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A mother has an extremely deep impact on her children. The way she raises (or fails to properly raise) her children and the environment and example she sets for them all contribute strongly to how they will act in adulthood.

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A mother often has to make countless sacrifices and put her child above what she wants. Selfishness in motherhood makes it impossible for either the child or the mother to have some sort of happiness. But at the same time how much sacrifice should a mother make, especially when it comes to the topic of mental health. (Lena)

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If motherly love is a byproduct of human evolution, is there such thing as too much? From an biological perspective, it would make sense for mothers to constantly watch their children for the fear that they will not be able to pass on their genes. Even from a social perspective, many cultures value the importance of your parents in your everyday life. However, this becomes an issue when love transitions into control. The most important thing for children, more specifically teenagers, is not for the parent to be watching their child's every move, but rather to function as a safety net to protect them when they ask for help.

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A relationship is two sided, so a mother can do all she can to help nurture a child in the best possible way, but if they don't respond, regardless of how the mother acts, it's possible that the mother and child will not have a good relationship. (sk)

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Motherhood is at once a relationship, a social construct, a full-time job and an identity. An estimated 85% of women have birthed a child (1), making motherhood, or at least the thought of it, a prevalent part of life for most women.

In popular culture, expectations of motherhood are often based on the ideologies of middle class white women. Mothers are often viewed as "competent" and "warm" and are admired for these traits (2). Mothers on TV and film sacrifice everything to nurture their child/ren. But this narrative isn't representative of all types of mothers. Every experience of motherhood is unique, meaning something different to each person.

Let's take a look at some of the more unconventional aspects of motherhood that you probably don't see in the media.

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Motherhood isn't always biological

It's true that there is an intersection of motherhood with female biology. Human reproduction requires genetic material from a person with XX chromosomes and genetic material from a person with XY chromosomes to make an embryo (3). Certain anatomy and physiology is then required to maintain a pregnancy and birth a newborn (3). After birth, specific hormones influence how parents bond with their children (4). While certain biological processes are needed to create an infant, none of these processes are required to make a mother.

Mothers earn the title in many ways that aren't biological. The tasks and duties of mothers are often carried out by the people who didn't physically create them. Around 10% of children are parented by their grandparents, and about 3% of children are parented by other family members (5). Over 100,000 children in the USA are adopted each year (6). About 16% of kids in the USA live with a stepparent, stepsibling, or half sibling (7). In the UK, almost 60,000 children live with foster parents who aren't biologically related to them (8). Millions of children worldwide have been born using assisted reproductive technology, some of which includes the use of donor eggs and sperm (9). Men can be mothers, too (10). Transgender men and other gender non-conforming people can become pregnant and birth a child, and have many of the same parenting desires as cisgender mothers (11).

Motherhood requires love and a dedication to be responsible for a child - most moms will tell you that the origin of a child's DNA is not important.

Not every woman wants to be a mother

Some people simply don't feel a pull toward motherhood. Others want to focus on other priorities. Academic achievement and participation in the workforce are two of the main reasons why women choose not to become a mother (12, 13). About 13% of women who are childless by ages 40-44 report that the decision was voluntary (14). In all age groups, about 6% of women are voluntarily childless (1). Motherhood just isn't for everyone and although being childfree by choice can be empowering, childfree people are often viewed as selfish or materialistic and stigmatized for their choice (2).

For women who are mothers, maternal regret is a taboo subject, but it's important to know that some women regret their choice to become a parent. Some women find the path to motherhood without their consent, either through rape, coercion, or lack of access to abortion. Other women who willingly pursue motherhood grow to regret their choice when they find the social promises of motherhood are unfulfilled (15).

Not every woman is able to be a mother

Some people make the purposeful choice to opt-in to motherhood, but they find themselves unable to become a parent or maintain parenthood. This can occur due to inability to conceive, death of a child, loss of stepchildren to divorce, loss of custody, and loss of ability to parent. It's hard to find up-to-date data, but one estimate from 2002 suggested that about 3% of all women were involuntarily childless (16).

Data likely poorly reflects how many women and people with cycles want to be parents but cannot be, for whatever reason. We do know that roughly 1 in 100 fetuses die from stillbirth (17) and an estimated 186 million people worldwide live with infertility (18). For political, financial, and environmental reasons, some people feel becoming a parent is impossible. Unemployment, underemployment, and unstable housing leaves many people delaying the transition to parenthood or avoiding it altogether (19).

