steele et al., 2017; Valentino and Reardon, 2014). As a result, recruiting and preparing bilingual teachers has become a matter of social justice.

However, the political movement toward English-only education of the previous 20 years has resulted in bilingual teachers becoming "an endangered species" (Katz, 2004, p. 147). The current dearth of bilingual teachers could inhibit the opportunity for growth in bilingual education programs. There are many Spanish speakers in the U.S. who could become bilingual teachers; how do we bring them into the bilingual teacher pipeline (Katz, 2004)? To begin to answer this question, we recently researched how heritage Spanish-speaking (HSS) preservice teachers' beliefs about language influenced their choice to enter bilingual or English-only teacher preparation programs.
A Vicious Cycle
Guerrero and Guerrero (2008) labeled the bilingual teacher shortage a "vicious cycle." Without access to bilingual education, how can we develop bilingual teachers? The bilingual teacher shortage is a result of the way we "do school" in the U.S. The linguistic and cultural hegemony in schools limits access to home-language development, resulting in home-language loss and English dominance regardless of home language (Guerrero, 2003).

Furthermore, a perceived binary between academic and conversational language may be misleading (Alvarez, 2012; Aukerman, 2007; Valdés, Capitelli, and Alvarez, 2011), causing speakers to question whether their language is "academic" enough (Guerrero, 2003; Musanti, 2014).

Valdés (2001) argued that the "idealized, perfectly balanced bilingual is for the most part a mythical figure that rarely exists in real life" (p. 40). Instead, bilingualism (Valdés, 2001) and biliteracy (Hornberger and Link, 2012) exist on dynamic, shifting continua. Yet bilinguals speaking nonprestige or stigmatized language varieties are often associated with lower socioeconomic status (Valdés, 2001).
The Study
We interviewed eleven HSS college graduates enrolled in teacher credential programs at three universities in California. At the time of this study, two of the universities offered a bilingual authorization pathway (BAP) and one of the universities had not yet started offering the BAP option. We drew HSS participants from both the bilingual and English-only teaching credential pathways.

Five of the teacher candidates were in bilingual authorization programs and six were in English-only teaching credential programs; all were considering becoming bilingual teachers. Nine participants were born in the U.S. and two were born in Mexico. We interviewed each participant individually for 25 to 40 minutes and followed a constant comparative method (Charmaz, 2006) to analyze data. The audio files of each interview were coded by two researchers using software, recursively, in multiple phases.
Living-and Overcoming-the Vicious Cycle
Our study identified two obstacles to, and one primary reason for, HSS participants' entry into bilingual teaching. First, many participants were unaware that teaching in a bilingual setting was an option. Second, the HSS participants were concerned about

their academic Spanish after being told by schools, in various ways, to leave their Spanish at home.

The HSS participants who were planning to become bilingual teachers shared a focus on equity and wanted future generations of Latinx children to have better schooling experiences than they had (Irizarry and Donaldson, 2012).
"No Me Acuerdo Haber Escuchado de Programas Bilingües." (I Don't Remember Having Heard about Bilingual Programs.)
Having attended school under Proposition 227, which strictly limited bilingual education options in California, most preservice teachers had been immersed in monolingual English schooling systems and were unaware that their linguistic assets were needed and wanted in bilingual education. Eight of the eleven preservice teachers did not know they could become bilingual teachers and, consequently, initially entered monolingual teacher preparation programs. They often learned that they could acquire a bilingual authorization at the program orientation. For example, Maritza said, "It was just at orientation for the program that I knew it was an option." Similarly, Angelina stated, " El programa ofrecía una extensión bilingüe, yo no me acuerdo haber escuchado de programas bilingües." ("The program offered a bilingual authorization, I don't remember having heard about bilingual programs.") Echoing the first two participants, Clarisa mentioned, "Once I started at [university name], that's when I found out that I could get a credential and at the same time get that bilingual certification." Sara was prompted by a professor to consider becoming a bilingual teacher and said, "Honestly, had I not had [name] as a professor, I would have ended up as an English-only teacher." Clearly, more information about pathways to becoming bilingual educators is needed in K-12, community college, and university settings.
"I Didn't Get a Chance to Learn Academic Spanish."
As graduates of U.S. colleges, the participants felt confident in their academic English; however, most were concerned about their academic Spanish-language skills. Speaking colloquial registers of Spanish at home that have been perceived as marking lower socioeconomic backgrounds, many participants took advanced Spanish classes to learn "academic Spanish," but those classes invalidated their home language in favor of textbook language. For instance, Janet took Spanish classes in high school to learn what she understood as "appropriate Spanish or correct Spanish." She stated, "The Spanish that I thought was Spanish growing up was totally incorrect and improper... and that's where the self-esteem issues came. I started feeling like what I had learned was totally incorrect."Like Janet, many participants came from lower SES backgrounds and were therefore concerned that their Spanish was not good enough to qualify them as teachers.

