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Kerswill (via Husband): (on slang) “adolescence is the life stage at which people most willingly take on new visible or audible symbols of group identification”

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Labov, social bonding theory: a change occurs naturally/inevitably within a small group of the population. This becomes a signal for a particular sociocultural identity, so diffuses into the wider population

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18th Century: languages inevitably decay due to decadence or disinterest

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Dropping of irregular inflexions due to economy of memory

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Zipf (1949): principle of least effort = assimilation/palatisation

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Substratum theory: language changes as a result of coming into contact with different forms of language

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Hockett (1958): language changes due to random fluctuation

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Words are formed to fill lexical gaps

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Milroy and Milroy (1999) suggest that the process of standardisation is ‘an idea in the mind rather than a reality’

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Sharon Goodman (1996): we are living in a time of increased informalisation

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Globalisation

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Philosopher Jacques Derrida: one of a binary pair (usually the norm) is viewed in a positive light, whereas the other is considered deviant and negative

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Stuart Hall's hypothetical interpretative codes:
a) Hegemonic/dominant reading
b) Oppositional reading
c) Negotiated reading

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Closed texts strongly encourage a particular interpretation; open texts allow for more flexibility (Eco, 1981)

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Deficit: male speech is standard; women fall short of this
Dominance: women's speech reflects their subservience in a patriarchal society
Difference: men and women have different aims in conversations
Diversity: many factors influence speech

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Aitchison:
a) Crumbling castle
b) Infectious disease
c) Damp spoon

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Einar Haugen:
1. Selection - standard variety is selected
2. Codification - embalmed in dictionaries
3. Elaboration - diversifies its functions
4. Implementation - imposed; deviations are criticised

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Fairclough: power in discourse vs power behind discourse

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Influential (not practical) vs instrumental (practical)

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Types of power:
- Practical
- Personal
- Positional
- Knowledge/ideas

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Fairclough: synthetic personalisation

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Interpellation: Althusser, hailing an individual as the intended subject of discourse

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Covert prestige, Labov

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Speech act theory: Austin, utterances have a performative function, locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary acts

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Formality

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Inclusive vs exclusive language

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Dialect levelling, Paul Kerswill, homogenisation of dialects across the country due to geographical and social mobility

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Political correctness

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False class consciousness: Marx, accepting one's class position, proletariat are ignorant or happy

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Semantic differential: Osgood et al., 1957, all words can be located in semantic space according to their connotations. Terms for women tend to operate within a negative semantic space

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Determinism vs reflectionism: does language determine our thought processes or reflect them? Link to social attitudes, namely sexism

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Binary opposition

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Aberrant decoding (Eco, 1965): a text is decoded with a  code different from that used to encode it

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Conversationalisation: Fairclough, 1994, restructuring boundary between public/private and written/spoken discourse

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Genre theory:
Bex, 1996
We use genres to label texts with similar language features and/or social functions.
We can analyse genres by studying linguistic structures within the text and attitudes represented by the text
Genres change to reflect social change, and by doing so they reinforce it
We may see change within a genre, development of a sub-genre, or creation of a new genre

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Hegemony: ruling class dominates a society; thus, their worldview becomes the dominant model and ideological norm (Gramsci)

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Cultural capital: Bourdieu (1973), assets that promote social mobility and help establish rapport with certain groups, e.g. knowledge, accent, hobbies

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Heteroglossia: Bakhtin, coexistence of different language varieties within a linguistic code, centripetal (top-down) forces vs centrifugal forces (bottom-up)

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Cooperation theory (Grice's maxims): shared aims in conversation:
a) Quality - true
b) Relation - relevant
c) Manner - clear
d) Quantity - brief

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Accommodation theory, Howard Giles, convergence vs divergence

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Prescriptivism vs descriptivism

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Internal vs external: Suzanne Romaine (1998), change within language in isolation vs external changes that influence the language

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Standardisation

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Deference: reverence and respect for economic, social and intellectual 'superiors'

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Politeness, Brown and Levinson, positive/negative, face-threatening vs face-saving