Making space for mothers

There are many paths to motherhood, and none of them are smooth. The transition to motherhood is a beautiful, transformative time for some people, but for about 20-25% of women, perinatal depression and other mood disorders make pregnancy and postpartum a scary and threatening time (20). Traditional gender roles and gender inequities make motherhood difficult (and cause some people to delay or avoid motherhood) (19). In the USA and UK, systemic racism within the obstetric system means that Black mothers have higher rates of complications during and after pregnancy, including death (21). In the USA, pregnancy-related death is at least three times higher for Black, Native American, and Alaska Native women (22). Globally, migrant and ethnic minority women are less likely to experience optimal maternal care (23).

Although mothers need social support from their friends, families, and communities (24), busy schedules and lack of structured support systems leaves many mothers without the necessary support. When mothers are well supported, they are less likely to experience postpartum depression (25), and more likely to stop the intergenerational cycle of child abuse (26). Infants of well supported mothers are more likely to meet cognitive developmental milestones (27).

Celebrating moms comes down to a lot more than sending cards on Mother's Day. Making space for mothers includes policy change that makes the path to parenthood less dangerous, including legislation to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. Motherhood should be less financially dangerous, as well. The financial costs of motherhood include lost wages and lost retirement in addition to childcare costs. It also includes making space for mothers of all genders -LGBTQ parents are underrepresented in the current dialogue that surrounds mothering (28).

The motherhood narrative that says all mothers are ready and able to sacrifice everything for their children isn't inclusive of people who have varying needs and desires. Changing how we talk about motherhood can make space for all moms - the moms who choose not to breastfeed, the moms who are depressed, the moms who had scary pregnancies, the moms who don't have partners, and the moms who are moms even though it wasn't really their choice. Motherhood is never easy, or simple, and while it's hard to make sense of all of its complexities, making space for all moms can make the path a little bit easier.

Clue is working to make space for all moms on our Pregnancy Feature.

If you are pregnant or postpartum, you can access it by changing your life stage in the app. Click on the three dots next to Your current cycle to see where to change it. You can find more about pregnancy and the Pregnancy Feature on our Instagram.

References

1. Martinez GM, Daniels K, Febo-Vazquez I. Fertility of Men and Women Aged 15-44 in the United States: National Survey of Family Growth, 2011-2015. Natl Health Stat Report. 2018 Jul;(113):1-17.

2. Bays A. Perceptions, Emotions, and Behaviors toward Women Based on Parental Status. Sex Roles. 2017 Feb;76(3-4):138-55

3. Cunningham FG, editor. Williams obstetrics. 25th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2018. P 89.

4. Scatliffe N, Casavant S, Vittner D, Cong X. Oxytocin and early parent-infant interactions: A systematic review. Int J Nurs Sci. 2019;6(4):445-453. Published 2019 Sep 12. doi:10.1016/j.ijnss.2019.09.009

5. AARP Foundation. GrandFacts: National fact sheet for grandparents and other relatives raising children [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/relationships/friends-family/grandfacts/grandfacts-national.pdf

6. Child Welfare Information Gateway. Trends in U.S. Adoptions: 2008-2012 [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/adopted0812.pdf

7. Pew Research Center. Parenting in America [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2015/12/17/1-the-american-family-today/

8. CoramBAAF-Adoption and Fostering Academy . Statistics:England. [Internet]. 2020. Available from : https://corambaaf.org.uk/fostering-adoption/looked-after-children-statistics/statistics-england#:~:text=During%20year%20ending%2031%20March,partnership%2C%20married%20or%20neither

9. International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology (ICMART):, de Mouzon J, Lancaster P, Nygren KG, Sullivan E, Zegers-Hochschild F, Mansour R, Ishihara O, Adamson D. World collaborative report on assisted reproductive technology, 2002. Human Reproduction. 2009 Sep 1;24(9):2310-20.

10. Obedin-Maliver J, Makadon HJ. Transgender men and pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2016 Mar;9(1):4-8.

11. Hoffkling A, Obedin-Maliver J, Sevelius J. From erasure to opportunity: a qualitative study of the experiences of transgender men around pregnancy and recommendations for providers. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2017 Nov;17(S2):332.

12. Lundquist, J. H., Budig, M. J., & Curtis, A. (2009). Race and childlessness in America, 1988-2002. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 741-755.

13. Gubernskaya, Z. (2010). Changing attitudes toward marriage and children in six countries. Sociological Perspectives, 53, 179-200.