The HSS participants also worried about whether the particular variety of Spanish they spoke was the "right" Spanish, and they expressed concern about using regional vocabulary that is not shared widely across Spanish-speaking countries.

Maritza commented: "I sometimes feel a little uncomfortable because I learned Spanish at home, and I didn't get a chance to learn academic Spanish, or because my family's Spanish is very regional.

There are many Spanishes spoken all over the world and within the U.S., yet Maritza expressed concern that her family's Spanish was not the " right"Spanish. Rather than recognizing it as language variation, she used a binary measure of "right" and "wrong" and assumed that since she learned Spanish from her family and not in an academic setting, it must be wrong. Ironically, participants were unable to define "standard Spanish," yet they were concerned that their Spanish was not standard and was insufficient. When pressed, Joel vaguely referred to Spain's Real Academia.Angelina simply said, " No sé que es el español estándar. " ("I don't know what standard Spanish is.")

With the exception of one participant who had attended a dual-language program, the HSS participants unanimously referred to the start of school in the U.S. as the beginning of their Spanish language loss, reflecting Guerrero and Guerrero's (2008) vicious cycle of linguistic hegemony. Many HSS participants had been classified as English language learners (ELLs) when they were in school.

One noted the irony, stating, " Yo fui uno de esos English language learners, o antes se decía ESL (English as a second language)... ahora soy un SL, Spanish learner. "("I was one of those English language learners (ELLs), or they used to say ESL (English as a second language), now I'm an SL, Spanish learner.") Rather than developing HSS participants' first language, the English-only emphasis of U.S. schools led to home-language loss and the perceived need for re-education in Spanish.

The HSS participants who were considering becoming bilingual teachers were concerned with educational equity and viewed bilingual education as a form of advocacy and agency (Dubetz and de Jong, 2011). Griselda commented, "Bilingual education is a push toward a more equitable education system, and I think being part of that is a constant reminder of wanting equity in education." Griselda understood how developing a greater appreciation of bilingualism and participating in a school system that values multiple languages would be supportive of Latinx students and families.

Similarly, when asked about his decision to become a bilingual teacher, José also considered equity for the Latinx community: "That [decision] was partly equity focused, because I know that a lot of students don't have English as a first language and a lot of those students are Spanish speaking... Bilingual classrooms help with that. And just having a teacher who understands their language would also help the student, and also the parents. The communication between the teacher and the parents is so important."

José identified the ability of both parents and teachers to better support students when the language barrier is removed.

The participants understand that bilingualism is an asset in very personal ways; they live bilingualism and recognize that it is a generally unacknowledged strength Latinx students bring to school. As Maritza said, "I would want to teach in a bilingual [setting] because I'd be so aware of tipping the balance in another way for minority languages, even though it's not a minority ( laughs)." Despite the large number of Spanish speakers in the U.S., and particularly in California, Spanish still suffers from minority language treatment-it is undervalued due to its speakers' lack of political power in the U.S. The participants in this study perceived bilingual education, and their future role as bilingual teachers, as one lever to improve the educational opportunities for Latinx students.
Moving Forward
In summary, a monolingual education system played a role in participants' questioning of their Spanish abilities, as their bilingualism was not viewed as an asset and was not developed in school. Instead, when many enrolled in advanced Spanish courses, their home language was, perhaps inadvertently, denigrated as "slang," "regional," or "totallyincorrect," resulting in feelings of inadequacy that may have negatively influenced their decision to teach in a bilingual setting. Yet the opportunity to ensure that future generations of Latinx students do not suffer what they did attracts them to the field of bilingual education.

Since schools serve linguistically and racially diverse students, it is imperative that they adopt policies and practices that validate HSS participants' home language and culture.

Pre-K-12 language classes, college coursework, and teacher preparation (not only bilingual but all teacher preparation) should address critical sociolinguistic concepts that explore the relationships between language, race, and ethnicity in education. Similar concepts should also be embedded in administrators' preparation if they are to effectively lead bilingual schools and support bilingual teachers' implementation of theoretically

grounded practice.

Understanding that every speaker of a language speaks a variety of that language, and that language varieties are not inherently "bad" or "good," could help heritage speakers view their home language as legitimate and potentially reduce the number of bilingual youth who steer away from the bilingual teaching profession due to concerns regarding their variety of Spanish.

State and national policies that support and incentivize bilinguals to become teachers are needed (Hopkins, 2013; Musanti, 2014; Ocasio, 2014); our goal should be to develop a self-sustaining ecosystem of multilingual future educators who legitimize students' home language practices so that those students might consider becoming bilingual teachers in the future.

Allison Briceño, EdD, is assistant professor in the Department of Teacher Education at San José State University, CA, where she coordinates the reading specialist credential/MA program. Dr. Briceño's research centers on improving literacy instruction for English learners and bilingual students.

