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2000 B.C.  -  The Minoans were an early civilization with artifacts dating over 40 centuries ago on the island of Crete (located in the Mediterranean). 

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2000 B.C.  -  The Minoans were an early civilization with artifacts dating over 40 centuries ago on the island of Crete (located in the Mediterranean). 

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Around this time, the Cretan and Minoan people roamed the island of Crete. This civilization developed rapidly, developing a writing system within the first few centuries. This island culture was also very involved in trade, interconnecting the people of the large island. The Minoans were also great artists, creating a wide variety of pots and containers. This was truly a developed and advanced ancient culture. Although the island was abandoned by the Minoans around 1700 B.C. (within their first 300 years), the island was later reached by the Ancient Greeks.

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The Minoan civilization flourished in the Middle Bronze Age on the island of Crete located in the eastern Mediterranean from c. 2000 BCE until c. 1500 BCE. With their unique art and architecture, and the spread of their ideas through contact with other cultures across the Aegean, the Minoans made a significant contribution to the development of Western European civilization as it is known today. Labyrinth-like palace complexes, vivid frescoes depicting scenes such as bull-leaping and processions, fine gold jewellery, elegant stone vases, and pottery with vibrant decorations of marine life are all particular features of Minoan Crete.

Arthur Evans & Discovery

The archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans was first alerted to the possible presence of an ancient civilization on Crete by surviving carved seal stones worn as charms by native Cretans in the early 20th century CE. Excavating at Knossos from 1900 to 1905 CE, Evans discovered extensive ruins which confirmed the ancient accounts, both literary and mythological, of a sophisticated Cretan culture and possible site of the legendary labyrinth and palace of King Minos. It was Evans who coined the term Minoan in reference to this legendary Bronze Age king. Evans, seeing what he believed to be the growth and decline of a unified culture on Crete, divided the island's Bronze Age into three distinct phases largely based on different pottery styles:

Early Bronze Age or Early Minoan (EM): 3000-2100 BCE

Middle Bronze Age or Middle Minoan (MM): 2100-1600 BCE

Late Bronze Age or Late Minoan (LM): 1600-1100 BCE

The above divisions were subsequently refined by adding numbered subphases to each group (e.g. MM II). Radio-carbon dating and tree-ring calibration techniques have helped to further refine the dates so that the Early Bronze Age now begins c. 3500 BCE and the Late Bronze Age c. 1700 BCE. An alternative to this series of divisions, created by Platon, instead focuses on the events occurring in and around the major Minoan "palaces". This scheme has four periods:

Prepalatial: 3000 - 2000/1900 BCE

Protopalatial: 2000/1900 - 1700 BCE

Neopalatial: 1700 - 1470/1450 BCE

Postpalatial: 1470/1450 - 1100 BCE

Both of these schemes have since been challenged by more modern archaeology and approaches to history and anthropology in general which prefer a more multilinear development of culture on Crete with a more complex scenario involving conflicts and inequalities between settlements and which also considers their cultural differences as well as their obvious similarities.

Minoan Palace Settlements

Minoan settlements, tombs, and cemeteries have been found all over Crete but the four principal palace sites (in order of size) were:

Minoan palaces exerted some kind of localised control, in particular, in the gathering & storage of surplus materials.

At each of these sites, large, complex palace structures seem to have acted as local administrative, trade, religious, and possibly political centres. The relationship between the palaces and the power structure within them or over the island as a whole is not clear due to a lack of archaeological and literary evidence. It is clear, however, that the palaces exerted some kind of localised control, in particular, in the gathering and storage of surplus materials - wine, oil, grain, precious metals and ceramics. Small towns, villages, and farms were spread around the territory seemingly controlled by a single palace. Roads connected these isolated settlements to each other and the main centre. There is a general agreement among historians that the palaces were independent from each other up to 1700 BCE, and thereafter they came under the sway of Knossos, as evidenced by a greater uniformity in architecture and the use of Linear A writing across various palace sites.

The absence of fortifications in the settlements suggests a relatively peaceful co-existence between the different communities. However, the presence of weapons such as swords, daggers, and arrowheads, and defensive equipment such as armour and helmets would also suggest that peace may not always have been enjoyed. Minoan roads, too, have evidence of regular guardhouses and watchtowers suggesting that banditry, at least, troubled the unprotected traveller.