14. Pew Research Center. Childlessness [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2015/05/07/childlessness

15. Donath O. Regretting Motherhood: A Sociopolitical Analysis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 2015 Jan;40(2):343-67.

16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Fertility, Family Planning, and Reproductive Health of U.S. Women: Data From the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth [ Internet]. 2005. Available from : https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_025.pdf

17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Pregnancy and Infant Loss [Internet]. 2020. Available from : https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/stillbirth/features/pregnancy-infant-loss.html

18. World Health Organization (WHO). Infertility [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/infertility

19. Mills M, Rindfuss RR, McDonald P, te Velde E, on behalf of the ESHRE Reproduction and Society Task Force. Why do people postpone parenthood? Reasons and social policy incentives. Human Reproduction Update. 2011 Nov 1;17(6):848-60.

20. National and Perinatal Association. Perinatal Mood and Anxiety Disorders [Internet]. 2018. Avaiable from: http://www.nationalperinatal.org/resources/Documents/Position%20Papers/2018%20Position%20Statement%20PMADs_NPA.pdf.

21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Racial and Ethnic Disparities Continue in Pregnancy-Related Deaths [Internet].2019. Avaiable from: https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2019/p0905-racial-ethnic-disparities-pregnancy-deaths.html

22. Anekwe L. Ethnic disparities in maternal care. BMJ. 2020 Feb 12;m442.

23. De Freitas C, Massag J, Amorim M, Fraga S. Involvement in maternal care by migrants and ethnic minorities: a narrative review. Public Health Rev. 2020 Dec;41(1):5.

24. Borjesson B, Paperin C, Lindell M. Maternal support during the first year of infancy. J Adv Nurs. 2004 Mar;45(6):588-94.

25. Tani F, Castagna V. Maternal social support, quality of birth experience, and post-partum depression in primiparous women. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 2017 Mar 19;30(6):689-92.

26. Tracy M, Salo M, Appleton AA. The mitigating effects of maternal social support and paternal involvement on the intergenerational transmission of violence. Child Abuse Negl. 2018 Apr;78:46-59

27. Shin EK, LeWinn K, Bush N, Tylavsky FA, Davis RL, Shaban-Nejad A. Association of Maternal Social Relationships With Cognitive Development in Early Childhood. JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Jan 11;2(1):e186963.

28. Darwin Z, Greenfield M. Mothers and others: The invisibility of LGBTQ people in reproductive and infant psychology. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 2019 Aug 8;37(4):341-3.

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What does it mean to be a mom? Well, it's complicated.

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Motherhood is at once a relationship, a social construct, a full-time job and an identity. An estimated 85% of women have birthed a child (1), making motherhood, or at least the thought of it, a prevalent part of life for most women.

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Snow White and Evil Queen (Snow White) ex. jealous, controlling, manipulative mother

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Snow White and Evil Queen (Snow White) ex. jealous, controlling, manipulative mother

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Motherhood can’t be defined because humans aren’t constant.

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Motherhood can’t be defined because humans aren’t constant.

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How much motherly love/control is too much?

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How much motherly love/control is too much?

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You can be a good mother and do bad things, no one is perfect

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You can be a good mother and do bad things, no one is perfect

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There is no conventional form of motherhood, you can be a good and bad mother in infinite ways

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There is no conventional form of motherhood, you can be a good and bad mother in infinite ways

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Can you be a good mother and have a bad relationship with your kids?

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Can you be a good mother and have a bad relationship with your kids?

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Elastigirl (Incredibles)- ex. protective mother

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Elastigirl (Incredibles)- ex. protective mother

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At what point, if any, do parents need to step into their kids' lives and take control?

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At what point, if any, do parents need to step into their kids' lives and take control?

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If Leonie knows that she isn’t doing her best as a mother, why does she feel as though she can’t improve?

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If Leonie knows that she isn’t doing her best as a mother, why does she feel as though she can’t improve?

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Mother Gothel and Rapunzel (Tangled) ex. unhealthy relationship

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Mother Gothel and Rapunzel (Tangled) ex. unhealthy relationship

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What strong of an impact does a mother have on her children?

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What strong of an impact does a mother have on her children?

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Donna and Sophie (Mama Mia)  - ex. good relationship

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Donna and Sophie (Mama Mia)  - ex. good relationship

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Why does this matter to us as humans in real life?

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Why does this matter to us as humans in real life?

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Every person is affected by presence or lack of motherhood

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Where is the line drawn between simple biological motherhood and being a true maternal figure?

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Where is the line drawn between simple biological motherhood and being a true maternal figure?