Eduardo Muñoz-Muñoz, PhD, is affiliated facultyat San José State University. His current research projects focus on critical pedagogy and the development critical language awareness in (bilingual) teachers. He has engaged with districts in the design and implementation of dual-immersion programs and the support of emergent bilinguals.

Claudia Rodríguez-Mojica, PhD, is assistant professor of education and bilingual teacher education coordinator at Santa Clara University, CA. She has been working to improve the academic outcomes of emergent bilinguals for more than ten years.

For more information about this study, please see: Briceño, A., Rodriguez-Mojica, C., and Muñoz-Muñoz, E. (2018). "From English Learner to Spanish Learner: Raciolinguistic beliefs that influence heritage Spanish speaking teacher candidates." Language and Education, 32(3), 212-226. DOI: 10.1080/09500782.2018.1429464

Reoriented from the Multilingual Educator, March 2019, with permission from the California Association for Bilingual Education (CABE).

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The Bilingual Teacher Shortage: A Vicious Cycle - Language Magazine

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Allison Briceño, Eduardo Muñoz-Muñoz, and Claudia Rodríguez-Mojica present reasons and suggest solutions for the chronic shortage of Spanish/English educators in California It is an exciting time for bilingual education in California due to changing political tides and recent research. Proposition 58, which passed in November 2016 with 73% voter approval, repealed the limitations placed on bilingual [...]

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The second article I would like to highlight is Improving Academic Outcomes for Emergent Bilingual Students, published in Education Dive (2020). It can be summarized as follows:

The number of English language learners (ELLs) are rapidly increasing yet remain the lowest performing subgroup.

Spanish speakers makes up the majority of ELLs.

Bilingual education must be improved to provide equitable education for all.

ELLs have low academic success, a high dropout rate, and a lower college attendance rate.

Educators must take six steps 1.) embrace diversity, 2.) focus on academic achievement, 3.) identify long-term English learners, 4.) utilize technology, 5.) address the lack of qualified bilingual teachers, and 6.) view bilingualism as an asset.

Technology specifically creates an avenue to close the learning gaps between English and non-English speakers.

References

Education Dive (2020). Improving academic outcomes for emergent bilingual students. Retrieved from https://www.educationdive.com/spons/improving-academic-outcomes-for-emergent-bilingual-students/575137/

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In public schools throughout the US, the number of emergent bilinguals, or English language learners (ELLs), is growing at an increasing rate. By 2025, it's predicted that they will represent 25 percent of total enrollment. Yet despite this growth, emergent bilinguals remain the lowest-performing subgroup nationally.

There are five million emergent bilingual students in grades K-12, representing hundreds of primary languages, the vast majority of which are native Spanish speakers. Though the country has made significant strides toward the equitable and effective education of these students over the past several decades, the efficacy of these efforts has been less than what's needed.

As a result, the academic achievement and schooling outcomes for emergent bilinguals vary greatly. Taken as a subgroup of the K-12 population, emergent bilinguals have low achievement outcomes, high dropout rates, low college attendance rates, and even lower college graduation rates. Two factors contribute to this: teachers may not be adequately trained to support their emergent bilingual students, and emergent bilinguals tend to be concentrated in highly segregated, underfunded schools.

However, teachers and administrators can take six steps to improve academic outcomes for their emergent bilingual students: (1) embrace diversity; (2) focus on academic achievement; (3) identify long-term English learners; (4) accelerate learning with education technology, or EdTech; (5) address the ELL teacher deficit; and (6) recognize the bilingual advantage. For more details about each step, refer to the Rosetta Stone ® white paper, Six Steps Toward ELL Success.

The use of technology, in particular, has been shown to help emergent bilinguals and other diverse groups of students engage cognitively at high levels, generate knowledge, analyze issues, articulate realities, and achieve academically through expanded notions of what it means to be literate. Technology tools, then, can be used to promote equity in education, providing increased access to content for emergent bilinguals. These tools also allow for learning differences and differentiation in the ways that students can demonstrate learning and express what they know.

Through education technology, students can learn English at their own pace. As their pronunciation is guided by real-time aural feedback, their oral proficiency increases. Lesson content is reinforced in interactive games and activities that make learning fun and interesting, for better student engagement. And expanded access using technology enables emergent bilinguals to learn and practice at home as well as at school.

In addition to technology, recognizing the bilingual advantage can also help emergent bilinguals thrive. Encouraging and celebrating bilingualism benefits everyone, as it's an important requirement of college and career readiness in the twenty-first century global economy.

Emergent bilingual students succeed when teachers and administrators work together with parents and communities. Teachers can adapt curriculum and methods to accommodate emergent bilinguals in and out of the classroom, while administrators can allocate resources for teacher training tools to measure English language learning effectiveness.

Working together toward a common goal will go far toward changing prevailing learning outcomes and assisting emergent bilingual students in their quest to achieve academic success at the same rate as their English-proficient peers. Download the Rosetta Stone white paper, Six Steps Toward ELL Success, to learn more.