The palaces themselves covered two periods. The first palaces were constructed around 2000 BCE and, following destructive earthquakes and fires, rebuilt again c. 1700 BCE. These second palaces survived until their final destruction between 1500 BCE and 1450 BCE, once again by either earthquake, fire, or possibly invasion (or a combination of all three). The palaces were well-appointed, monumental structures with large courts, colonnades, ceilings supported by tapered wooden columns, staircases, religious crypts, light-wells, extensive drainage systems, large storage magazines and even ' theatre ' areas for public spectacles or religious processions.

Depictions of double axes (or labrys) & the complex palaces may have combined to give birth to the legend of Theseus & the labyrinth-dwelling Minotaur.

Reaching up to four stories high and spreading over several thousand square metres, the complexity of these palaces, the sport of bull-leaping, the worship of bulls as indicated by the presence throughout of sacred bulls' horns and depictions of double axes (or labrys) in stone and fresco may all have combined to give birth to the legend of Theseus and the labyrinth-dwelling Minotaur so popular in later classical Greek mythology.

The religion of the Minoans remains sketchy, but details are revealed through art, architecture, and artefacts. These include depictions of religious ceremonies and rituals such as the pouring of libations, making food offerings, processions, feasts, and sporting events like bull-leaping. Natural forces and nature in general, manifested in such artworks as a voluptuous female mother-earth goddess figure and male figure holding several animals, seem to have been revered. Palaces contain open courtyards for mass gatherings and rooms often have wells and channels for the pouring of libations, as previously noted. As already mentioned, too, bulls are prominent in Minoan art, and their horns are an architectural feature of palace walls and a general decorative element in jewellery, frescoes, and pottery decoration. Dramatic rural sites such as hilltops and caves often show evidence of cult rituals being performed there.

Material Culture

The sophistication of the Minoan culture and its trading capacity is evidenced by the presence of writing, firstly Cretan Hieroglyphic (c. 2000-1700 BCE) and then Linear A scripts (both, as yet, undeciphered), predominantly found on various types of administrative clay tablets. Seal impressions on clay were another important form of record keeping.

A further example of the culture's high degree of development is the variety and quality of the art forms practised by the Minoans. Pottery finds reveal a wide range of vessels from wafer-thin cups to large storage jars ( pithoi). Ceramics were initially hand-turned but then increasingly made on the potter's wheel. In decoration, there was a progression from flowing geometric designs in Kamares ware to vibrant naturalistic depictions of flowers, plants, and sea life in the later Floral and Marine styles. Common pottery shapes include three-handled amphorae, tall beaked-jugs, squat round vessels with a false spout, beakers, small lidded boxes, and ritual vessels with figure-of-eight-shaped handles. Stone was also used to produce similar vessel types and rhyta (ritual vessels for pouring libations, often in the shape of animal heads).

Large-scale figure sculpture has not survived but there are many figurines in bronze and other materials. Early types in clay show the dress of the time with men (coloured red) wearing belted loincloths and women (coloured white) in long flowing dresses and open-fronted jackets. A leaping acrobat in ivory and the faience snake goddess already mentioned are notable works which reveal the Minoan love of capturing figures in active striking poses.

Magnificent frescoes from the walls, ceilings, and floors of the palaces also reveal the Minoans' love of the sea and nature and give insights into religious, communal, and funeral practices. Subjects range in scale from miniature to larger-than-life size. The Minoans were one of the earliest cultures to paint natural landscapes without any humans present in the scene; such was their admiration of nature. Animals, too, were often depicted in their natural habitat, for example, monkeys, birds, dolphins, and fish. Although Minoan frescoes were often framed with decorative borders of geometric designs, the principal fresco itself, on occasion, went beyond conventional boundaries such as corners and covered several walls of a single room, surrounding the viewer.

Minoan artists, especially fresco painters, took their skills to the royal palaces of Egypt & the Levant.

Aegean Contacts

The Minoans, as a seafaring culture, were also in contact with foreign peoples throughout the Aegean, as evidenced by the Near Eastern and Egyptian influences in their early art but also in the later export trade, notably the exchange of pottery and foodstuffs such as oil and wine in return for precious objects and materials such as copper from Cyprus and Attica and ivory from Egypt. Several Aegean islands, especially in the Cyclades, display the characteristics of a palace-centred economy and political structure as seen on Crete while Minoan artists, especially fresco painters, took their skills to the royal palaces of Egypt and the Levant.