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Improving academic outcomes for emergent bilingual students

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In public schools throughout the US, the number of emergent bilinguals, or English language learners (ELLs), is growing at an increasing rate. By 2025, it's predicted that they will represent 25 percent of total enrollment. Yet despite this growth, emergent bilinguals remain the lowest-performing subgroup nationally.

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Source of Law: Constitutional Law

Name: Fourteenth Amendment

Citation: U.S. Const. amend. XIV.

Link: https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/amendment-14/
Summary

The fourteenth amendment ensures that all persons born or naturalized in the United States shall be protected from any law that deprives any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.

No law can deny equal protection under the law.

Future court cases clarified that the 14th amendment protected the individual right to public education as a property right.

This has led to the further interpretation that the prohibition of teaching foreign language in school violated the equal the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment.

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Fourteenth Amendment | Browse | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress

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The Constitution Annotated provides a legal analysis and interpretation of the United States Constitution based on a comprehensive review of Supreme Court case law.

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Source of Law: Judicial Law

Name: Lau v. Nichols, 1974

Citation: Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974).

Link: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep414/usrep414563/usrep414563.pdf
Summary

The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that a lack of bilingual education for non-English dominate speakers violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Court determined that schools needed to provide meaningful education through sufficient education programs.

The decision effectively eliminated the “sink or swim” policy that was dominate at the time which pushed all students into English only instruction.

The decision resulted in new federal education laws being passed to overcome language barriers and to create an environment that promoted equitable learning for all.

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Source of Law: Statutory Law

Name: Bilingual Education Act of 1968

Citation: Bilingual Education Act of 1968, 81 Stat. § 816 (1968).

Link: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg783.pdf#page=32
Summary

Also known as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Amendments of 1967.

It was the first piece of federal legislation that specifically recognized non-English or limited English speakers and the need to provide them with equitable education.

Passed during the Lyndon B. Johnson administration.

Offered federal funds for the purpose of bilingual education programs. Previously only certain states like California and Texas had begun to utilize such programs.

The bill was envisioned as a way to curb the poor performance and dropout rates in schools with higher non-English speaking populations.

Specifically attempted to eliminate the “psychological harmful” English only policies, no Spanish rules, and cultural assimilation.

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Source of Law: Administrative Law

Name: Bilingual Education Program Content and Design

Citation: Program Content and Design, 19. Tex. Admin. Code § 89.1210

Link: https://texreg.sos.state.tx.us/public/readtac$ext.TacPage?sl=R&app=9&p_dir=&p_rloc=&p_tloc=&p_ploc=&pg=1&p_tac=&ti=19&pt=2&ch=89&rl=1210
Summary

Determined that every Texas school offer a bilingual education program.

The program must be overseen by a language proficiency assessment committee.

Resources and instruction must be tailored to serve English learners.

The program must be offered full time.

Educators must recognize and address language differences.

English learners shall be taught using second language acquisition methods along with their primary language.

All instruction shall be made available in English and in the students’ primary language to ensure mastery of subject material.

A school must offer transitional bilingual education, dual language immersion, or a quality ESL program.

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(a) Each school district required to offer a bilingual education or English as a second language (ESL) program shall provide each emergent bilingual student the opportunity to be enrolled in the required program at his or her grade level. Each student's level of proficiency shall be designated by the language proficiency assessment committee (LPAC) in accordance with §89.1220(g) of this title (relating to Language Proficiency Assessment Committee). The school district shall accommodate the instruction, pacing, and materials to ensure that emergent bilingual students have a full opportunity to master the essential knowledge and skills of the required curriculum, which includes the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) and English language proficiency standards (ELPS). Students participating in the bilingual education program may demonstrate their mastery of the essential knowledge and skills in either their primary language or in English for each content area. (1) A bilingual education program of instruction established by a school district shall be a full-time program of dual-language instruction (English and primary language) that provides for learning academic and literacy skills in the primary language of the students enrolled in the program and for carefully structured and sequenced mastery of English language skills under Texas Education Code (TEC), §29.055(a). (2) An ESL program of instruction established by a school district shall be a program of intensive instruction in English in which ESL teachers recognize and address language differences in accordance with TEC, §29.055(a). (b) The bilingual education program and ESL program shall be integral parts of the general educational program required under Chapter 74 of this title (relating to Curriculum Requirements) to include foundation and enrichment areas, ELPS, and college and career readiness standards. In bilingual education programs, school districts shall purchase instructional materials in both program languages with the district's instructional materials allotment or otherwise acquire instructional materials for use in bilingual education classes in accordance with TEC, §31.029(a). Instructional materials for bilingual education programs on the list adopted by the commissioner of education, as provided by TEC, §31.0231, may be used as curriculum tools to enhance the learning process. The school district shall provide for ongoing coordination between the bilingual/ESL program and the general educational program. The bilingual education and ESL programs shall address the affective, linguistic, and cognitive needs of emergent bilingual students as follows. (1) Affective. (A) Emergent bilingual students in a bilingual program shall be provided instruction using content-based language instructional methods and/or their primary language to acclimate students to the school environment and to develop academic language skills, which instills confidence, self-assurance, and a positive identity with their cultural heritages. The program shall be designed to consider the students' learning experiences and shall incorporate the cultural aspects of the students' backgrounds in accordance with TEC, §29.055(b). (B) Emergent bilingual students in an ESL program shall be provided instruction using content-based language instructional methods in English to acclimate students to the school environment and to develop academic language skills, which instills confidence, self-assurance, and a positive identity with their cultural heritages. The program shall be designed to incorporate the students' primary languages and learning experiences and shall incorporate the cultural aspects of the students' backgrounds in accordance with TEC, §29.055(b). (2) Linguistic. (A) Emergent bilingual students in a bilingual program shall be provided targeted and intentional academic language instruction to develop proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing in both English and their primary language. The instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects, providing individualized linguistically accommodated content instruction commensurate with the students' language proficiency levels. The ELPS student expectations are provided for English development in conjunction with the TEKS. (B) Emergent bilingual students in an ESL program shall be provided targeted and intentional academic language instruction to develop proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing in the English language. The instruction in academic content areas shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects, providing individualized linguistically accommodated content instruction commensurate with the students' language proficiency levels. The ELPS student expectations are provided for English development in conjunction with the TEKS. (3) Cognitive. (A) Emergent bilingual students in a bilingual program shall be provided instruction in reading and language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies in both their primary language and English, using content-based language instructional methods in either their primary language, English, or both, depending on the program model(s) implemented by the district. The content area instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects. (B) Emergent bilingual students in an ESL program shall be provided instruction in English in reading and language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies using content-based language instructional methods. The instruction in academic content areas shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills. (c) The bilingual education program shall be implemented through at least one of the following program models. (1) Transitional bilingual/early exit is a bilingual program model in which students identified as emergent bilingual students are served in both English and the students' primary language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria to be successful in English instruction with no second language acquisition supports not earlier than two or later than five years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction in this program is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061(b)(1), for the assigned grade level and content area. The goal of early-exit transitional bilingual education is for program participants to use their primary language as a resource while acquiring full proficiency in English. This model provides instruction in literacy and academic content through the medium of the students' primary language and English using content-based language instruction methods. (2) Transitional bilingual/late exit is a bilingual program model in which students identified as emergent bilingual students are served in both English and the students' primary language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria to be successful in English instruction with no second language acquisition supports not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction in this program is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061(b)(2), for the assigned grade level and content area. The goal of late-exit transitional bilingual education is for program participants to use their primary language as a resource while acquiring full proficiency in English. This model provides instruction in literacy and academic content through the medium of the students' primary language and English through content-based language instruction. (3) Dual language immersion/one-way is a bilingual/biliteracy program model in which students identified as emergent bilingual students are served in both English and the program's partner language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria in order to be successful in English instruction with no second language acquisition supports not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction provided in the partner language and English is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061. When the instructional time for both the partner language and English is 50%, a paired-teaching arrangement may be utilized in which instruction provided in English may be delivered either by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education or by a different teacher certified in ESL in accordance with TEC, §29.061. The goal of one-way dual language immersion is for program participants to attain bilingualism and biliteracy in English and the partner language. This model provides ongoing instruction in literacy and academic content through content-based language instruction in English as well as the students' primary language, with at least half of the instruction delivered in the students' primary language for the duration of the program. (4) Dual language immersion/two-way is a bilingual/biliteracy program model in which students identified as emergent bilingual students are integrated with non-emergent bilingual students and are served in both English and the program's partner language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria in order to be successful in English instruction with no second language acquisition supports not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction provided in English and the partner language is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061. When the instructional time for both the partner language and English is 50%, a paired-teaching arrangement may be utilized in which instruction provided in English may be delivered either by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education or by a different teacher certified in ESL in accordance with TEC, §29.061. The goal of two-way dual language immersion is for program participants to attain bilingualism and biliteracy in English as well as the partner language. This model provides ongoing instruction in literacy and academic content through content-based language instruction in English and the partner language with at least half of the instruction delivered in the partner language for the duration of the program. (d) The ESL program shall be implemented through one of the following program models. (1) An ESL/content-based program model is an English acquisition program that serves students identified as emergent bilingual students through English instruction provided by a teacher appropriately certified in ESL under TEC, §29.061(c), using content-based language instruction methods in reading and language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. The goal of content-based ESL is for emergent bilingual students to attain full proficiency in English in order to participate equitably in school. (2) An ESL/pull-out program model is an English acquisition program that serves students identified as emergent bilingual students through English instruction using content-based language instruction methods provided by an appropriately certified ESL teacher under TEC, §29.061(c), through English reading and language arts in a pull-out or inclusionary delivery setting. The goal of ESL pull-out is for emergent bilingual students to attain full proficiency in English in order to participate equitably in school. (e) Except in the courses specified in subsection (f) of this section, content-based language instructional methods, which may involve the use of the students' primary language, may be provided in any of the courses or electives required for promotion or graduation to assist students identified as emergent bilingual students to master the essential knowledge and skills for the required subject(s). The use of content-based language instruction shall not impede the awarding of credit toward meeting promotion or graduation requirements. (f) In subjects such as art, music, and physical education, emergent bilingual students shall participate with their non-emergent bilingual peers in general education classes provided in the subjects. As noted in TEC, §29.055(d), elective courses included in the curriculum may be taught in a partner language. The school district shall ensure that emergent bilingual students enrolled in bilingual education and ESL programs have a meaningful opportunity to participate with non-emergent bilingual peers in all extracurricular activities. (g) The required bilingual education or ESL program shall be provided to every emergent bilingual student with parental approval until such time that the student meets reclassification criteria as described in §89.1226(i) of this title (relating to Testing and Classification of Students) or graduates from high school. Parental approval is required when the LPAC recommends continued dual language immersion program participation beyond reclassification.