Decline

The reasons for the demise of the Minoan civilization continue to be debated. Palaces and settlements show evidence of fire and destruction c. 1450 BCE, but not at Knossos (which was destroyed perhaps a century later). The rise of the Mycenaean civilization in the mid-2nd millennium BCE on the Greek mainland and the evidence of their cultural influence on later Minoan art and trade make them the most likely cause. However, other suggestions include earthquakes and volcanic activity with a consequent tsunami. The eruption of Thera (the present-day island of Santorini) may have been particularly significant, although, the exact date of this cataclysmic eruption is disputed and therefore its connection with the end of the Minoan period remains unclear. The most likely scenario was probably a fatal mix of natural environmental damage and competition for wealth weakening the structure of society, which was then exploited by invading Mycenaeans. Whatever the cause, most of the Minoan sites were abandoned by 1200 BCE and Crete would not return to the Mediterranean stage of history until the 8th century BCE when it was colonised by Archaic Greeks.

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The Minoan civilization flourished in the Middle Bronze Age on the island of Crete located in the eastern Mediterranean from c. 2000 BCE until c. 1500 BCE. With their unique art and architecture, and the spread of their ideas through contact with other cultures across the Aegean, the Minoans made a significant contribution to the development of Western European civilization as it is known today.

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1800 B.C.  -  Artifacts from Maya civilization were widely agreed to have been found as early as 1800 B.C.

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1800 B.C.  -  Artifacts from Maya civilization were widely agreed to have been found as early as 1800 B.C.

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The first Maya settlements date back to about 1800 B.C. This civilization is unique, especially in their time, because they were peaceful and studied science. But the Maya culture began as heavily agricultural. This origin of Maya civilization is known as their Pre-Classic Period.

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1400 B.C.  -  The first major city-states of Ancient Greece rise. Places like Athens, Thebes, Mycenae, and Pylos become large settlements of the Greeks.

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1400 B.C.  -  The first major city-states of Ancient Greece rise. Places like Athens, Thebes, Mycenae, and Pylos become large settlements of the Greeks.

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The Greeks disperse along the Mediterranean, settling in areas like the island of Crete (previously occupied by the Minoans), and expand their culture. Around this time, the Greeks develop into more gathered, organized societies, rather than their previous "savage" and "barbaric" state. Not only was Ancient Greece expanding, but the people were becoming part of a more powerful society.

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1200 B.C.  -  The Trojan War begins. This is a war in which the Greeks hope to expand their empire and assert dominance in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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1200 B.C.  -  The Trojan War begins. This is a war in which the Greeks hope to expand their empire and assert dominance in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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The ruthless Greek soldiers fight in awful and grueling battles to remain a dominant force along the Mediterranean. Against the people of Troy, the Greeks emerged victorious. This became on of their greatest victories, greatly expanding their reign. What contributed the most to their victory was their large and advanced navy. This war was not only great for power, but also for storytelling. The Iliad was a tale that spread throughout Greece and remains a famous work of art. It is about a man named Homer recalling his encounters as he traveled back to Greece from Troy.

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776 B.C.  -  The first Olympic Game was hosted in Athens, Greece. Soon, this would be a lasting tradition for not only Greeks, but people across the globe. Here is an example of the Greek's lasting effects on other cultures.

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776 B.C.  -  The first Olympic Game was hosted in Athens, Greece. Soon, this would be a lasting tradition for not only Greeks, but people across the globe. Here is an example of the Greek's lasting effects on other cultures.

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The Olympics began as competitions in honor of, or to satisfy, their god, Zeus. Unlike today, there was only one Olympics for every four years (there was no "Summer Olympics" or "Winter Olympics"). But it was similar in how athletes would compete and represent their people in events. The first written records of the Olympics dates to 776 B.C.

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461 B.C.  -  The Peloponnesian War commences. This was a civil war between Athenians, the people of Athens, and the Spartans, the people of Sparta.

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461 B.C.  -  The Peloponnesian War commences. This was a civil war between Athenians, the people of Athens, and the Spartans, the people of Sparta.

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These city-states were of the most powerful Greek regions. They clashed against each other, and ended up going to great depths to achieve victory. On one hand, Athenians were viewed as civilized but powerful, and the Spartans were viewed as a more savage people. The war resulted in Sparta's favor, but weakened the Greeks as a whole. So did anybody really win this war?