Source Note: The provisions of this §89.1210 adopted to be effective September 1, 1996, 21 TexReg 5700; amended to be effective March 5, 1999, 24 TexReg 1383; amended to be effective April 18, 2002, 27 TexReg 3105; amended to be effective May 28, 2012, 37 TexReg 3822; amended to be effective July 15, 2018, 43 TexReg 4731; amended to be effective April 14, 2020, 45 TexReg 2415; amended to be effective August 9, 2023, 48 TexReg 4247

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(a) Each school district required to offer a bilingual education or English as a second language (ESL) program shall provide each emergent bilingual student the opportunity to be enrolled in the required program at his or her grade level.

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Padlet Slide #10 Local Administrative Law/Policy/Rule

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Padlet Slide #10 Local Administrative Law/Policy/Rule

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In the Elma E. Barrera Elementary Student Handbook (2020/2021). It outlines that bilingual students are offered special programs within the district. The district recognizes that English learners can also face additional challenges such as homelessness, being in foster care, being migrants, have dyslexia, or could be disabled. All students or parents should contact the campus principal to discuss specific services and solutions for the student in question.

References

Elma E. Barrera Elementary Student Handbook (2020-2021). Retrieved from https://4.files.edl.io/a6a4/09/14/20/174921-0cc5b49f-92e3-4eed-b2e5-6e193f579d89.pdf

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In the Texas Educators’ Code of Ethics (1998) it states that, “The educator shall not exclude a student from participation in a program, deny benefits to a student, or grant an advantage to a student on the basis of race, color, gender, disability, national origin, religion, family status, or sexual orientation.” Many of the English learners that are impacted by poor bilingual programs are students whose family is of another race and nationality. It is important that schools and educators create instructional programs that create equitable learning experiences for all students.

References

Code of Ethics and Standard Practices for Texas Educators, 19. Tex. Admin. Code §247.2. Retrieved from https://texreg.sos.state.tx.us/public/readtac$ext.TacPage?sl=R&app=9&p_dir=&p_rloc=&p_tloc=&p_ploc=&pg=1&p_tac=&ti=19&pt=7&ch=247&rl=2

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The Educators' Code of Ethics is set forth in Texas Administrative Code to provide rules for standard practices and ethical conduct toward students, professional colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community.

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The Educators' Code of Ethics is set forth in Texas Administrative Code to provide rules for standard practices and ethical conduct toward students, professional colleagues, school officials, parents, and members of the community.

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In a scholarly article written by Steven May (2017) titled Bilingual Education: What the Research Tells Us. May argues that the term bilingual education is too generic. Bilingual education can be subdivided into three basic models: Transitional, Maintenance, and Enrichment (Dual Immersion). May comes to the conclusion that transitional bilingual education is the least effective method and that the enrichment model that focuses on long term multilingual development for all students is the superior method.

References

May, S. (2017). Bilingual education: What the research tells us. Bilingual & Multilingual Education (pp. 81-100). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_4.

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Stephen May

Part of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education book series (ELE)

Abstract

This chapter explores key research findings about bilingual education and the related efficacy of various approaches to teaching bilingual students. Its principal focus is on the research to date on the most common forms of bilingual education. This research consistently supports the efficacy of bilingual education, particularly when it is predicated on additive bilingual principles. Even so, ongoing public opposition to bilingual education, often highly misinformed, remains strong. The chapter also examines recent research around the notions of "dynamic bilingualism" and "translanguaging," along with their pedagogical implications for existing bilingual programs.

Keywords

Additive bilingualism Biliteracy Bilingual programs Dynamic bilingualism Enrichment bilingual programs Heritage/indigenous programs Immersion programs Linguistic interdependence Maintenance bilingual programs Subtractive bilingualism Transitional bilingual programs

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References

1. Hornberger, N. (2008). Can Schools Save Indigenous Languages?. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

2. May, S., & Dam, L. (2014). Bilingual education and bilingualism. Oxford bibliographies. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0109.xml .

3. May, S., Hill, R., & Tiakiwai, S. (2004). Bilingual/immersion education: Indicators of good practice. Final Report to the Ministry of Education. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/pasifika/5079 .

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Bilingual Education: What the Research Tells Us

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Stephen May Part of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education book series (ELE) This chapter explores key research findings about bilingual education and the related efficacy of various approaches to teaching bilingual students. Its principal focus is on the research to date on the most common forms of bilingual education.

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Padlet Slide #13 Bulleted list of Recommendations / Best Practices for Compliance

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Padlet Slide #13 Bulleted list of Recommendations / Best Practices for Compliance

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In order to remain compliant and to excel in providing bilingual education programs please review the following recommendations:

Embrace Diversity. All students trends suggest that English learners will continue to be the fastest growing student population.

Identify long-term English learners. Creating programs that provide long-term bilingual instruction should assist in the maintenance of cultural heritage and prevent complete cultural assimilation.

Schools must address the lack of bilingual teachers and work with higher education institutions to push for teachers with bilingual training.

Utilize technology. Technology is rapidly advancing and new software programs offer new and unique teaching methodologies that can assist in teaching pedagogies and help overcome the lack of qualified bilingual teachers.

Educators must view bilingualism and multilingualism as an asset in an increasingly globalized world. Knowing multiple languages will give American students an advantage over other countries.

Schools should attempt to transition away from the traditional transitional bilingual education programs and adopt a dual immersion program that fosters a diverse environment geared to encourage multilingualism.

Any bilingual program offered by a school must ensure that all students receive the same quality of education. An English learner must be taught in their native tongue to if needed to ensure mastery of all subject materials.