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The Peloponnesian War (video) | Khan Academy

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An overview of the Peloponnesian War, including the Archidamian War, the Athenian attack on Syracuse, and the Decelean War.

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📹250 A.D.  -  People of the Mayan Empire spread into advanced and more packed city-states. The reason for their rapid development is due to the success found in agriculture. With more mouths fed, a vast population could be supported. With this growth of population commenced the Classic Period of the Maya.

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📹250 A.D.  -  People of the Mayan Empire spread into advanced and more packed city-states. The reason for their rapid development is due to the success found in agriculture. With more mouths fed, a vast population could be supported. With this growth of population commenced the Classic Period of the Maya.

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Starting around 250 A.D., more and more Mayan cities grew. These cities were all interconnected, so trade was done all over Central and South America. Artwork and food were traded very often. Food was more available because farming became more efficient. Farmers grew a wider variety of foods and improved their work by studying the weather and, surprisingly, astrology. The geography of their regions varied from wetlands, mountainous regions, and heavily wooded areas. They would use three techniques depending on the terrain of the area. These strategies are known as raised field, terrace, and slash and burn. The advanced agriculture developed by Mayans is the main reason they rose and thrived in the Classic Period, but it may have been the reason for their downfall...

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Mid to Late 200s A.D.  -  Although the Mayans had an ancient writing system (shown above), the use of a writing system was far more evident around the start of the Classic Period. More people were learning to read and write, making brighter generations and a more promising future for the Maya civilization.

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Mid to Late 200s A.D.  -  Although the Mayans had an ancient writing system (shown above), the use of a writing system was far more evident around the start of the Classic Period. More people were learning to read and write, making brighter generations and a more promising future for the Maya civilization.

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Ancient Maya writing consisted of a less advanced form of writing, with drawings allotted on documents. But during the beginning of the Classic Period, the Maya writing system evolved into symbols, just like our current alphabet. The Mayans used their writing system often on stone monuments, telling stories or legends from their religion. Paintings were few but existent from Mayan cities, but carved illustrations in stone was more evident. The Mayans also had books, but they weren't very evident until the end of the Classic Period (around 900 A.D.).

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📹Late 200s A.D.  -  As the Maya population began to increase and spread, architecture proved to be both powerful and important.

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📹Late 200s A.D.  -  As the Maya population began to increase and spread, architecture proved to be both powerful and important.

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Because Mayans were great farmers, their food supply allowed the great Maya Empire to grow. They soon began creating amazing architectural structures like palaces, temples, and even pyramids. Most of these structures were religious, for the Mayan belief system was thriving during the Maya Classic Period. Architecture was a way for Mayans to establish their culture and create a lasting image of their power. These structures were a very valuable aspect of the Classic Period of the Maya Empire, and the rise of this successful era was caused by the increase in population.

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Ancient Mayan structures have lasted thousands of years, and their designs continue to influence modern architecture.

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300 A.D.  -  The oldest document of The Iliad was first written down.

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300 A.D.  -  The oldest document of The Iliad was first written down.

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Even though the Greek Empire had fallen, their stories and culture still survived through vocal storytelling. Until this time, that is how The Iliad was passed down. Finally, it was written on paper, thus Homer's story could live on. This was a huge victory for Ancient Greece and modern day readers. The document provided new insights on the Ancient Greeks and their lives during the Trojan War.

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Earliest Known Written Record of Homer's Odyssey Found in Greece

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The Greek Ministry of Culture reports archaeologists have found the oldest written record of Homer's Odyssey. Considered to be one of the all-time greatest works of literature, the engraved clay slab contains 13 verses from the 12,109-line poem, with preliminary estimates dating it to Roman times, likely before the third century.

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300 A.D.  -  A new form of government was established for the Maya. Rulers were placed in power for each city-state (shown on the map). One entity didn't rule all the lands, but rather a scattered group would rule a region.

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300 A.D.  -  A new form of government was established for the Maya. Rulers were placed in power for each city-state (shown on the map). One entity didn't rule all the lands, but rather a scattered group would rule a region.

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There would be one ruler for each heavily populated, and rapidly growing, city-state. This would allow a fair distribution of power within the Mayan territories. But what was unique about this distribution of power compared to most at the time is that men were not the only eligible rulers. At times, women took the place of the kings. Tensions between these city-states were rare and not severe, so trade and the exchange of ideas remained very active. As far as historians know, the Mayans were a very peaceful and sensible people. They did not participate in intense wars, nor were they described as "barbaric" like the Ancient Greeks. For the remainder of the Classic Period of the Maya, this remained their form of government.