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(a) Each school district required to offer a bilingual education or English as a second language (ESL) program shall provide each English learner the opportunity to be enrolled in the required program at his or her grade level. Each student's level of proficiency shall be designated by the language proficiency assessment committee in accordance with §89.1220(g) of this title (relating to Language Proficiency Assessment Committee). The school district shall accommodate the instruction, pacing, and materials to ensure that English learners have a full opportunity to master the essential knowledge and skills of the required curriculum, which includes the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills and English language proficiency standards (ELPS). Students participating in the bilingual education program may demonstrate their mastery of the essential knowledge and skills in either their primary language or in English for each content area. (1) A bilingual education program of instruction established by a school district shall be a full-time program of dual-language instruction (English and primary language) that provides for learning basic skills in the primary language of the students enrolled in the program and for carefully structured and sequenced mastery of English language skills under Texas Education Code (TEC), §29.055(a). (2) An ESL program of instruction established by a school district shall be a program of intensive instruction in English in which ESL teachers recognize and address language differences in accordance with TEC, §29.055(a). (b) The bilingual education program and ESL program shall be integral parts of the general educational program required under Chapter 74 of this title (relating to Curriculum Requirements) to include foundation and enrichment areas, ELPS, and college and career readiness standards. In bilingual education programs, school districts shall purchase instructional materials in both program languages with the district's instructional materials allotment or otherwise acquire instructional materials for use in bilingual education classes in accordance with TEC, §31.029(a). Instructional materials for bilingual education programs on the list adopted by the commissioner of education, as provided by TEC, §31.0231, may be used as curriculum tools to enhance the learning process. The school district shall provide for ongoing coordination between the bilingual/ESL program and the general educational program. The bilingual education and ESL programs shall address the affective, linguistic, and cognitive needs of English learners as follows. (1) Affective. (A) English learners in a bilingual program shall be provided instruction using second language acquisition methods and/or their primary language to introduce basic concepts of the school environment, and content instruction both in their primary language and in English, which instills confidence, self-assurance, and a positive identity with their cultural heritages. The program shall be designed to consider the students' learning experiences and shall incorporate the cultural aspects of the students' backgrounds in accordance with TEC, §29.055(b). (B) English learners in an ESL program shall be provided instruction using second language acquisition methods in English to introduce basic concepts of the school environment, which instills confidence, self-assurance, and a positive identity with their cultural heritages. The program shall be designed to incorporate the students' primary languages and learning experiences and shall incorporate the cultural aspects of the students' backgrounds in accordance with TEC, §29.055(b). (2) Linguistic. (A) English learners in a bilingual program shall be provided intensive instruction in the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing both in their primary language and in English, provided through the ELPS. The instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects. (B) English learners in an ESL program shall be provided intensive instruction to develop proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing in the English language, provided through the ELPS. The instruction in academic content areas shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects. (3) Cognitive. (A) English learners in a bilingual program shall be provided instruction in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies both in their primary language and in English, using second language acquisition methods in either their primary language, in English, or in both, depending on the specific program model(s) implemented by the district. The content area instruction in both languages shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills in all subjects. (B) English learners in an ESL program shall be provided instruction in English in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies using second language acquisition methods. The instruction in academic content areas shall be structured to ensure that the students master the required essential knowledge and skills and higher-order thinking skills. (c) The bilingual education program shall be implemented through at least one of the following program models. (1) Transitional bilingual/early exit is a bilingual program model in which students identified as English learners are served in both English and another language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria to be successful in English-only instruction not earlier than two or later than five years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction in this program is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061(b)(1), for the assigned grade level and content area. The goal of early-exit transitional bilingual education is for program participants to use their primary language as a resource while acquiring full proficiency in English. This model provides instruction in literacy and academic content through the medium of the students' primary language along with instruction in English that targets second language development through academic content. (2) Transitional bilingual/late exit is a bilingual program model in which students identified as English learners are served in both English and another language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria to be successful in English-only instruction not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction in this program is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061(b)(2), for the assigned grade level and content area. The goal of late-exit transitional bilingual education is for program participants to use their primary language as a resource while acquiring full proficiency in English. This model provides instruction in literacy and academic content through the medium of the students' primary language along with instruction in English that targets second language development through academic content. (3) Dual language immersion/one-way is a bilingual/biliteracy program model in which students identified as English learners are served in both English and another language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria in order to be successful in English-only instruction not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction provided in a language other than English in this program model is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061. Instruction provided in English in this program model may be delivered either by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education or by a different teacher certified in ESL in accordance with TEC, §29.061. The goal of one-way dual language immersion is for program participants to attain full proficiency in another language as well as English. This model provides ongoing instruction in literacy and academic content in the students' primary language as well as English, with at least half of the instruction delivered in the students' primary language for the duration of the program. (4) Dual language immersion/two-way is a bilingual/biliteracy program model in which students identified as English learners are integrated with students proficient in English and are served in both English and another language and are prepared to meet reclassification criteria in order to be successful in English-only instruction not earlier than six or later than seven years after the student enrolls in school. Instruction provided in a language other than English in this program model is delivered by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education under TEC, §29.061, for the assigned grade level and content area. Instruction provided in English in this program model may be delivered either by a teacher appropriately certified in bilingual education or by a different teacher certified in ESL in accordance with TEC, §29.061, for the assigned grade level and content area. The goal of two-way dual language immersion is for program participants to attain full proficiency in another language as well as English. This model provides ongoing instruction in literacy and academic content in English and another language with at least half of the instruction delivered in the non-English program language for the duration of the program. (d) The ESL program shall be implemented through one of the following program models. (1) An ESL/content-based program model is an English acquisition program that serves students identified as English learners through English instruction by a teacher appropriately certified in ESL under TEC, §29.061(c), through English language arts and reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. The goal of content-based ESL is for English learners to attain full proficiency in English in order to participate equitably in school. This model targets English language development through academic content instruction that is linguistically and culturally responsive in English language arts and reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. (2) An ESL/pull-out program model is an English acquisition program that serves students identified as English learners through English instruction provided by an appropriately certified ESL teacher under the TEC, §29.061(c), through English language arts and reading. The goal of ESL pull-out is for English learners to attain full proficiency in English in order to participate equitably in school. This model targets English language development through academic content instruction that is linguistically and culturally responsive in English language arts and reading. Instruction shall be provided by the ESL teacher in a pull-out or inclusionary delivery model. (e) Except in the courses specified in subsection (f) of this section, second language acquisition methods, which may involve the use of the students' primary language, may be provided in any of the courses or electives required for promotion or graduation to assist the English learners to master the essential knowledge and skills for the required subject(s). The use of second language acquisition methods shall not impede the awarding of credit toward meeting promotion or graduation requirements. (f) In subjects such as art, music, and physical education, English learners shall participate with their English-speaking peers in general education classes provided in the subjects. As noted in TEC, §29.055(d), elective courses included in the curriculum may be taught in a language other than English. The school district shall ensure that students enrolled in bilingual education and ESL programs have a meaningful opportunity to participate with other students in all extracurricular activities. (g) The required bilingual education or ESL program shall be provided to every English learner with parental approval until such time that the student meets reclassification criteria as described in §89.1226(i) of this title (relating to Testing and Classification of Students) or graduates from high school.

Source Note: The provisions of this §89.1210 adopted to be effective September 1, 1996, 21 TexReg 5700; amended to be effective March 5, 1999, 24 TexReg 1383; amended to be effective April 18, 2002, 27 TexReg 3105; amended to be effective May 28, 2012, 37 TexReg 3822; amended to be effective July 15, 2018, 43 TexReg 4731; amended to be effective April 14, 2020, 45 TexReg 2415

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(a) Each school district required to offer a bilingual education or English as a second language (ESL) program shall provide each English learner the opportunity to be enrolled in the required program at his or her grade level.