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Mid-300s A.D.  -  Entertainment and tradition became far more evident around this time. An ancient ball game became more popular, spreading across the Americas. This game was part of a legend in Mayan religion, and was valued as a part of their culture.

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Mid-300s A.D.  -  Entertainment and tradition became far more evident around this time. An ancient ball game became more popular, spreading across the Americas. This game was part of a legend in Mayan religion, and was valued as a part of their culture.

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According to Maya religion, two brothers played this game against the lords of the underworld. The brothers lost and were then killed by the lords of the underworld. The brothers were reborn as the sun and the moon. After many centuries, this game became very popular. The rules remained consistent: there was a goal that looks like a vertical hula hoop, and a heavy ball was to be placed in the hoop without using your hands. The losers of the game were sacrificed. This tradition served the public as entertainment and as a connection to their roots and ancient, lasting culture. Like the Aztecs, the Mayans participated in traditions like these to honor and appease their gods

Fun fact: This Mayan sport might have been the origin of basketball.

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How This Mayan Legend Inspired a Deadly Ballgame

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Mid 400s A.D.  -  Chichen Itza, one of the amazing Seven Wonders of the World was built by the Mayans. Chichen Itza was built by a water source, and became a thriving city for Mayans. This enormous city was a place for political and economic activity.

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Mid 400s A.D.  -  Chichen Itza, one of the amazing Seven Wonders of the World was built by the Mayans. Chichen Itza was built by a water source, and became a thriving city for Mayans. This enormous city was a place for political and economic activity.

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Chichen Itza is famous for its central pyramid, El Castillo, built to serve the god, Kukulcan. It is clear now that religion drove the motivation for architecture and traditions. Soon, homes and businesses were built within a two mile radius. This city was packed with people and activity, and was supported by underground water systems to support its dense population. Soon, Chichen Itza became a city rich in culture and prosperity. Today, it serves as a tourist site, and is still revealing secrets of the Mayas to archaeologists. The history of this area and its breathtaking architecture provides an important perspective of the Maya civilization. Around this time, during the middle of the Maya's Classic Period, their society peaks in its growth. Their culture is the most prominent here, their populations are enormous, and they are more advanced than many other civilizations may be

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500 A.D.  -  As the city of Tikal rises into the largest city of the Maya Empire, the people begin to adapt to their geography. A water filtration system was highly effective and useful for the Mayans. Tikal was one of the first to integrate these systems to get cleaner water.

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500 A.D.  -  As the city of Tikal rises into the largest city of the Maya Empire, the people begin to adapt to their geography. A water filtration system was highly effective and useful for the Mayans. Tikal was one of the first to integrate these systems to get cleaner water.

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Because of the high population and extremely stable condition of Tikal, science became a more pursued study. The Mayans were actually well-known for their pursuit of scientific discoveries. Because their geography proposed problems, the Mayans used their scientific focuses to solve these issues. One main issue was access to clean water. So the Mayans built a very early water filtration system. Therefore the Maya civilization could thrive and grow for centuries to come.

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900 A.D.  -  The Maya mysteriously fall off the face of the earth. Around this time, their population declined rapidly, leaving only remains, the last known impact of the Maya. Several theories emerge over why the Maya disappeared, but there is little evidence to show what happened.

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900 A.D.  -  The Maya mysteriously fall off the face of the earth. Around this time, their population declined rapidly, leaving only remains, the last known impact of the Maya. Several theories emerge over why the Maya disappeared, but there is little evidence to show what happened.

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Around this time marks the end of the Classic Period of the Maya civilization. Suddenly, this thriving culture nearly ceased to exist. Cities were abandoned, leaving behind their sciences and artistic masterpieces. Some theorize the Mayans were wiped out by disease. Others think they may have been victim to a natural disaster, invasion or civil war, droughts, famines, or overpopulation. What do you think could have happened? The video explains that the Mayans made mistakes in using the geography of their land. Could our society face decline if we don't learn from their mistakes?

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Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation, 2020.
https://www.ancient.eu

History. A&E Television Networks, 2020. https://www.history.com

Biography. A&E Television Networks, 2020. https://www.biography.com